The Rise of
the Marathas
— Complete Solutions
Every Think About It, Let’s Explore, Don’t Miss Out and end-of-chapter question answered in detail, with all chapter figures embedded throughout.
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Opener · Page 61The Big Questions
Three questions that frame the entire chapter. Comprehensive answers drawing on the full narrative.
Who were the Marathas?
The Marathas are a group of people native to the Deccan plateau, specifically present-day Maharashtra. They are identified with the Marathi language, which has had a rich literary tradition since the 12th century. During the 13th century, Maharashtra was ruled by the Yadava dynasty (capital: Devagiri/Daulatabad), which was then conquered by the Khilji Sultanate in the 14th century. Despite political changes, a powerful cultural and spiritual tradition of Bhakti continued through saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas, giving Maratha society a strong cultural foundation.
How they became the largest pan-Indian power
The Bhakti saints built social cohesion, political awareness and cultural confidence. They translated the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita into Marathi, making philosophy accessible to common people.
Shivaji launched campaigns at age 16, capturing neglected forts, building a navy (1657 — the first full-time Indian navy), and using guerrilla warfare to defeat far stronger Bijapur and Mughal forces. He was crowned Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigad, formally establishing the Maratha Empire. His concept of Swarajya (self-rule) gave the Marathas an inspiring ideology.
Even after Aurangzeb captured and executed Sambhaji, the Marathas under Rajaram and then Tarabai kept fighting. Aurangzeb died without subduing them, and his prolonged Deccan campaigns bankrupted the Mughal treasury.
Under Peshwa Bajirao I and Nanasaheb Peshwa, the Marathas expanded to control large parts of India — briefly reaching Lahore, Attock and Peshawar in the northwest. By 1754 they controlled Delhi. They recovered quickly from the catastrophic defeat at Panipat (1761) under Peshwa Madhavrao I and recaptured Delhi in 1771 under Mahadji Shinde.
Internal disunity among Maratha chiefs, and the superior organisational and technological abilities of the British, led to defeat in three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818). The British effectively took India from the Marathas more than from any other power.
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@EDUGROWNThe Maratha governance system, especially under Chhatrapati Shivaji, was innovative and in many ways ahead of its time:
Civilian Administration
- Abolished hereditary posts: Unlike the Sultans and Mughals, Shivaji did not allow government positions to pass automatically from father to son. This prevented the creation of powerful, entrenched noble families who could challenge royal authority.
- Salary-based bureaucracy: All officials were paid cash salaries from the state treasury, not rewarded with land assignments (jagirs). This kept officials dependent on the state and accountable to it.
- Periodic transfers: Officials were regularly rotated to prevent them from building a local power base.
- Ashtapradhana mandala: A council of eight ministers (Pradhan = Prime Minister, Amatya = Finance, Sachiv = Land Revenue, Mantri = Intelligence, Sumant = Foreign Affairs, Senapati = Commander-in-chief, Nyayadhish = Chief Justice, Panditrao = Religious Affairs) assisted the Chhatrapati.
- Social welfare: Shivaji gave pensions to widows of soldiers and offered military posts to their sons — a remarkable early welfare system.
- Chauth and sardeshmukhi: A taxation system levied on provinces not directly under Maratha control (25% chauth + 10% sardeshmukhi) in exchange for protection.
Military Administration
- Armed forces divided into infantry, cavalry and navy. Cavalry had two types: bargirs (state-funded) and shilledars (self-funded).
- Forts were “the core of the state” — the Marathas built and controlled hundreds of hill, coastal and land forts.
- A formidable navy challenged European naval dominance. Kanhoji Angre famously reversed the cartaz (naval pass) system, demanding passes from Europeans rather than the other way round.
Judicial System
- The panchayat (local gathering of officials) delivered justice. An appeal could be made to a Maratha chief for unsatisfactory verdicts.
- Remarkable for moderate use of capital punishment.
