CHAPTER 8 :Confrontation of Cultures NCERT SOLUTION CLASS 11TH HISTORY | EDUGROWN NOTES

Short Answer Type Question:

Q1.Compare the civilisation of the Aztecs with that of the Mesopotamians.

ANSWER:

The civilisations of the Aztecs and the Mesopotamians have been compared in the following table:

Basis	Aztec Civilisation	Mesopotamian Civilisation
Location	The Aztecs inhabited the area of Mesoamerica (middle America).	The Mesopotamians inhabited the region between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris(modern day Iraq, Kuwait and Syria)
Period	12th–16th century CE	10,000 BCE–7th century CE
People	Nomadic people of Central Mexico	Comprised people from different cultures
Society	Had a well-structured society with the nobles at the head. Serfs, servants and slaves had a low rank in the hierarchy.	Also had a hierarchical society. There were three ranks: nobility at the top, free citizens at the middle and slaves at the bottom.
Economy	Agriculture was the most important work. The Aztecs cultivated pumpkins, potatoes, squash, etc.	Organised agricultural practices. Proper irrigation facilities available. Temples offered loans for agriculture. Main produce were barley, grapes, onions, etc.
Decline	Constant wars and climatic changes were responsible for the decline of the Aztec Civilisation.	European invasion was the cause of the decline of the Mesopotamian Civilisation.

Q2.What are the new developments helping European navigation in the fifteenth century?

ANSWER:

The existence of European people came to light to the Caribbean and the South Americans only when they started navigating across the Atlantic Sea. Several innovations and developments of the period facilitated these long voyages. First among them was the extensive use of the magnetic compass during the 15th century. This instrument helped the sailors in finding directions in the middle of the ocean. Second important development was the construction of large ships. These ships helped in easy carriage of huge cargos and instruments. These cargos and instruments, in turn, were used to protect the sailors from the attacks by the enemy ships. The third important development was the widespread circulation of travel literature and books on cosmography that further created interest to venture the sea. Ptolemy’s ‘Geography’ became available in 1478 and was widely read. He had arranged the regions of the world in terms of latitudes and longitudes. He had also suggested that the world was spherical. Such works indeed helped sailors to tread the unknown sea paths.

Q3.Give reasons for Spain and Portugal being the first in the fifteenth century to venture across Atlantic.

ANSWER:

There are several reasons for Spain and Portugal to become the first nations in the 15th century to venture across the Atlantic. Some of these factors have been enlisted below.

1) Political Factors: In 1453, the Orthodox Christian Constantinople fell before the Ottoman Turks. The control of the trading routes to the East was now controlled by the Turks, who charged heavy duties from the Italians for the trade. There was, thus, the urge to find new trade routes to the East. Both Spain and Portugal were lucky to have strong rulers and innovative sailors who took up this task. Innovators such as Prince Henry of Portugal established training schools for the navigators, and thus encouraging large-scale-sea-borne explorations. Spain, on the other hand, was brimming with confidence after being victorious in several contemporary military conquests led by Cortez and Pizzaro. These victories gave a boost to their ambitious spirits and a further kick to venture new sea routes to new colonies.

2) Religious Motives: The missionary zeal to convert more people to Christians was a primary reason to look for new lands.

3) Economic Factors: The zeal to convert people to Christianity soon encouraged the political and economic interests of the Europeans. The crusades against the Turks, for instance, was based on religious motives but it, in turn, also increased the demand of Asian goods in Europe, thus, encouraging trading between the two lands. For the Portuguese, West Africa was an unexplored land rich in spices and gold. Thus, their colonial adventure began with the attack on this rich land of resources in 1415.

Q4.What new food items were transmitted from South America to the rest of the world?

ANSWER:

The food items transmitted from South America to the rest of the world were as follows:

1)  Avocado: This is a pear shaped fruit, believed to have magical powers by the Mayans.

2)  Chilli Pepper: A spice that is used commonly in almost every cuisine worldwide, were grown by the Native Americans.

3) Chocolate: The Mayan and Aztec cultures used cocoa, which was produced from seeds of the cocoa tree, native to South America. Chocolate has become an integral food item in the world.

4)  Papaya: This fruit was originally cultivated in tropical America.

5)  Peanuts: These nuts were domesticated in South America. Later, they became very popular in China in the 1600s.

6) Pineapple: This fruit was used by the Native Americans to tenderize meat.

7) Potato: Originated in the prehistoric mountains of Argentina, potato was taken back to Europe after migrating through all the Americas.

