Class 12 Maths Notes Chapter 6 Application of Derivatives
Rate of Change of Quantities: Let y = f(x) be a function of x. Then, dydx represents the rate of change of y with respect to x. Also, [latex s=1]\frac { dy }{ dx }[/latex]x = x0 represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x0.
If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e. x = f(t) and y = g(t), then In other words, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be calculated using the rate of change of y and that of x both with respect to t. Note: dydx is positive, if y increases as x increases and it is negative, if y decreases as x increases, dx
Marginal Cost: Marginal cost represents the instantaneous rate of change of the total cost at any level of output. If C(x) represents the cost function for x units produced, then marginal cost (MC) is given by
Marginal Revenue: Marginal revenue represents the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the number of items sold at an instant. If R(x) is the revenue function for x units sold, then marginal revenue (MR) is given by
Let I be an open interval contained in the domain of a real valued function f. Then, f is said to be
increasing on I, if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1) ≤ f(x2), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ I.
strictly increasing on I, if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1) < f(x2), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ I.
decreasing on I, if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1) ≥ f(x2), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ I.
strictly decreasing on I, if x1 < x2 in f(x1) > f(x2), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ I.
Let x0 be a point in the domain of definition of a real-valued function f, then f is said to be increasing, strictly increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing at x0, if there exists an open interval I containing x0 such that f is increasing, strictly increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing, respectively in I. Note: If for a given interval I ⊆ R, function f increase for some values in I and decrease for other values in I, then we say function is neither increasing nor decreasing.
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b). Then,
f is increasing in [a, b] if f'(x) > 0 for each x ∈ (a, b).
f is decreasing in [a, b] if f'(x) < 0 for each x ∈ (a, b).
f is a constant function in [a, b], if f'(x) = 0 for each x ∈ (a, b).
Note: (i) f is strictly increasing in (a, b), if f'(x) > 0 for each x ∈ (a, b). (ii) f is strictly decreasing in (a, b), if f'(x) < 0 for each x ∈ (a, b).
Monotonic Function: A function which is either increasing or decreasing in a given interval I, is called monotonic function.
Approximation: Let y = f(x) be any function of x. Let Δx be the small change in x and Δy be the corresponding change in y. i.e. Δy = f(x + Δx) – f(x).Then, dy = f'(x) dx or dy = dydx Δx is a good approximation of Δy, when dx = Δx is relatively small and we denote it by dy ~ Δy. Note: (i) The differential of the dependent variable is not equal to the increment of the variable whereas the differential of the independent variable is equal to the increment of the variable. (ii) Absolute Error The change Δx in x is called absolute error in x.
Tangents and Normals Slope: (i) The slope of a tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x1, y1) is given by
(ii) The slope of a normal to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x1, y1) is given by
Note: If a tangent line to the curve y = f(x) makes an angle θ with X-axis in the positive direction, then dydx = Slope of the tangent = tan θ. dx
Equations of Tangent and Normal The equation of tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point P(x1, y1) is given by y – y1 = m (x – x1), where m = dydx at point (x1, y1).
The equation of normal to the curve y = f(x) at the point Q(x1, y1) is given by y – y1 = −1m (x – x1), where m = dydx at point (x1, y1).
If slope of the tangent line is zero, then tanθ = θ, so θ = 0, which means that tangent line is parallel to the X-axis and then equation of tangent at the point (x1, y1) is y = y1.
If θ → π2, then tanθ → ∞ which means that tangent line is perpendicular to the X-axis, i.e. parallel to the Y-axis and then equation of the tangent at the point (x1, y1) is x = x0.
Maximum and Minimum Value: Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then, (i) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f(c) > f(x), ∀ x ∈ I. The number f(c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a point of a maximum value of f in I. (ii) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f(c) < f(x), ∀ x ∈ I. The number f(c) is called the minimum value of f in I and the point c is called a point of minimum value of f in I. (iii) f is said to have an extreme value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f(c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I. The number f(c) is called an extreme value off in I and the point c is called an extreme point.
Local Maxima and Local Minima (i) A function f(x) is said to have a local maximum value at point x = a, if there exists a neighbourhood (a – δ, a + δ) of a such that f(x) < f(a), ∀ x ∈ (a – δ, a + δ), x ≠ a. Here, f(a) is called the local maximum value of f(x) at the point x = a. (ii) A function f(x) is said to have a local minimum value at point x = a, if there exists a neighbourhood (a – δ, a + δ) of a such that f(x) > f(a), ∀ x ∈ (a – δ, a + δ), x ≠ a. Here, f(a) is called the local minimum value of f(x) at x = a.
The points at which a function changes its nature from decreasing to increasing or vice-versa are called turning points. Note: (i) Through the graphs, we can even find the maximum/minimum value of a function at a point at which it is not even differentiable. (ii) Every monotonic function assumes its maximum/minimum value at the endpoints of the domain of definition of the function.
Every continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum and a minimum value.
Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Suppose cel is any point. If f has local maxima or local minima at x = c, then either f'(c) = 0 or f is not differentiable at c.
Critical Point: A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f'(c) = 0 or f is not differentiable, is called a critical point of f.
First Derivative Test: Let f be a function defined on an open interval I and f be continuous of a critical point c in I. Then,
if f'(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then c is a point of local maxima.
if f'(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, then c is a point of local minima.
if f'(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. Such a point is called a point of inflection.
Second Derivative Test: Let f(x) be a function defined on an interval I and c ∈ I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then, (i) x = c is a point of local maxima, if f'(c) = 0 and f”(c) < 0. (ii) x = c is a point of local minima, if f'(c) = 0 and f”(c) > 0. (iii) the test fails, if f'(c) = 0 and f”(c) = 0.
Note (i) If the test fails, then we go back to the first derivative test and find whether a is a point of local maxima, local minima or a point of inflexion. (ii) If we say that f is twice differentiable at o, then it means second order derivative exists at a.
Absolute Maximum Value: Let f(x) be a function defined in its domain say Z ⊂ R. Then, f(x) is said to have the maximum value at a point a ∈ Z, if f(x) ≤ f(a), ∀ x ∈ Z.
