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The story of Harappa

Harappa was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent, which archaeologists found 80 years ago. This was the first city to be discovered. All other cities where buildings similar to Harappa were found, were described as Harappan.

What was special about Harappan cities?

These cities were divided into 2 or more parts.

1. Citadel: The part to the west, which was smaller but higher was called the citadel.
2. Lower town: The part to the east was larger but lower was called the lower town.

The walls of baked brick were built around each part. The bricks were so well baked that they have lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong. In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this area. Some cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate storehouses.

Houses, drains and streets

Most houses had a separate bathing area and some had wells to supply water. Many cities had covered drains. Each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it. Drains in houses were connected to streets and smaller drains, which ultimately led into bigger ones. All three i.e.; houses, drains and streets were planned and built at the same time.

Life in the city

Harappan city was a very busy place.

1. Rulers were the people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. Rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted.
2. Scribes were the people who knew how to write and help in preparing the seals and perhaps write on other materials that have not survived.
3. There were men and women, crafts persons who used to make all kinds of things.
4. Many terracotta toys have been found in Harappan cities, which shows that children must have played with these.

New crafts in the city

1. Most of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities were of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
2. Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
3. Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
4. The Harappans made seals out of stone which were rectangular in shape and have an animal carved on them.
5. The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs
6. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.
7. Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience, which were used to spin thread.
8. Many of the things that were produced at Harappan were probably the work of specialists.

In search of raw materials

Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally or produced by farmers or herders. Raw materials are processed to produce finished goods. The raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally. Whereas many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones were brought from distant places.

1. The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and from Oman in West Asia.
2. Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, had been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
3. Gold had been brought from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.

Food for people in the cities

People living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. The Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.

1. The plough was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds.
2. Water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing.
3. Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. In the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water.
4. People also collected fruits like ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.

A closer look – Harappan towns in Gujarat

The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch.

1. This city has freshwater and fertile soil.
2. Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways.
3. There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies were held.
4. Large letters of the Harappan script were carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood.

The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat.

1. The raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available in the city.
2. There was also a store house in the city.
3. Workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.

The mystery of the end

Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer used. Raw materials brought from long distances became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage system broke down, and new, less impressive houses were built, even over the streets.

Why did all this happen?

We are not sure. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others suggest that there was deforestation. In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities. It appears as if the rulers lost control. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south

Summary

The urban local governments provide services to the people of their region.
The 3 types of local governments are :

• Nagar Panchayat
• Municipal Council
• Municipal Corporation

Nagar Panchayat
The rural areas are fast developing into urban areas due the  population growth. The local government of these developing regions  are  called the ‘Nagar Panchayats’.

Municipal Council
Small cities are looked after by Municipal Councils. There are many Municipal Councils in every state which are also known as Nagar Committee or Nagar Sabha in different states. Members of a Municipal Council are called Councillors, they are elected by the voters of the area of the Municipal Council.

The complete area is divided into wards. One Councillor is elected from each ward. The MLAs falling in the area of that Municipal Council are also the members of the Municipal Council.

Functions of the Municipal Council

• It provides public services such as electricity, water supply, cleanliness, maintenance of roads and bridges, schools, libraries and transport facilities.
• It also prepares the statistics of birth and death registrations and helps open health centres and hospitals.

Municipal Corporations
In larger cities the institutions of local administration are called Municipal Corporation. If the Municipal Corporation is located in the capital of the country and in the union territories, then it is under the direct control of the Central Government.Members of the Municipal Corporation are directly elected by the voters of the city.

Municipal Corporations are divided into wards and one member is elected from each ward. The MLAs of a city are also the members of the Municipal Corporation. The Municipal Corporation performs both compulsory and discretionary functions.

The compulsory functions of Municipal Corporations
Construction and maintenance of roads and sewage system, supply of drinking water, health and sanitation, registration of births and deaths, and establishment of schools.

The discretionary functions of the Municipal Corporation
The establishment and maintenance of art galleries, museums, play parks and libraries.

Composition of  the Municipal Corporation
The Municipal Corporation consists of the Mayor, the Municipal Commissioner and the Committee.The Mayor is the head of the Municipal Corporation. He is elected from amongst the members of the Corporation and his term is two and a half years. The Municipal Commissioner, or the Chief Executive Officer, is appointed by the state government and belongs to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS).