Q5.Write an account of the journey of an African boy of seventeen captured and taken to Brazil as a slave.

ANSWER:

Peter, a boy of seventeen, was being taken to Brazil as a slave, far away from Kitaisa, a small village in Africa. Peter had never been on a sea voyage before. He was afraid and frightened thinking about his fate. He was aware of the condition of the slaves abroad.  He had seen many of his friends and family being captured and sent to America and never had he seen them return. What had become of them, did they survive the harsh conditions of the mines and plantations where they had been working or had they succumbed to the extreme torture? He pondered upon such questions as he looked around himself and saw others like him shackled in heavy iron chains. Packed below the deck of the ship like animals, he could not even get to see the sunlight. All slaves were packed so close to one another that they could not reach the toilet buckets. Thus, they lay in their own filth. The dark, damp  and filthy deck made Peter sick. He wished he could just run away to the safety of his home. However, there was no relief for him. The violent storm instead increased the time of the voyage from the usual six weeks to thirteen weeks.  The terrified faces of panic and fear and the cries of the women and children made him feel more ill.  Some slaves did try to resist but were beaten badly. The terror of the Americans resisted any slave to rise further. When the thirteen days voyage came to an end, Peter had grown weak. Yet, he survived to endure worse in his days as a slave.

Q6.How did the ‘discovery’ of South America lead to the development of European colonialism?

ANSWER:

The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus opened the gates of the land to more European colonial powers. The ‘New World’ soon emerged as the most coveted zone for the Spanish and the Portuguese. The Spanish were very aggressive in their approach and, within a short span of fifty years, were able to control a major part of the Western Hemisphere. To fulfil their greed for gold and the desire to convert the natives to Christians, the Spanish left no stone unturned. They used both military strength and the fear of gunpowder to shun all efforts of the natives to revolt against the European power. The Spanish friar Bartolome de las Casas, the most severe critic of the Spanish conquerors, observed that the Spanish often tested their swords on the naked flesh of the Arawaks.  

The colonisation of America helped the Spaniards in various ways. They were able to attain gold and introduced to new nutritious American foods.  The constant flow of goods and money from the colony helped to make the Spanish land more prosperous. This success established Spain as a dominant colonial power in the world stage.The Portuguese were the next to follow. They were only interested in the trade of timber from Brazil. To protect the trade link, many Portuguese traders started settling in the Brazilian coast. These Europeans, over time, started the production of sugar-cane. These activities facilitated the expansion of the Portuguese-controlled areas and shrinkage of the native lands. The success of the Portuguese in America soon attracted other Europeans to the land. Thus, it can be stated that the discovery of the land rich in resources attracted Europeans and led to the development for colonialism.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.Discuss in detail the arguments that were placed in favour of the continuation of slavery.
ANSWER:
King of Spain, Philip II, publicly banned forced labour. A law was enacted in 1609 CE., under which the local people, Christians and non-Christians were given full liberty. The European settlers were enraged over this law. After the completion of two years, they forced the king to scrap this law and to permit enslavement once again.

New economic activities began. Lands covered with forests were cleared. Cattle-rearing was started. After the discovery of gold in 1700 CE, mining work began in full swing. But for this work, there was the need of cheap labour. Abolishment of slavery was the matter of debate in 1780s. Some were of the opinion that even before the entry of Europeans in this trade, slave existed in Africa. After 15th century, slaves formed the bulk of the labour force in the states of Africa. Some Africans helped the Europeans to capture youngsters so that they could be sold as slaves. For this, they were given crops by the European traders.

The only alternative was to bring slaves from Africa to meet this problem. More than 36 lac African slaves were brought into Brazil between 1554 and 1885 CE. In 1750 CE., some people were there who owned thousands of slaves. There were some debates from the 1780s on abolishing slavery. Some people argued that slavery existed in Africa even before the entry of Europeans in this trade. It is right that after the fifteenth century, in the states formed in Africa, slaves formed the bulk of the labour force. They also argued that few Africans even helped the Europeans to capture young men and women so that they could be sold as slaves. In return, European traders gave them crops imported from South America.