Absolute Minimum Value: Let f(x) be a function defined in its domain say Z ⊂ R. Then, f(x) is said to have the minimum value at a point a ∈ Z, if f(x) ≥ f(a), ∀ x ∈ Z.
Note: Every continuous function defined in a closed interval has a maximum or a minimum value which lies either at the end points or at the solution of f'(x) = 0 or at the point, where the function is not differentiable.
Let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then, f has the absolute maximum value and/attains it at least once in I. Also, f has the absolute minimum value and attains it at least once in I.
Class 12 Maths Notes Chapter 5 Continuity and Differentiability
Continuity at a Point: A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a, if Left hand limit of f(x) at(x = a) = Right hand limit of f(x) at (x = a) = Value of f(x) at (x = a) i.e. if at x = a, LHL = RHL = f(a) where, LHL = limx→a–f(x) and RHL = limx→a+f(x) Note: To evaluate LHL of a function f(x) at (x = o), put x = a – h and to find RHL, put x = a + h.
Continuity in an Interval: A function y = f(x) is said to be continuous in an interval (a, b), where a < b if and only if f(x) is continuous at every point in that interval.
Every identity function is continuous.
Every constant function is continuous.
Every polynomial function is continuous.
Every rational function is continuous.
All trigonometric functions are continuous in their domain.
Standard Results of Limits
Algebra of Continuous Functions Suppose f and g are two real functions, continuous at real number c. Then,
f + g is continuous at x = c.
f – g is continuous at x = c.
f.g is continuous at x = c.
cf is continuous, where c is any constant.
(fg) is continuous at x = c, [provide g(c) ≠ 0]
Suppose f and g are two real valued functions such that (fog) is defined at c. If g is continuous at c and f is continuous at g (c), then (fog) is continuous at c.
If f is continuous, then |f| is also continuous.
Differentiability: A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at a point x = a, if Left hand derivative at (x = a) = Right hand derivative at (x = a) i.e. LHD at (x = a) = RHD (at x = a), where Right hand derivative, where
Note: Every differentiable function is continuous but every continuous function is not differentiable.
Differentiation: The process of finding a derivative of a function is called differentiation.
Rules of Differentiation Sum and Difference Rule: Let y = f(x) ± g(x).Then, by using sum and difference rule, it’s derivative is written as
Product Rule: Let y = f(x) g(x). Then, by using product rule, it’s derivative is written as
Quotient Rule: Let y = f(x)g(x); g(x) ≠ 0, then by using quotient rule, it’s derivative is written as
Chain Rule: Let y = f(u) and u = f(x), then by using chain rule, we may write
Logarithmic Differentiation: Let y = [f(x)]g(x) ..(i) So by taking log (to base e) we can write Eq. (i) as log y = g(x) log f(x). Then, by using chain rule
Differentiation of Functions in Parametric Form: A relation expressed between two variables x and y in the form x = f(t), y = g(t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter, when (whenever dxdt≠0) Note: dy/dx is expressed in terms of parameter only without directly involving the main variables x and y.
Second order Derivative: It is the derivative of the first order derivative.
Some Standard Derivatives
Rolle’s Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) such that f(a) = f(b), where a and b are some real numbers. Then, there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that f'(c) = 0.
Mean Value Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous function on [a, b]and differentiable on (a, b). Then, there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that Note: Mean value theorem is an expansion of Rolle’s theorem.
Some Useful Substitutions for Finding Derivatives Expression
Determinant: Determinant is the numerical value of the square matrix. So, to every square matrix A = [aij] of order n, we can associate a number (real or complex) called determinant of the square matrix A. It is denoted by det A or |A|. Note (i) Read |A| as determinant A not absolute value of A. (ii) Determinant gives numerical value but matrix do not give numerical value. (iii) A determinant always has an equal number of rows and columns, i.e. only square matrix have determinants.
Value of a Determinant Value of determinant of a matrix of order 2, A = \(\begin{bmatrix} { a }_{ 11 } & { a }_{ 12 } \\ { a }_{ 21 } & { a }_{ 22 } \end{bmatrix}\) is
Value of determinant of a matrix of order 3, A = \(\left[ \begin{matrix} { a }_{ 11 } & { a }_{ 12 } & { a }_{ 13 } \\ { a }_{ 21 } & { a }_{ 22 } & { a }_{ 23 } \\ { a }_{ 31 } & { a }_{ 32 } & { a }_{ 33 } \end{matrix} \right]\) is given by expressing it in terms of second order determinant. This is known as expansion of a determinant along a row (or column).
Note (i) For easier calculations of determinant, we shall expand the determinant along that row or column which contains the maximum number of zeroes. (ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (-1)i+j, we can multiply by +1 or -1 according to as (i + j) is even or odd.
Let A be a matrix of order n and let |A| = x. Then, |kA| = kn |A| = kn x, where n = 1, 2, 3,…
Minor: Minor of an element ay of a determinant, is a determinant obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column in which element ay lies. Minor of an element aij is denoted by Mij. Note: Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n ≥ 2) is a determinant of order (n – 1).
Cofactor: Cofactor of an element aij of a determinant, denoted by Aij or Cij is defined as Aij = (-1)i+j Mij, where Mij is a minor of an element aij. Note (i) For expanding the determinant, we can use minors and cofactors as (ii) If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero.
Singular and non-singular Matrix: If the value of determinant corresponding to a square matrix is zero, then the matrix is said to be a singular matrix, otherwise it is non-singular matrix, i.e. for a square matrix A, if |A| ≠ 0, then it is said to be a non-singular matrix and of |A| = 0, then it is said to be a singular matrix. Theorems (i) If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA are also non-singular matrices of the same order. (ii) The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to the product of their respective determinants, i.e. |AB| = |A||B|, where A and B are a square matrix of the same order.
Adjoint of a Matrix: The adjoint of a square matrix ‘A’ is the transpose of the matrix which obtained by cofactors of each element of a determinant corresponding to that given matrix. It is denoted by adj(A). In general, adjoint of a matrix A = [aij]n×n is a matrix [Aji]n×n, where Aji is a cofactor of element aji.