Committees
Various committees, including the Standing Committee, Education Committee and Transport Committee, serve a term of two years. They carry out the activities of the Municipal Corporation. They utilise the funds from taxes such as house tax, entertainment tax and property tax. Fees from passing of house plans, fees from issuing licenses for cycles, rickshaws and carts, and penalties from violators of the Municipal Corporation rules also contribute to the funds and the Government also provides grants to the Corporation.

Elections
The election for all the levels of the urban local self government takes place every five years. There are reserved seats for women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the urban local government. The urban local government is elected by the people and provides many services to them

Objectives for the Lesson:

1. You’ll learn about the working of a local self government body, that is, the Panchayti Raj.
2. The chapter helps us in understanding the functions of the Tehsildars and the Patwaris.
3. To understand about the Hindu Succession Amendment Act , 2005 .

Expected Learning Outcome:

The students will be able to understand the local self governing bodies of India and how different people are assigned to the task of rural development for a smooth functioning. The chapter will also enlighten students about the Hindu Succession Amendment Act, and its role in strengthening the future of Hindu Women in India.

Focus Point

The chapter focuses on the way villages and districts are administered.

Things to Answer after Reading the Context

1. Who is a Sarpanch?
2. Why do you think local self governing bodies are necessary?
3. What kind of a person is Raghu?

Local Self Governing Bodies

India is a vast country and to manage the country, we cannot rely on one Central Government. This is the reason why the Government has been divided into three different levels, The Central, The State and the Local Self Government. In this chapter, we will be having a small discussion on Panchayti Raj, a local self governing body with the help of a small story.

A Village Story

A farmer named Mohan had a small agricultural field , which they had been using for farming for many years . Another man named Raghu , lived next to him separated by a small boundary called bund . One day , Mohan noticed Raghu took over some  Mohan’s land by shifting the bund by feet .

ANGRY AND FRIGHTENED – Mohan got furious about the matter as well as he was frightened to do something about it because Raghu’s family owned many fields and also his uncle was the Sarpanch of the village .  But, still he took the courage and faced him . Raghu reluctantly denied the fact that he shifted the bund and started shouting and beating Mohan with the help of his helpers .

The neighbours heard them and took Mohan away . He was badly hurt and then he decided to take this matter to the police station .

Things to answer after reading the context :

1. What should have the police station done and what did they exactly do ?
2. How were the neighbours dealing with the matter ?
3. How do you feel about Raghu after the incident ?
4. Do you think it was a minor complaint ?
5. Who is the S.H.O. ? What is his duty?

The Police Station

They went to the police station and Mohan told the S.H.O. about the incident but the S.H.O. rudely behaved and told him that he had no time for such minor complaints . Mohan tried to convince him by showing him  his injuries but his complaint was still not recorded . Then he called the neighbours and a strong heated argument followed and he was again beaten up by the officers .

After that , they again insisted on registering the complaint and the officer finally agreed and asked Mohan to write down his complaint.

Incidents like these are common for the poor villagers in India. They are often harassed and abused, and their lands and properties are taken away like that. Why do you think the rich villagers do this?

Things to answer after reading the context :

1. Who is a Patwari ? What are the other names of the Patwari?
2. What are the other things the Patwari is responsible for ?
3. Who supervises Patwari’s work ?

Land Records

PATWARI – The main task of the Patwari is to measure the lands and keep their records . He is also responsible for organising collection of land revenue from the farmers . Also , they provide the information about crops to the government . It is therefore necessary for the Patwari to update those regularly .

The Patwari is also known as Lekhpal , Kanungo , Karamchari , etc in different states . The Patwari has ways to measure agricultural fields . In the above case , the Patwari had to measure the lands by using the maps , if they matched it means the boundaries did not change and vice versa .

Sometimes , farmers can also change the crops grown on their fields or dig a well somewhere else . So , it is the responsibility of the revenue department of the government to keep a record of this . The Patwari’s work is supervised by the senior people.

There are many states in India . All of them are divided into districts. The districts are further divided into subdivisions known as tehsil , taluka, etc . The head is the District Collector and the tehsildars ( revenue officers) are under him . They check that the records are kept properly and also the land revenue is collected .

The Tehsildar’s office is the place where all the land problems are discussed .

Hindu Succession Amendment Act ,  2005 

Do you remember learning about the division of labour in our history class? Women have been subjected to household chores since ages and have been taught that they do not have any right or share in the property of the family.

Indian women were not allowed to inherit the property of their parents as they were married off to another house. This often did not do justice to many daughters and therefore, it was decided that a law be passed that treats women equally. The court passed the “Hindu Succession Amendment Act” in 2005 which gave the daughters a right to inherit their father’s property and that no one could deny them their right. However, even today, thousands of Indian women do not have complete knowledge about this right.