- Kotwals (police) maintained law and order in cities like Pune and Indore.
Cultural Policy
- Sanskrit seal inscription (departing from Persian tradition); commissioned the Rajya-Vyavahara-Kosha to replace Persian loanwords with Sanskrit equivalents.
- Promoted Marathi and Sanskrit literature, rebuilt desecrated temples, supported the arts and religious institutions while respecting other faiths.
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@EDUGROWNThe Maratha Empire’s impact on Indian history was profound across several dimensions:
Political impact
- Ended Mughal supremacy: The Marathas were the primary force that eroded Mughal power. Aurangzeb spent his last 25 years unsuccessfully trying to subdue them, exhausting the Mughal treasury.
- Largest pre-British Indian empire: By the mid-18th century, the Marathas controlled more of the subcontinent than any other power, from Peshawar in the northwest to parts of Odisha and Tamil Nadu in the south and east.
- The British inherited Maratha India: As the chapter states, “The British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power.” This is historically significant — the political vacuum left by Maratha decline was what the British filled.
Governance legacy
- Shivaji’s salary-based, non-hereditary, accountable administration was an early model of merit-based governance.
- The ideal of Swarajya (self-rule, freedom from foreign domination) planted the seeds of Indian nationalism. It directly inspired leaders of India’s independence movement.
Cultural impact
- Revived Hindu cultural traditions suppressed during Mughal rule: temple rebuilding (Kashi Vishwanath by Ahilyabai Holkar, Somnath), patronage of Sanskrit and Marathi literature, revival of Carnatic music and Bharatanatyam dance under Thanjavur Maratha patronage.
- The Thanjavur Marathas created a uniquely syncretic culture blending Tamil, Telugu and Marathi traditions. Serfoji II started the first printing press by a native ruler in India and established the Dhanwantari Mahal free medical centre combining Indian and Western medicine.
- Cultural self-confidence: Shivaji’s coins bore Devanagari instead of Persian script; his seal used Sanskrit; his diplomacy used Marathi rather than Persian. This was a deliberate assertion of cultural identity.
Women’s leadership
- Tarabai’s military leadership after Rajaram’s death preserved Maratha independence during its most critical moment. Without her, Aurangzeb might have succeeded.
- Ahilyabai Holkar’s 30-year governance of the Holkar kingdom was a model of wise, people-centred administration — building temples, ghats, wells and roads across India from Kedarnath to Rameswaram.
In-TextThink About It & Let’s Explore
All activity boxes from pages 63–79, answered in detail with supporting figures.
@EDUGROWN@EDUGROWNWhat is Bhakti?
Bhakti (from Sanskrit bhaj = to share/worship) means devotion to the divine — a personal, direct, heart-centred relationship with God or a particular deity, without the need for complex rituals, temple priests, or caste distinctions as intermediaries. Bhakti saints preached that God is accessible to all, regardless of birth, gender or social position.
Between the 7th and 17th centuries, bhakti movements spread across India, with saints composing devotional poetry and songs in the languages of common people (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Hindi, Punjabi), making spiritual wisdom universally accessible.
Maharashtra’s bhakti tradition: Sant Tukaram
- Life (1598–1650): Tukaram was born into a family of traders in Dehu, near Pune. He faced personal tragedy (deaths of family members in famine) and turned to devotion to Vithoba (Vitthal) of Pandharpur. Despite opposition from Brahmin priests who tried to destroy his writings, his abhangas (devotional songs) survived and spread.
- Teachings: He preached that God resides in the hearts of all people, not just in temples. He strongly opposed caste discrimination and the idea that knowledge of God was the preserve of the upper castes. His abhangas encouraged common people to find God through sincerity, honesty and love rather than ritual.
- Key message: “The Name of God is my only capital. With this I earn my livelihood. God is the father and mother of all. There is no difference between a Brahmin and a cobbler in His eyes.”