Properties of Adjoint of a Matrix If A is a square matrix of order n × n, then
A(adj A) = (adj A)A = |A| In
|adj A| = |A|n-1
adj (AT) = (adj A)T
The area of a triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by NOTE: Since the area is a positive quantity we always take the absolute value of the determinant.
Properties of Determinants To find the value of the determinant, we try to make the maximum possible zero in a row (or a column) by using properties given below and then expand the determinant corresponding that row (or column). Following are the various properties of determinants: 1. If all the elements of any row or column of a determinant are zero, then the value of a determinant is zero.
2. If each element of any one row or one column of a determinant is a multiple of scalar k, then the value of the determinant is a multiple of k. then the value of the determinant is a multiple of k. i.e.
3. If in a determinant any two rows or columns are interchanged, then the value of the determinant obtained is negative of the value of the given determinant. If we make n such changes of rows (columns) indeterminant ∆ and obtain determinant ∆ , then ∆1 = (-1)n ∆.
4. If all corresponding elements of any two rows or columns of a determinant are identical or proportional, then the value of the determinant is zero. [∴ R1 and R3 are identical.]
5. The value of a determinant remains unchanged on changing rows into columns and columns into rows. It follows that, if A is a square matrix, then |A’| = |A|. Note: det(A) = det(A’), where A’ = transpose of A.
6. If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed as a sum of two or more terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two or more determinants, i.e.
7. In the elements of any row or column of a determinant, if we add or subtract the multiples of corresponding elements of any other row or column, then the value of determinant remains unchanged, i.e. In other words, the value of determinants remains the same, if we apply the operation Ri → Ri + kEj or Ci → Cj → kCj.
Inverse of a Matrix and Applications of Determinants and Matrix 1. Inverse of a Square Matrix: If A is a non-singular matrix (i.e. |A| ≠ 0), then Note: Inverse of a matrix, if exists, is unique.
Properties of a Inverse Matrix
(A-1)-1 = A
(AT)-1=(A-1)T
(AB)-1 = B-1A-1
(ABC)-1 =C-1B-1A-1
adj (A-1) = (adj A)-1
2. Solution of system of linear equations using inverse of a matrix. Let the given system of equations be a1x + b1y + c1z = d1; a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 and a3x + b3y + c3z = d3. We write the following system of linear equations in matrix form as AX = B, where Case I: If |A| ≠ 0, then the system is consistent and has a unique solution which is given by X = A-1B. Case II: If |A| = 0 and (adj A) B ≠ 0, then system is inconsistent and has no solution. Case III: If |A| = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent according to as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solutions
Class 12 Maths Notes Chapter 2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Trigonometric functions are many-one functions but we know that inverse of function exists if the function is bijective. If we restrict the domain of trigonometric functions, then these functions become bijective and the inverse of trigonometric functions are defined within the restricted domain. The inverse of f is denoted by ‘f-1‘. Let y = f(x) = sin x, then its inverse is x = sin-1 y.
Domain and Range of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin-1(sinθ) = θ; ∀ θ ∈ [−π2,π2]
cos-1(cosθ) = θ; ∀ θ ∈ [0, π]
tan-1(tanθ) = θ; ∀ θ [−π2,π2]
cosec-1(cosecθ) = 0; ∀ θ ∈ [−π2,π2] , θ ≠ 0
sec-1(secθ) = θ; ∀ θ ∈ [0, π], θ ≠ π2
cot-1(cotθ) = θ; ∀ θ ∈ (0, π)
sin(sin-1 x) = x, ∀ x ∈ [-1, 1]
cos(cos-1 x) = x; ∀ x ∈ [-1, 1]
tan(tan-1x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R
cosec(cosec-1x) = x, ∀ x ∈ (-∞, -1] ∪ [1, ∞)
sec(sec-1 x) = x, ∀ x ∈ (-∞, -1] ∪ [1, ∞)
cot(cot-1 x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R
Note: sin-1(sinθ) = θ ; sin-1 x should not be confused with (sinx)-1 = 1sinx or sin-1 x = sin-1(1x) land similarly for other trigonometric functions.
The value of an inverse trigonometric function, which lies in the range of principal value branch, is called the principal value of the inverse trigonometric function. Note: Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is mentioned, it means we have to consider the principal value branch of that function.
Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Following substitutions are used to write inverse trigonometric functions in simplest form:
Remember Points (i) Sometimes, it may happen, that some of the values of x that we find out does not satisfy the given equation. (ii) While solving an equation, do not cancel the common factors from both sides.
Class 12 Maths Notes Chapter 1 Relations and Functions
Relation: A relation R from set X to a set Y is defined as a subset of the cartesian product X × Y. We can also write it as R ⊆ {(x, y) ∈ X × Y : xRy}.
Note: If n(A) = p and n(B) = q from set A to set B, then n(A × B) = pq and number of relations = 2pq.
Types of Relation Empty Relation: A relation R in a set X, is called an empty relation, if no element of X is related to any element of X, i.e. R = Φ ⊂ X × X
Universal Relation: A relation R in a set X, is called universal relation, if each element of X is related to every element of X, i.e. R = X × X
Reflexive Relation: A relation R defined on a set A is said to be reflexive, if (x, x) ∈ R, ∀ x ∈ A or xRx, ∀ x ∈ R
Symmetric Relation: A relation R defined on a set A is said to be symmetric, if (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∈ R, ∀ x, y ∈ A or xRy ⇒ yRx, ∀ x, y ∈ R.
Transitive Relation: A relation R defined on a set A is said to be transitive, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R ⇒ (x, z) ∈ R, ∀ x, y, z ∈ A or xRy, yRz ⇒ xRz, ∀ x, y,z ∈ R.
Equivalence Relation: A relation R defined on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Equivalence Classes: Given an arbitrary equivalence relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets A, called partitions or sub-divisions of X satisfying
all elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
no element of Ai is related to any element of Aj, i ≠ j
Ai ∪ Aj = X and Ai ∩ Aj = 0, i ≠ j. The subsets Ai and Aj are called equivalence classes.