Conclusion

This chapter has shown us how the administrative work is done especially in rural areas . It has also shown that even if the laws are right , there are certain people who do not obey the laws and the people who should look after it , sometimes become reluctant . There are the Patwaris who look after measuring the lands and keeping their records . There are different names of ‘Patwari’ in different states .

Also , their work is supervised by other senior people like the Tehsildars . This shows that if sometimes , one person does some kind of partiality , there are other people who can look into the matter and resolve it .

The new law has helped a lot of women from being homeless . It gave a confidence to women that even if nothing works or there is some problem , they can always rely on their share of land .

DID YOU KNOW

1. A district is the most important unit of rural administration .
2. The judgement of the new law was passed by the judges named Arun Mishra , S Abdul Nazeer and MR Shah .
3. The Tehsildars are appointed by the government based on revenue who must work with honesty .

How some men became rulers?

Around 3000 years ago, we found some changes had taken place in the ways in which rajas were chosen. Some men were then recognized as rajas by performing very big sacrifices. 

• Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual in which a horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. 
• If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. 
• If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice. 
• The raja who organized the sacrifice was recognized as being very powerful and all those who came brought gifts for him.    

Varnas

• The priests divided people into four groups called Varnas.
• According to them, each Varna had a different set of functions.
• These groups were decided on the basis of birth.

Brahmin: They were expected to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. 

Kshatriyas: They were the rulers and were expected to fight battles and protect people.

Vish or the Vaishyas: They were expected to be farmers, herders and traders. Both the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas could perform sacrifices.

Shudras: They had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals. Often, women were also grouped with them. They were not allowed to study the Vedas.

What is Janapada?

• The term Janapada is a compound composed of ‘Jana’ meaning tribe and ‘pada’ meaning foot. Its literal meaning, thus, is realm and subject population.  
• Early Vedic texts reveal several Janas or tribes of the Aryans living in semi-nomadic tribal states.  
• In due course of time, these early Indian Iron Age Rigveda Janas coalesced into geographically fixed Janapadas.  
• They were governed by rulers or rajas each having its own army and capital.  
• The kings maintained large armies who were paid regular salaries by using punch-marked coins

What is Mahajanapadas?

• Each Mahajanapadas was ruled by a king.  
• Villagers were controlled by a village headman called Gramini.  
• About 2500 years ago, some Janapadas became more important than others and were known as Mahajanapadas.
• Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified which means that huge walls of wood, brick, or stone were built around them.

Political Organisation  

• The political organization of the mahajanpadas was organized into two forms- monarchy and republican system.  
• In a monarchy, the king was the head of the state. Magadha was its example.  
• In a republican system, the state was ruled by an elected chief called Ganpat. Mallas was its example.  

Taxes

• As Mahajanapadas needed a huge amount of money, they imposed taxes. 
• The one-sixth tax was fixed on crops; tax on craftspersons, herders, goods bought and sold through the trade.  
• Further hunters and gathers had to give forest produce to the raja. 

Changes in agriculture

There were two major changes in agriculture around mahajanapadas time.

• The growing use of iron ploughshares: This means heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare so that more grain could be produced.
• People began transplanting paddy: This meant that instead of scattering seeds on the ground, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields.

A closer look: Magadha

• Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years.
• Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha which helped in transport, water supplies, and making the land fertile.
• Two powerful rulers of Magadha were Bimbisara and Ajatasattu.
• The first capital of Magadha was Rajagriha in Bihar and the second was Pataliputra.

A closer look: Vajji

• Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as Gana or Sangha.
• In a Gana or a Sangha, there were many rulers, each one was known as a raja.
• The rajas performed rituals together and met in assemblies.
• Women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.
• Both the Buddha and the Mahavira belonged to ganas or sanghas.
• The last of the sanghas were conquered by Gupta rulers around 1500 years ago.

Chandragupta I was the first important king of the Gupta dynasty. Samudra gupta proceeded on a long campaign of conquests in southern India.and northern india.
Harisena’s inscription gives an account of his reign and his love for music. His coins show him playing on a veena.

Chandra gupta II Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas. He maintained friendly relations with the Deccan kings. Skandagupta defeated the Hunas but his uccessors were weak. The Hunas attacked the Guptas. The empire broke up into small kingdoms.