- Legacy: Tukaram’s around 4,500 surviving abhangas are sung across Maharashtra to this day. They gave Maratha society a profound sense of spiritual equality that underpinned the social solidarity Chhatrapati Shivaji would later mobilise politically.
Other notable bhakti saints of Maharashtra
- Dnyaneshwar (13th c.): Composed Dnyaneshwari, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Marathi — one of the earliest and greatest works of Marathi literature.
- Namdev (14th c.): Composed abhangas in both Marathi and Punjabi; his hymns are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, showing the pan-Indian reach of the bhakti tradition.
- Sant Ramdas (17th c.): Spiritual mentor of Chhatrapati Shivaji; composed the Dasbodh, a comprehensive guide to spiritual and practical life that also emphasised social organisation and political awareness.
@EDUGROWNHere are three historically grounded questions that would reveal the most about Shivaji’s mind and legacy:
Why this question: Swarajya (self-rule) was not just a political goal — it was a moral and civilisational vision. At 16, when Shivaji began his campaigns, nobody believed a Maratha chief could challenge the Mughal Empire or the Bijapur Sultanate. Understanding how this vision formed — whether from his mother Jijabai’s stories of heroic kings, from Sant Ramdas’s teachings, or from witnessing the suffering of common people under Deccan sultanate infighting — would tell us a great deal about the sources of transformational leadership.
Why this question: The Maratha navy was truly revolutionary. The Bijapur Sultanate had only merchant ships; the Mughal navy was minimal. Establishing a professional naval force was a visionary strategic decision. Asking this question would reveal whether Shivaji foresaw the growing European threat at sea (the Portuguese cartaz system was already extorting Indian merchants) or whether it was primarily about controlling the profitable west coast trade routes. The answer would illuminate how Shivaji thought about strategy, economics and the changing world order.
Why this question: Shivaji’s career shows remarkable tactical flexibility. He fought Bijapur (killing Afzal Khan), then negotiated with the Mughals (Treaty of Purandar), then refused to accept humiliation at Aurangzeb’s court and escaped, then was coronated and launched southern conquests. He sacked Surat (twice) but spared religious places and the house of a charitable man. He forbade the Dutch from slave trading in his territory. Understanding his moral framework for deciding when to fight, when to negotiate and where to draw the line would reveal the philosophical depth behind his actions.
@EDUGROWNGuerrilla warfare — from the Spanish guerrilla (little war) — uses small, mobile groups of fighters who use knowledge of terrain, speed and surprise to defeat larger, less mobile armies. It has been used throughout history across the world:
| Country / Movement | Period | Geographical Advantage Used |
|---|---|---|
| Marathas (India) | 17th–18th century | Sahyadri (Western Ghats) mountains, dense forests, hill forts — Mughal cavalry useless on steep terrain; Marathas knew every path |
| Ahoms (Assam) | 13th–17th century | Brahmaputra River, dense forests, marshes — river warfare gave Ahoms huge advantage; Mughal cavalry was helpless |
| American Revolution | 1775–1783 | Dense forests and wilderness of New England; American militias used forests to ambush British columns marching in open formation |
| Vietnam (against French/US) | 20th century | Dense tropical jungle and underground tunnel networks — Vietnamese fighters moved invisibly; US air power was often neutralised by dense cover |
| Afghanistan (multiple periods) | 18th century onwards | Rugged mountain terrain of Hindu Kush and Khyber Pass — passes allowed ambushes on larger armies that could not manoeuvre in the narrow valleys |
| Cuba (revolution) | 1950s | Sierra Maestra mountain range — Castro’s rebels used forests and mountains as base, conducting raids and retreating before government forces could respond |
| Second World War (resistance movements) | 1939–1945 | Forests of France (Maquis), mountains of Yugoslavia (Partisans), swamps of Belarus (Soviet partisans) — difficult terrain denied to larger, mechanised German forces |
Common factors for guerrilla success
- Terrain knowledge advantage: Home fighters know their terrain far better than invading armies — this neutralises the numerical and technological advantage of larger forces.