Function: Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. A function or mapping f from X into Y written as f : X → Y is a rule by which each element x ∈ X is associated to a unique element y ∈ Y. Then, f is said to be a function from X to Y. The elements of X are called the domain of f and the elements of Y are called the codomain of f. The image of the element of X is called the range of X which is a subset of Y. Note: Every function is a relation but every relation is not a function.
Types of Functions One-one Function or Injective Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be a one-one function, if the images of distinct elements of x under f are distinct, i.e. f(x1) = f(x2 ) ⇔ x1 = x2, ∀ x1, x2 ∈ X A function which is not one-one, is known as many-one function.
Onto Function or Surjective Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be onto function or a surjective function, if every element of Y is image of some element of set X under f, i.e. for every y ∈ y, there exists an element X in x such that f(x) = y. In other words, a function is called an onto function, if its range is equal to the codomain.
Bijective or One-one and Onto Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be a bijective function if it is both one-one and onto.
Composition of Functions: Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two functions. Then, composition of functions f and g is a function from X to Z and is denoted by fog and given by (fog) (x) = f[g(x)], ∀ x ∈ X. Note (i) In general, fog(x) ≠ gof(x). (ii) In general, gof is one-one implies that f is one-one and gof is onto implies that g is onto. (iii) If f : X → Y, g : Y → Z and h : Z → S are functions, then ho(gof) = (hog)of.
Invertible Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be invertible, if there exists a function g : Y → X such that gof = Ix and fog = Iy. The function g is called inverse of function f and is denoted by f-1. Note (i) To prove a function invertible, one should prove that, it is both one-one or onto, i.e. bijective. (ii) If f : X → V and g : Y → Z are two invertible functions, then gof is also invertible with (gof)-1 = f-1og-1
Domain and Range of Some Useful Functions Binary Operation: A binary operation * on set X is a function * : X × X → X. It is denoted by a * b.
Commutative Binary Operation: A binary operation * on set X is said to be commutative, if a * b = b * a, ∀ a, b ∈ X.
Associative Binary Operation: A binary operation * on set X is said to be associative, if a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c, ∀ a, b, c ∈ X. Note: For a binary operation, we can neglect the bracket in an associative property. But in the absence of associative property, we cannot neglect the bracket.
Identity Element: An element e ∈ X is said to be the identity element of a binary operation * on set X, if a * e = e * a = a, ∀ a ∈ X. Identity element is unique. Note: Zero is an identity for the addition operation on R and one is an identity for the multiplication operation on R.
Invertible Element or Inverse: Let * : X × X → X be a binary operation and let e ∈ X be its identity element. An element a ∈ X is said to be invertible with respect to the operation *, if there exists an element b ∈ X such that a * b = b * a = e, ∀ b ∈ X. Element b is called inverse of element a and is denoted by a-1. Note: Inverse of an element, if it exists, is unique.
Operation Table: When the number of elements in a set is small, then we can express a binary operation on the set through a table, called the operation table.
Sociology Class 11 Notes Chapter 3 Understanding Social Institutions
Family:
The word “family” has been taken from the Roman word “familus” meaning “servant”. In Roman law, the word denoted the group of producers and slaves and other servants as well as the members connected by common descent or marriage.
According to Burgess and Locke, “A group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption constituting a single household, interacting and inter-communicating with each other in their respective social rites of husband and wife, mother and father, son and daughter, brother and sister, creating a common culture.”
Characteristics of a Family
A mating relationship: A family comes into existence when a man and a woman establish a mating relation between them.
A form of marriage: A family requires a home, a householder, for its living. Without a dwelling place the task of child bearing and child rearing cannot be adequately performed.
A system of nomenclature: Every family is known by a name and has its own system of reckoning descent. Descent may be reckoned through the male line or through the female line. Usually the wife goes and joins her husband’s family in a patriarchal system and vice-versa in a matriarchal system.
An economic provision: Every family needs an economic provision to satisfy the economic needs. The head of the family carries on a certain profession and earns money to maintain the family.Thus it can be said that family is a biological unit employing institutionalised sex relationship between husband and wife. It is based on the fact of production and nurture of the child is its important function. It is a universal institution found in every era and in every society.
Functions of Family: According to Oghbum and Nimkoff, the functions of family can be divided into the following categories:
Affectional functions
Economic functions
Recreational functions
Protective functions
Religious functions
Educational functions
According to Read, the functions of the family are:
Race perpetuation
Socialization
Regulation and satisfaction of the sex needs
Economic function
According to Maciver and Page, the functions of the family can be divided into two categories: 1. Essential functions 2. Non- essential functions
1. Essential Functions
Satisfaction of sex needs: This is the first essential function which the family performs. Satisfaction of sex instincts brings the desire of life from the partnership among male and female. The modem family satisfies this instinct to a much greater degree than the traditional family. In the earlier traditional families the sexual act was almost always combined with reproduction and the fear of pregnancy and as a result prevented satisfaction. But in the modem family the invention of contraceptives and use of other birth control measures, places the concerned couple in a better position as it allows for satisfaction of sex instincts without fear of conception.
Production and rearing of children: The inevitable result of a sexual union is procreation. The task of race perpetuation has always been an important function of the family. It is an institution par excellence for the production and rearing of children. The function of child rearing is better performed today than in the past because now more skill and knowledge are devoted to the care of the unborn and the newborn child.
Provision of a home: The desire for home is a powerful incentive for a man and a woman to marriage. Man after the hard toil of the day returns home where in the midst of his wife and children he sheds off his fatigue. Though in modem times there are many hotels and clubs which also provide recreation to man, but the joy a man gets within the congenial circle of his wife, parents and children stands far above the momentary pleasure which is provided by clubs and hotels. Inspite of these other recreative agencies, the home is still the heaven and sanctuary where its members find comfort and affection.
2. Non-essential functions The non- essential functions of a family are the following.
Economic: The family serves as an economic unit. In the pre-industrial, tribal and agrarian societies unit of production is the family. All members of the family equally contribute to the family occupation, such as cultivation, craft, cottage-industry, cattle-rearing etc. The family provides economic security to its members and looks after their primary needs such as food, security, clothing, shelter and also nurses them in unfavourable conditions.