Q2.“Cortes without any explanation placed the emperor under house arrest and attempted to rule his name.” Explain how it happened?
ANSWER:

• Mexico was conquered by Cortes and his soldiers. In 1519, Cortes sailed from Cuba to Mexico, where he made friends with the Totonacs. It was a group who wanted to secede from Aztecs rule. The Aztecs king, Montezuma, sent an official to meet him. He was terrified at the aggressiveness of the Spanish, their gunpowder and their horses. Montezuma himself was convinced that Cortes was reincarnation of an exiled God who had returned to avenge himself.
• The invading Spaniards were dumbstruck at the sight of Tenochtitlan. It was five times larger than Madrid and had about 1 lac inhabitants. It was twice the population of Seville, the largest city of Spain.
• Cortes was cordially received by Montezuma. The Aztecs took the Spaniards into the heart of the city, where the emperor showered them with gifts. His people were apprehensive, having heard of the massacre of the Tlaxcalans.
• The fears of the Aztecs proved to be well founded. Without any explanation, Cortes put the emperor under house arrest and attempted to rule in his name. Cortes also installed Christian images in the Aztec temple. Montezuma suggested a compromise and placed both Aztec and Christian images in the temple.
• The high-handedness of the Spanish occupation and their incessant demands for gold provoked a general uprising. Alvarado ordered a massacre during the Aztecs spring festival of Huizilpochtli. When Cortes returned on 25 June, 1520, he had on his hands a full-blown crisis. The Spaniards faced acute shortage of food and drinking water.
• The Aztecs continued to fight the Spaniards. Around 600 conquistadors and more of their Tlaxcalan allies were killed in what is known as the ‘night of tears’. Cortes was forced to retreat to Tlaxcala to plan his strategy, against the newly elected king, Cuatemoc. With just 180 soldiers and 30 horses, Cortes moved into Tenochtitlan as the Aztecs prepared for their final stand. The Aztecs thought they could see omens foretelling that their end was near, and because of this the emperor chose to give up his life.

Q3.Discuss the following with regard to the people of the native Mayan civilization:
(a) Society
(b) Religion
(c) Science
ANSWER:
The Mayan civilization occupied a distinct place in the native American civilization.

• Society: Priest was the chief of the Mayan society. They were highly respected. They had full control on government. So far state was concerned, they had the full authority but at local level, there was a provision of self-government.Agriculture was the backbone of the Mayan society. Com was the main crop of the Mayans. Some people were engaged in weaving and dying of clothes while coin, beans, potato, papaya, etc. were major food items of people.
• Religion: Gods and goddesses were worshiped by Mayan people. These included the gods of forest, rain, fertility, fire and corn. For more rains people pleased gods. Human sacrifice was also in practice.
• Science:
  1. The Mayans made tremendous progress in the field of science. They invented a calendar. This calendar symbolized their progress in astronomy. According to this calendar, there were 365 days and 18 months in a year. Each month had 20 days.
  2. The Mayans imparted the knowledge of zero in mathematics.
  3. Hieroglyphic script was their other achievements. It can be said that the Mayan civilization did not lag behind the other American civilizations on any aspect.

Q4.Why were Spanish and Portuguese rulers in particular so respective to the idea of funding a maritime quest?
ANSWER:
European economy went through the phase of a decline from the mid-fourteenth to mid-fifteenth centuries. Due to plague and wars, a lot of people died in various parts of Europe. Trade became slack. There was a shortage of gold and silver, used for making European coins. In the late fourteenth century, long-distance trade declined, and then became difficult after the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453. Italians established their business with Turks. They were now required to pay higher taxes on trade.

The possibility that more people could be brought into the fold of Christianity made devout Christian Europeans ready to face adventure. After this, ‘the Crusades’ against the Turks began as a religious war. They increased Europe’s trade with Asia and created a taste for the products of Asia, especially spices. Its trade could be followed by political control, with European countries establishing colonies in regions.

Gold and spices were found in new regions. Portugal was a small country which got independence from Spain since 1139 which had developed fishing and ailing skills, took the lead. Prince Henry of Portugal attacked Ceuta in 1415. After that, more expeditions were organised and the Portuguese established a trading station in Cape Bojador in Africa.
In Spain, economic reasons encouraged individuals to become knights of the ocean. The memory of the Crusades and the success of the Reconquista fanned private ambitions and gave rise to contracts known as Capitulacion.es. Under these contracts, the Spanish ruler claimed rights of sovereignty over newly conquered territories and gave rewards to leaders of expeditions in the form of titles and the right to govern the conquered lands.

Q5.What do you know about the Arawakian Lucayos? Discuss the way of life the Arawakian Lucayos led.
ANSWER:
The Arawakian Lucayos inhabited a cluster of small islands in the Caribbean sea and the Greater Antilles. They had been expelled by the Caribs from the Lesser Antilles.