- Mobility vs mass: Small, fast-moving groups can strike and retreat before a larger army can effectively respond. The key is never fighting on the enemy’s terms.
- Popular support: Successful guerrilla campaigns almost always have the support of the local population, who provide information, food, shelter and recruits. Shivaji’s forts and the hill communities of the Sahyadris provided this support base.
- Forts as base camps: The Maratha innovation was to combine guerrilla tactics with a strategic network of forts — fighters could strike, retreat to a fort, and resist siege while the enemy wore itself out trying to capture each fort.
This extraordinary letter reveals several layers of Shivaji’s values as a ruler:
- Restraint in the use of state power: Shivaji explicitly forbids his officials from taking even a blade of grass from subjects without permission. In an era when most rulers treated ordinary people as instruments to be exploited, this is a remarkable standard. He understood that the legitimacy of his state depended on the people’s trust.
- Environmental consciousness: His concern for fruit trees — noting that “people look after them like their children” and that their loss causes lasting sorrow — shows a genuine understanding of the relationship between natural resources and people’s livelihoods. He distinguishes between timber needed for the state (teak for ships, with permission) and trees that people depend on for food (mango, jackfruit, which must not be touched). This is an early articulation of what we today call sustainable resource use.
- Long-term thinking: He notes that trees “take many years to mature” — showing concern not just for today’s needs but for future resource availability. This is a ruler thinking in terms of the long-term prosperity of his kingdom, not just short-term military advantage.
- Moral philosophy of governance: The line “If you accomplish something by oppressing others, it perishes soon, along with the oppressor” is a profound statement of political philosophy. He is telling his officials that governance built on oppression is inherently self-defeating — it destroys the very resources and loyalty that the state needs to survive.
- Empathy for subjects: Shivaji’s phrasing — asking whether the people’s sorrow from losing their trees “will ever end” — shows genuine empathy for his subjects’ feelings, not just concern for economic productivity. This is the quality that distinguished him from most rulers of his era.
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@EDUGROWNBharatanatyam’s connection with the Marathas
Bharatanatyam, today recognised as one of India’s most classical dance forms and now a UNESCO-recognised intangible heritage, traces its modern form directly to the court of the Thanjavur Marathas.
- Background: Ekoji, the half-brother of Chhatrapati Shivaji, conquered the Thanjavur region in Tamil Nadu in the late 17th century, establishing Maratha rule there. The Thanjavur Marathas became enthusiastic patrons of arts and music, creating a rich, syncretic cultural environment blending Tamil, Telugu and Marathi traditions.
- Serfoji II (reigned 1798–1832): Of all Thanjavur Maratha rulers, Serfoji II was the most remarkable. He was multilingual (Indian and European languages), was deeply interested in music and arts, and patronised many talented musicians and dancers.
- The Thanjavur Quartet: Under Serfoji II’s patronage, four brothers — Chinnaiah, Ponnaiah, Sivanandam and Vadivelu (the “Tanjore Quartet”) — systematised and codified what was then known as Sadir (a temple dance tradition). They standardised the repertoire, set the structure of Bharatanatyam performances (the margam), and composed the jatiswaram, tillana and varnam forms that are still performed today. This codification happened specifically under Maratha royal patronage.
- Carnatic music: The same period and court also saw the shaping of modern Carnatic classical music. The famous composers Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri (the “Trinity of Carnatic music”) were contemporaries of Serfoji II, and the cultural environment of Thanjavur was central to their work.
- 20th century revival: Bharatanatyam’s name itself was given in the 20th century (by E. Krishna Iyer) during its revival as a classical dance form after colonial-era suppression. But its structure, repertoire and aesthetic were essentially the product of the Thanjavur Maratha court’s patronage.