Religious: Family is a centre for the religious learning as the children learn from their parents various religious virtues. The religious and moral training of children have always been bound with the home. Though formal religious education starts in the earliest years of schooling,the family still furnishes the matrix of religious idea, attitudes, and practices. It is in the family that the basic notions of God, morality and salvation are acquired during childhood.
Education: The child learns the first letter under the guidance of the parents. The joint family was the center for vocational education as the children from the early childhood were associated with family tasks. The modem family has delegated the task of vocational education to technical institutes and colleges.
Social: The family is an important unit of society. It imparts learning to the individual in those subjects that can make him become an ideal member of society. Family carries out socialization of the individual. It also keeps the social heritage intact and hands it over to the generations to come. It is also an agency of social control. The family norms control the conduct of the individual.
Psychological: The family also satisfies the psychological and emotional needs of its members. The members get love, sympathy and emotional support in the family.
Classification of Family Sociologists have classified family on the following basis:
Size
Residence
Ancestors
Power and authority
Marriage
Chronology
Social ecology
On the basis of size they were divided into:
Nuclear Family: Where a husband and wife and their biological children live together, it is a nuclear family. The compulsion of living separately in modem industrial environment has fastened the growth of these families.
Joint Family: Such families include many units of families living together i.e. people of many generations. They all live under one roof, share a common kitchen, have a common economic source. Agrarian economy, traditional social organizations, rural community, religion have played an important role in preserving the joint family system in India.
Extended Family: In this type of family, there may seem to be small independent units, structurally but functionally they work as one big family sharing a common descent.
Features of Joint Family
At least three generations living together
Common ancestors
Common duties
Common residence
Common property
Common kitchen
Head of the family-“karta”, and his authority over the family members.
Traditional occupations
Factors Responsible for Disintegration of Joint Family:
Industrialization
Extension of communication and transport
Decline in agricultural and village trades
Impact of the west
Lack of entertainment and recreations
Fragmentation of land holdings
Residence: On the basis of residence, there are two types of families:
Patrilocal: In these families the bride resides with her husband’s family after marriage. Majority of families in the world belong to this type.
Matrilocal: In these families the bridegroom resides with the family of his wife after marriage. This system is prevalent in the Khasi, Garo and Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya.
Ancestors: On the basis of ancestors, there are two types of family:
Patrilineal: In such families the ancestors are men. Most of the families in the world belong to the patrilineal system. Lineage and succession are determined on the basis of the father.
Matrilineal: In these families the ancestors are women. The lineage and succession are determined on the basis of the mother.
Power and Authority: On the basis of power and authority the families are divided into two types:
Patriarchal: In this type of family, the father is the head of the family and the familial power and authority rest in father.
Matriarchal: In these families, the familial authority lies with the mother and she is the head of the family.
Basis of Marriage: On the basis of marriage there are two types of families: Monogamous: In this one man is married to one woman i.e. one spouse to each individual.
Polygamous: In this for every individual more than one spouse is allowed.
Polygynous: In this a man has more than one wife e.g. Muslims.
Polyandrous: In this a woman has more than one husband e.g. Kinnaur area, Sherpas etc.
Chronology:
In this there are three types of families:
Ancient families
Medieval families
Modem families
Social Ecology: On the basis of this there are two families:
Rural family
Urban family
Marriage:
Marriage is an institution which admits men and women to family life. It is a stable relationship in which a man and a woman are socially committed to have children and the right to have children implying the rights to sexual relations.
Definition: According to Haston and Hanks, “Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons of opposite sex establish a family”.
According to Nuntberg, “Marriage consists of the rules and regulations which define the rights, duties and privileges of husband and wife.”
Characteristics of Marriage:
Marriage is a specific relationship between two individuals of the opposite sex and it is based on mutual rights and obligations.
As a system of rules marriage is an institution .The structure of family is built by the mutual relationships of the individuals.
In Islam, marriage is considered a contract while in Hinduism it is considered to be a sacrament religious activity.
Marriage regulates sex relationship.
Procreation, bringing up children, familial love, economic co-operation are other necessary elements of marriage.
Society institutionally recognizes sexual gratification through marriage. Thus marriage renders sexual gratification patterns based on law.
The couples fulfil their mutual obligations on the basis of customs or rules accepted by law.
Validity is given to procreation by marriage. Its aim is to form the family, bring up children and educate them.
All societies have their own customs and systems of marriage. In almost all societies marriage and religious activities are connected with each other.
There are certain symbols of marriage such as rings, special clothes, special sings in front of the house, vermilion etc.
Problems related to Marriage: Various forms, customs and conventions of marriage are prevalent in India based on the religion, caste, tribe, region etc. Certain problems are common and concerned with the majority of Indian population. Following are the three most striking problems:
Child Marriage: In the early times children of very small ages were married. The causes for this were many but some have been endogamy,religious conservatism, joint families, sati system, dowry system etc. The Hindu Marriage Act,1955 had fixed the marriageable age for a girl at 18 years and that for a boy at 21 years. Now the situation has improved in urban areas and semi-industrial areas. But it is almost the same in rural areas.
Widow Remarriage: It was prohibited by the Hindus as it was consideration against the departed soul of the husband.
The restrictions on widow remarriage gave rise to many problems like:
Immorality among widows
Sexual exploitation of child widow
Increase in number of prostitutes
General lowering of women status in society
Large scale conversion of Hindu widows to Islam and Christianity.
Widow remarriage is actually not harmful from any angle. It is ethically justified and healthy. It also gives fundamental rights to the young women who have been widowed, disowned by their husbands in the prime of their age. Most of the social reformers fought for widow remarriage. Notable among them were Ishwar Chandra Vidyasager whose effort saw the enactment of the Hindus-Widow Remarriage Act in 1856. This Act legalised the remarriage of Hindu widows.
Dowry: The dictionary defines dowry as, “the money, goods or estates which a woman brings to her husband in marriage”.
Therefore, dowry refers to the property and amount of money one receives in marriage by the groom’s family. The chief evil of this system lies in the compulsion that is employed to extract these things from the bride’s family much against their capacity, willingness and desire. Ill-fated brides face a lot of atrocities at the hands of their greedy in-laws. Dowry is inhuman, arbitrary and anti-social. Therefore it must be fought from all angles. The efforts of the conscientious people of the society, reformers and women’s liberation groups have led to the forming of anti- dowry law. But even the law has not been able to contain the greed of the dowry demanding people.