The Guptas patronised Hinduism and sanskrit literature the ramayana the amhabharata and the puranas were rewritten Plays of Bhasa and the works of Kalidasa were composed . There  was a great advance in the knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.

Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were two great astronomers and mathematicians. Books on medicine were also prepared.
The age saw a great advance in art and architectuer Hindu temples and images of gods were built.

The Budddhist architecture was well advanced. A mingling of various styles was visible. The Gupta  Age is the Golden Age od ancuient India

The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, 2,000 years back when he overthrew the Nanda King. His assistant was Chanakya, a shrewd advisor and strategic thinker. He has written a book called Arthashastra that comprises his thoughts on politics, economics, foreign affirs, administration, military arts, war and religion. 

Chandragupta was succeeded by Bindusara, his son who extended the Mauryan Empire till Mysore. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, who is regarded as the greatest ruler of the empire by many historians. He extended the Mauryan Empire till the modern-day Afghanistan, with Patliputra as capital.

The Mauryan Emperors appointed the family members to control the large empire. Only the capital Patliputra was controlled by the emperor while states like Ujjain and Taxila were governed by royal princes. The Emperors also appointed officials for collecting taxes, maintaining law and order and keeping a check on the activities of the subjects.

Numerous army battalions were maintained for protection against attacks, which required expenditure on salaries. Hence, the system of taxes was introduced in the empire. The three lions or the Lion capital on the Indian Currency notes and coins are from the edicts of the Mauryan Empire which were found at Sarnath.

The story of Buddha

About 2500 years ago, Siddhartha the founder of Buddhism was born. He was also known as Gautama Buddha. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.

Buddha’s Teaching

The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. Even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied and want even more. The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.

Upanishads

Upanishad means ‘approaching and sitting near’. The texts contained in the Upanishad were the conversations between teachers and students.

1. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas.
2. There is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts.
3. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.

Jainism

The last and 24th Tirthankara of the Jainas was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha. At the age of 30, he left home and went to live in a forest. For 12 years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.

He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings.

Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives. They had to be absolutely honest and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.

The sangha

Sangha was an association of those people who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer – beggar) and bhikkhunis. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.

Monasteries

Both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. The permanent shelters, which monasteries were built were known as viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves, especially in western India. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond

Maps

• A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface according to a scale. But it is impossible to flatten a round shape completely.

Different types of Maps

Physical Maps

• Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans etc. are called physical or relief maps

Political Maps
• Maps showing cities, towns and villages, and different countries and states of the world with their boundaries are called political maps.

Thematic Maps
• Some maps focus on specific information; such as road maps, rainfall maps, maps showing distribution of forests, industries etc. are known as thematic maps.

Components of Maps

Distance
• Maps are two-dimensional drawings. It reduces the entire world or a part of the world on a small sheet of paper. While making a map, cartographers pay attention to properly represent the distance between two places. This helps us in finding the actual distance between two places.

• Small Scale Map: When a large area is shown on a small map, such a map is called a small scale map. Example; map of a country or state.

• Large Scale Map: When a small area such as a village is shown on a map, such a map is called a large scale map. A map of a neighbourhood is another example of large scale map. A large scale map gives more details compared to a small scale map.

Direction

• A map also contains information about directions. 
• On most of the maps, you will usually see an upward arrow and the letter ‘N’. This shows the north direction. Once we know the north, we can easily find the other directions. North, South, East and West are the four major directions. These are called Cardinal Directions. 

• Some maps also show the intermediate directions, viz. north-east, south-east, south-west and north-west.

Compass
• Compass is very useful for finding directions at a place. 

• This is a small circular box with a magnetic needle inside.

• The needle of the compass always points in the north-south direction. 
• Compass has been used by travellers and sailors since ages.

Symbols
• Cartographers also need to show various details; like important structures, landmarks, etc. on a map. These things are shown by some standard symbols on the map. 
• While using colours to show different themes and items on a map; certain conventions are followed. Mountains are usually shown in brown colour, plains in green, water body in blue and plateau is shown in yellow.

Sketch
• A drawing based on memory is called a sketch. A sketch is not made to scale. A sketch map is useful when you need to show directions to your house to your friend.

Plan
• Drawing of a small area on a large scale is called a plan. Architects usually make plans to show the layout of a house.