The Arawakian Lucayos always preferred negotiations. They ignored conflict. They were boat-builders and used to sail the open sea in canoes made from hollow tree trunks. They lived on hunting, fishing and agriculture. Com, sweet potatoes, tubers and cassava were major agricultural produce. The Arawakian people produced food collectively and fed everyone in the community.

The Arawakian Culture: The Arawakian people were organised under the elders of the clan. The tradition of polygamy was common. They were animists. In many other societies, shamans played an important role as healers and intermediaries between this world and that of the supernatural.

Relations with Europeans: The Arawakian people wore the ornaments made of gold. They did not give as much value to the gold as the Europeans did. Gold was exchanged from glass beads. The Arawakian Lucayos people were quite happy with this. These beads looked more beautiful. They were highly skilled in the art of weaving. It was much developed. The
hammock was one of their specialties.
The Arawakian people were very generous. They always collaborated with the Spanish in their search of gold. When the Spanish policy became brutal, they resisted. Its results were quite disastrous.

Q6.What do you understand by geographical discoveries? What were the main reasons behind these discoveries?
ANSWER:
During this period, a number of geographical discoveries happened. The period from 1490 to 1523 is known as the golden period of geographical discoveries. South and North America were discovered during this period. They were named as the New World. European ships started sailing in the Indian ocean and the Chinese sea. Geographical Discoveries: European people were too much interested in Asia particularly about the Indian goods. Merchants carried their goods to Mediterranean and Black sea through surface route. These goods were sent through sea route from that place. The Turks occupied Turkey and its nearby places by the middle of 15th century. Later on, Asian trade with Europe came to an end. Europeans were not interested in breaking the relations of trade. That is why they made an attempt to explore new routes.
Copernicus and Marco Polo sailed across Asia. In their travelogues, they wrote a lot of strange stories. A lot of scientific inventions were done. Copernicus asserted that the earth is round. This improvement in geographical knowledge gave an impetus to travel and explorations. The invention of magnetic compass helped in identifying the cardinal points.

Q7.The Incas empire was highly centralized with the king representing the highest source of authority. Elaborate.
ANSWER:

• The Incas empire was centralized. The king was the highest authority. Quechu was the language of the court. Each people spoke Quechu language. A council of elders ruled each tribe independently. The tribe owed its allegiance to the ruler. Regarding population, there is no exact figure. But there were more than a million people in the empire who owed their allegiance to the ruler.
• The Incas were magnificent builders like the Aztecs. They built roads through mountains from Ecuador to Chile. Their forts were built of stone slabs. They used labour-intensive technology to carve and move stones from nearby rock falls. Many stones weighed more than 100 metric tons, but they did not have any wheeled vehicles.
• Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. They terraced hillsides and developed systems of drainage and irrigation to overcome the problem of infertility of soil. Cultivation in Andean highlands was much greater than what it is today. The Incas grew maize and potatoes.
• They were mainly interested in weaving and pottery. They were of high quality. There was an accounting system in place-the Quipu, or cords upon which knots were made to indicate specific mathematical units. It was the opinion of some scholars that the Incas wove a sort of code into these threads.
• The organisation of the Inca empire had pyramid-like structure. If the Inca chief was captured, the chain of command could quickly come apart. This was precisely what happened when the Spaniards decided to invade their country.

Q8.Who was Pizarro? Discuss his achievements in the Inca region.
ANSWER:
Pizarro was a poor and illiterate Spaniard. After joining the army he visited the Caribbean Islands in 1502 CE. Inca kingdom was the land of silver and gold. He made numerous attempts to reach this kingdom from the Pacific. Once, when he came back home, he met the Spanish king. He showed the king beautifully designed gold jars made by Inca workmen. He promised Pizarro if he conquered the Inca lands, he would be made the governor of those lands. Pizarro made a plan to adopt Cortes’s method. Achievements: Atahualpa secured the throne of the Inca empire after a civil war in 1532 A.D. After that Pizarro arrived. He took the king under his possession. The king offered reserves of gold as their ransom for his release. But Pizarro did not deter from his word. He assassinated the king and his soldiers plundered freely. After this, Pizarro occupied the Inca state. The cruelty of the conquerors provoked an uprising in 1534. It continued for two years. In this uprising, thousands of people died in war. In another five years, the Spanish had found vast reserves of silver in Patosi (modem Bolivia).