Kinship: Definition: According to Murdock, “Every adult in every human society is generally related to two nuclear families. The first of these is the family in which he is born and which includes his parents, brothers and sisters. The second type of family is that which the individual sets up through marriage and which includes husband, wife and their children. The relationship formed by both these types of family ancestors and successors are called kinship.” Basis of Kinship According to Harry M. Johnson, kinship has six important bases:
Sex: The terms “brother” and “sister” indicate not only the biological relations but also indicate the sex of the blood relation.
Generation: The terms “father” and “son” indicate two generations on one hand and close blood relation on the other.
Closeness: The relationship with the son-in- law and father’s sister’s husband is based only on closeness and not on any blood relationship. These relationships are almost as close as the blood relationship, if not closer.
Blood relation: The kinship based on blood relations is divided into lineage such as grandfather, father, son, grandson etc.
Division: All kinship relations are generally divided into two branches:
Father’s father-paternal grandfather
Mother’s father-maternal grandfather There are others like brother’s daughter and sister’s daughter, son’s son and daughter’s son.
Binding thread: The binding thread of certain relations is close e.g. the relationship of a father-in -law is based on the binding thread either of the husband or that of the wife.
Importance of Kinship Relations: Kinship relations have an important place in the social structure.
The system of production and consumption, political power and authority are determined in tribal and rural societies through kinship relations.
On the occasions of marriage and family functions the importance of kinship relations is very great.
Through kinship it is decided who can marry with whom and where and which marital relationships are taboo.
Kinship determines the family life, relationships like gotra, kula, clan, etc.
On the basis of kinship the rights and obligations of the members in all the sacraments and religious practices are determined.
Kinship reiterates the solidarity relationships.
In kinship system, the behavioural patterns between two relations are determined by certain rules which are called kinship usage. Few of them are as follows:
Avoidance usage: In some relations a safe distance should be maintained between close relatives e.g. father-in-law, daughter-in-law.
Joking relationship: The objective of this is development of close relationship e.g. Jija- sali or sala-bahnoi.
Teknonymy: In order to talk to one person to another person, sign is used as a medium. e.g. in Indian villages wife is not allowed to call her husband so she may address him as Guddu’s papa or if her husband’s name is Surya then she may point out towards the sun to tell her husband’s name.
Understanding Social Institutions: What is a social institution? : It is a structure of society that is organized to meet the needs of the people mainly through well established patterns. There are certain rules and regulations and norms in every institution.
Education:
Emile Durkheim said, “Education is the action exercised by older generations upon those who are not yet ready for social adult life.”
Education is everlasting and lifelong.
There is no restriction, everyone can be educated.
There are two types of education:
Informal: Everything you learn in an informal manner from your family, friends, etc.
You learn values, norms, customs etc. also from the society.
It is usually a small group which teaches us in more oral communication.
This never stops and continues throughout a person’s life.
It is conveyed through observation, imitation, interactions and doing what others, want you to do.
Family/friends also teach you manners/etiquettes and teach you how to behave in society.
Formal: Proper rules and regulations, happen in a formal institution with a fixed curriculum.
Trained professionals, teachers are paid a salary to teach us.
There are written examinations, infrastructure and facilities.
It has a clear-cut scheme of teaching and developing knowledge and personality of the student through desired means to achieve a desired goal and there is a written set of aids like books, blackboards etc.
Involves departing knowledge through systematic and organized mannerisms. — Refers to school and college education-formalized and structured set up.
Objectives of Education (How do you do it?):
To acquire formal /informal knowledge.
Mould the personality of the child in moral, social, intellectual aspects. Aim (Goal): To integrate you into the society and increase efficiency of individuals to blend into society. Moulds personality of child.
Simple Society (Rural)
Modern Society (Urban)
(i) More informal education.
(i) More formal education.
(ii) Learn mainly from family/elder etc. in the village.
(ii) Learn mainly from teachers, specialized trained people in the town.
(iii)Division of labour is based on age/sex.
(iii) Division of labour is based on qualifications and skills.
(iv) Oral communication.
(iv) Oral and written.
(v) Usually the whole family is involved in the same work i.e. agriculture
(v) Work place and family are separate units.
(vi) Values are laid down by Panchayat (rules/norms).
(vi) Universal values are followed (equality, freedom of expression etc.)
Functions of Education:
Gives us knowledge
Communication of information
Moulds personality and builds character
Integrates the individual with the society
Socialisation:
Makes us aware of our environment and surroundings.
Helps individuals to realize their potential and contribute to society in a meaningful way.
Contributes to the development (social, economic, political) of a country in all fields.
Develops a national thinking and reasoning of people due to exposure. It helps totake better decisions.
Prepares an individual to have a strong footing (base) for a better life.
Preservation and transmission of culture from generation to generation.
Education helps in occupational and spatial mobilities (migrate for better jobs etc.)
Religion: Unified set of beliefs and practices related to sacred things which unite the people into a single moral community. It exists in all society though it varies from region to region,country to country etc.
Features of Religion:
Belief in supernatural entity: Every religion has its own rituals, beliefs, customs, ceremonies etc. Material objects are offered to God, differing from religion to religion e.g. milk, fruit, money etc. There are a community of believers.
Every religion has its own ‘sects’.
Concept of sacredness: All followers have deep faith in God’s blessings and any material object connected with God is considered sacred.
Almost all religions believe in the concept of heaven, hell and re-incarnation. There are some plants and animals which some religions worship e.g. cow, peepal, tulsi. All the rituals which are connected with religion and their purpose is different from daily habits e.g. you can go to school without a bath but for doing pooja you need to be pure and clean-bathed. There is a feeling of awe, respect and recognition associated with supernatural entity.