Flower is the most beautiful and attractive part of a plant. These are available
in different shapes, sizes and colours. It is the reproductive part of a plant. It
produces fruits and seeds.
Structure of a flower –
The flower arises from the floral bud on the stem. It is attached on the axis by
a structure called pedicel. The pedicel continuous to form slightly swollen tip
called thalamus. It bears four consecutive whorls of flower. These are –

1. Calyx – It is the outermost whorl of a flower. It consists of green
   coloured leaf-like structures called sepals. The sepal protects the flower
   during bad stages.
2. Corolla – It is the second whorl of a flower. It consists of large, brightlycoloured, scented petals. Petals enclosed and protect the reproductive
   part of a flower. Corolla attracts insects like bees and butterflies for
   pollination.
3. Androecium – It is the third whorl of a flower. It forms the male
   reproductive part of a flower and consists of many male reproductive
   units. These units are called stamens. The stamen consists of the
   filament and the anther.
   i. Filament – It is a long, thin, hair-like structure which bears
   yellowish sac like structures on its free end.
   ii. Anther – An anther is a small, sac-like structure borne at the tip of
   the filament. Each anther contains many fine, powdery particles
   called pollen grains. Pollen grains play important role in plant
   reproduction as they contain male reproductive cells.
4. Gynoecium – it is the forth whorl of a flower. It constitutes the female
   reproductive part which is known as pistil. Pistil consists of carpels
   (female reproductive units). Each carpel consists of three parts –
   i. Ovary – it contains one or more ovules
   ii. Style – long, tube-like extension of the ovary
   iii. Stigma – pollen grains are received here.
   

1. Complete flower – A flower that shows all the four whorls. Example –
   hibiscus and rose
2. Incomplete flower – a flower that lacks of one or more such
   structures. Example – begonia and willow
   Functions of a flower –

• Primary function is reproduction by producing fruits that contains seeds.
  Seeds help in multiplication of species.
  Pollination –
  The process which involves transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
  stigma of same or another flower.
  Kinds of pollination –

1. Self pollination –When pollen grains transfer from anther to stigma of
   same flower or flowers of the same plant.
2. Cross pollination – When pollen grains from anther of a flower are
   transferred to the stigma of another flower or another plant of same
   species.
   Agents of pollination –
3. Pollination by insects
4. Pollination by animals
5. Pollination by wind
6. Pollination by water
   Fertilization – The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization.
   The Fruit – After fertilization the ovules grows to become seeds. A seed
   contains embryo and food for developing new plants. It has a tough
   protective coating called seed coat. The ovary of a flower can produce
   number of seeds.
   After the process of fertilization, an ovary develops and becomes a fruit.
   When fruit is ripened, other parts of a flower dry up ad fall off. A fruit
   protects the seed.
   

Structure of a fruit – A fruits is made up of two parts.

1. Pericarp – it develops from ovary wall. It further consists of three parts
   i. Epicarp – It is thin, leathery part and is generally discarded.
   ii. Mesocarp – Fleshy, sweet edible part.
   iii. Endocarp – innermost hard layer which encloses the seed
2. Seed – it develops from ovule.
   Types of fruits –
3. Dry fruits – whose pericarp is not distinguished. Example – nut, wheat
   and legumes
4. Fleshy fruits – whose pericarp is distinguished into three parts. Example
   – kiwi and cherry
   Functions of fruits
    It protects the seed from extreme hot or cold weather conditions and
   animals.
    It is an important source of food for animals.
   The Seed – The number and shape of seeds are different in different fruits.
   Structure of Seed –
5. Seed coat – outer protective covering of seed
6. Cotyledon – the fleshy part of the seed. It also stores food for
   developing embryo
7. Embryo – It has two parts
   i. Plumule – it develops into shoot
   ii. Radicle – it develops into root
   Types of seeds – According to numbers of cotyledons, seeds are of two
   types.
8. Monocotyledonous seed –contains only one cotyledons like wheat,
   bajra
9. Dicotyledonous seed – contains two cotyledons like mango, gram etc.
   

Germination of seeds – The process in which a seeds begins to grow.
Types of Germination –

1. Epigeal germination – the hypocotyl elongates rapidly and arches
   upwards pulling the cotyledons which move above the soil. This can be
   seen in dicotyledonous seeds. Example – bean, cotton etc.
2. Hypogeal germination – the epicotyl elongates and the cotyledons
   remain below the soil. It can be seen in monocotyledonous seeds.
   Example – pea, mango etc.
   Conditions necessary for germination – Water, air and suitable
   temperature are essential for seed germination. In the presence of these
   conditions the food stored inside the seed dissolves and provides energy
   to the growing embryo.