Differences between Primitive and Modern Religion:
Primitive Religion
Modern Religion
1. Tribal —when man came into being. Origin can not be traced
1. Origin of religion can be traced. It does not matter how old it is.
2. No particular founder.
2. Founders of religions, Jesus-Christianity, Mahavir-Jainism.
3. No holy book. Transmitted orally through little tradition.
3. There are holy books, knowledge, beliefs are transmitted through texts
4. Descriptive but not explanatory. Usually worship nature and animals, without a reason practised in good faith. They worship those who will give them something.
4. There is an explanation for what we worship. Highly intellectual-details are given for every aspect.
5. It is faith that needs no interrelation, debate or discussion. It is simple.
5. There are a group of specialists (priests, monks, who devote their lives to propagate and preserve the religious sayings and have debates on it.
Functions of Religion:
It brings all people together and gives them a sense of unity. It gives them comfort, hope and a support system. It teaches them discipline and compassion.
It also provides consolation and re-consolation at a time of stress.
When you confess something to God it gives you a sense of relief and you ask for forgiveness.
Disadvantages of Religion:
Greater conflict between communities leads to communalism. It can cause communal riots e.g. Gujrat 2002, Hindu- Muslim riots and 1984 Anti Sikh riots.
Sometimes there may be very orthodox followers (fundamentalists) that can cause harm which leads to clashes between different groups.
Religion can force you to do things which you do not want to.
Aspects of Religion:
Personal: The individual practices, customs etc. that a person does on his own. Own set of beliefs related to religion, e.g fasting at home.
Community: Celebrations or poojas which happen when many people gather together and perform a ritual e.g. celebrating Eid in mosque.
Religion
Place of worship
Holy book
God
Islam
Mosque
The Quran
Allah
Hinduism
Temple
The Bhagvadgeeta
Christianity
Church
The Bible
Jesus
Sikhism
Buddhism
Jainism
Religion And Role: Religion has a private as well as public role too.
Private: When the role of religion is restricted to private life and not mixed with public life.
Secularisation: Importance of religion remains within private life and is not mixed with public life e.g. others can’t be forced to do pooja.
Public: The participation in all community activities and rituals related to religion is the public role of religion.
Hinduism: (a) Tenets of Hindusim:
Dharma
Karma
Moksha
(b) Social organisation – Division of society:
Brahmins
Kshatriyas
Shudras
Vaishyas
(c) Purusarth—What man is supposed to do:
Dharma – moral duty
Karma-sexual gratification after marriage
Artha-eam a livelihood
Moksha-salvation
(d) Ashramas – Four stages in a man’s life:
Brahmacharya – Bachelorhood (get educated at home or in gurukul).
Grihastha – To get married, have kids, settle down in a house .
Vannprastha – Beginning of retirement life-get ready to move into the forest, finish responsibilities etc. Gradually withdraws from social life.
Sanyas – Praying for moksha, complete giving up of materialistic things, living in the forest, waiting for death.
(e) Sacraments/Samaskaras
Initiation – All ceremonies done when a child is bom e.g. white thread worn by Brahmins, mundan, naamkaran.
Marriage ceremonies – Rituals etc. e.g Sangeet Mehendi, Manjha, Nikah, reception, rings, rokali.
Death ceremony/anniversary – Chautha. Many rites are performed by the son if father/mother dies to see that the soul rests in peace.
(f) Rituals .
Life Cycle Rituals: Birth, marriage, death [same as above],
Domestic Rituals for your family members: e.g. Teej, Bhai dooj, Karva Chauth, Raksha Bandhan.
Annual Rituals-Once a year they are celebrated e.g. Janamashtami, Diwali, Holi.
(g) Pilgrimage-Go to your holy places to wash away sins, fulfill wishes and show your devotion to God. e.g. Vaishnodevi, Varanasi, Badrinath etc. Islam – It came to India in 7th century AD. Islam means surrender to God. Islamisation – Conversion of people into Islam (mostly lower caste did it to avoid discrimination) during the Mughal period.
HAJJ—It is believed that a person goes on a Hajj to get his sins forgiven by Allah. It has to be performed with sincerity and devotion.
Ramzan—9th month of the Lunar calender-the holiest month. On the 28/29th day, Eid is celebrated. Men, wpmen and children fast from dawn to dusk. When the new moon is sighted, Eid-ul-fitar is celebrated. Men go to the mosque for community prayers.
Islam has 2 sects:
Shias-Imam,
Sunni’s-Khalif
Heads. We borrowed a few negative things from Muslims e.g. Parda system. They borrowed caste system from Hindus.
‘Ummah’—Totality of the people who are Muslims and who follow the sayings of Prophet Muhammad. It creates an Islamic brotherhood.
Muslims of the whole world believe in a common God.
Foundations of Islam:
Quran: The holy book contains the words of Allah which He revealed to Prophet Muhammad. It is considered divine, holy and sacred not only in meaning but also in structure. Monetheism: Belief in one God.
Prophet Muhammad: Considered to be a perfect creation of Allah, perfect human being and the best interpreter of the Quran.
Hadith: A book of sayings dictated by Prophet Muhammad which includes the recordings of his sayings by his followers. It is a guide for understanding the God’s words in the Quran.
Shariat: A divine law of Islam. The life of a Muslim (birth and death) is governed by the Shariat (from cradle to grave). It is a book of rules for the Muslims.
Tariquat: A spiritual path which represents the inner dimensions of Islam. The best examples are the Sufi saints who felt that everyone is equal and truly represented Islam.
Power And Authority:
Patriarchal: Father is the head of the family and takes all decisions. Final authority is with father.
Matriarchal: Mother is the head of the family and takes all decisions. Mother is the final authority.
Marriage: A relationship and bond between spouses, usually a male and female getting married.Family consists of a man and a woman who are married through legal means.
Rules of marriage:
Endogamous-Marrying within your caste/social group.
Gotra-Family name.
Exogamous-Marrying within your caste but outside your Gotra.
Marriage Between Cousins Cross cousin
Brother’s and sister’s children get married . Daughter ↔ son Married
Brother married ↔ sister, daughter [when the boy gets married to his sister’s daughter]
Mother -in-law is the grandson, e.g Andhra Pradesh
Parallel cousin: Children of two brothers can get married. Children of two sisters can get married. — Usually present in Muslim families.
Forms Of Marriage:
In monogamy, a person has only one spouse at a time. There is only one sexual partner during the entire lifetime. Only after the partner dies/divorced they can marry. It is the only legally accepted form of marriage.
Polygamy—More than one partners at the same time e.g. Shikhs etc.
It is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred thing, uniting into a simple moral community and all those who adhere to those beliefs and practices. Faith in a divine or supreme power and specific rituals are main features of any religion. India being a pluralistic society every one has right to have faith in any religion. Main religions of India are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism etc.
2-sects of Jainism: (i) Swetambars: White clothed people. They believed that the Tirthankars should be covered with white clothes.
(ii) Digambars: Non clothed people. They believed that Tirthankars should not be covered and left naked.
They believed in the following:
Right faith
Right knowledge
Right conduct and behavior in society etc.
To have faith in the right person.
They believed in the concept of soul, hell and heaven.
They believed in fasting to purify body-austerity (being pure) and Ahimsa.
Fasting and austerity are required for self-purification, mental discipline to obtain self-control and concentration.
They followed a five fold discipline:
Truth
Non-violence
Honesty
Sexual purity
Indifference to material gains-keep away from greed-lead a normal life.
Christianity:
They believe in Jesus Christ.
Holy book-The Bible
Place of worship-church.
The Bible is in two parts-Old and New Testament. → The Old Testament (Torah) followed by Jews. → New Testament followed by Catholics.
Does not believe in untouchability or segregation. Therefore, people converted a lot.
Constituents:
Faith in Jesus Christ as Messenger of God.
Active service (Missionaries’ social service).
Catholics and Protestants—the two categories of followers/believers
Pope is the supreme religious leader residing in Vatican City-richest religious organisation. Hierarchy followed-Pope-cardinals → Archbishop → Bishop → Priest /Father
These are the ceremonies that are performed by them:
Baptism: When the child is born, it is a ritual to become a Christian. Catholics and Protestants do it.
Conformation: It is done when the child is 7 years old. This practice is done in Catholics. Child is taught the main tenets of Christianity and obligations by the priest. After this is done, the child is confirmed by the Bishop. Protestants-Conformation is done when the Protestants are 15 years of age.
Marriage — Solemnized by the priest
Death ceremony — Observed by wearing black for a month. Family wears black for a year.
Sikhism: Originated in India from the Sanskrit word “Shishya”—meaning student.
Guru Nanak — He founded Sikhism, believed in peace, sang hymns (rhyming songs for nature and God) of love and purity. Believed in universal brotherhood.
5th Guru — Gum Arjun Singh compiled the “Gum Granth Sahib” that contains hymns, sayings of the first 5 Gums. He built the Golden Temple at Amritsar. From his time, Sikhism became a militant organisation for protection from outside invasions.
10th Guru — Gum Gobind Singh-He converted Sikhs into military community (everyone had to know war skills).
He gave the 5 ‘K’s. Kada, Kesh, Kangha, Kacha and Kirpan (dagger). Their life is carried around Gurudwaras. They pray to the Guru Granth Sahib.
Khalsa and Santanis are the two sects:
Khalsa: Consider themselves pure. Followers of Guru Gobind Singh. They don’t associate their religion with Hinduism.
Santanis: Followers of Guru Nanak. They were associated with Hinduism.
Dhamm has four meanings:
Absolute Truth-have to tell the truth.
Right Conduct-behave in the right manner.
Listen to the right doctrine (sayings of doctrine).
Experience-live and learn from life.
Buddhists believe in four Truths:
Suffering
A cause for suffering (desire, expectations).
Cause of suffering can be removed if you know where you are going wrong.
A plan or a blueprint can be made to remove the suffering from our lives.
Holy books of Buddhism:
Vinay Pitak-book of discipline.
Sulla Pitak-book of sermons.
Abhidhamm Pitak-book of doctrine.
Buddhism has a eight fold path and if you follow it, it will lead to ‘Moksha’ or Nirvana. The four noble truths and eight fold path is the most important.
Buddh Pumima-Gautam Buddha’s birthday. They also celebrate Holi, Diwali etc.
Economic Institutions:
To do with money, finances, currency.
Its the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Also includes market forces.
(A) Sectors
Primary-agriculture-raw materials.
Secondary-industries, production.
Tertiary-services.
There are:
1. Public sector sick companies-owned by the government
2. Private sector individuals—main aim is profit.
Disinvestment — Selling part of shares of a PSU to the public and private sectors.
Joint venture-Some companies owned by both govt, and people-separately also. MTNL, BSNL (govt.) Airtel, Reliance] (private).
Work — They are not only for livelihood but also for satisfaction. Work involves carrying out tasks which require physical and mental abilities. The concept of work has changed over the years. The courses and streams have also changed. Attention has moved away from primary to secondary and tertiary sector.
People are more self-motivated and self-oriented. Likewise, in rural societies too, the concept of work has changed. Now instead of manual labour, they use machines, HYV seeds etc.
Types of Economy:
Capitalist—Private ownership of property mainly for profit, according to demand and supply.
Socialist—Govt, is incharge, controls everything-only PSU’S govt, controls prices, production and distribution of resources.
Democratic—Mixed economy. Prices are determined by the market. Globalization—Integration of local economy with global economy. Liberalization—Economic aspect of globalization .
Privatization of companies
Removal of barriers with regard to people, technology, commodities, capital.
Removal of tarrifs etc.
Political Institutions
Power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of people.
The term ‘authority’ is often used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure.
Power can be seen as evil or unjust but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to human and social beings.
While power can be seen as constraining human action, it also makes action possible. It is a complex strategic situation in a given social setting.
Panchayati Raj Institution
Ambedkar was against it. At first he thought that it would lead to official suppression of the lower castes by the Brahmins.
Gandhi ji believed in Gram Swaraj. He wanted the whole village to be self-sufficient by giving them vocational training, then they will be independent.
Democratic Decentralization—Divided power among different governments. Power is not concentrated in the central government. It is distributed at different levels so that the burden of the central government is reduced.
Three tier system
Village level-Gram Panchayat. Lots of villages together form a block .
Block level-Block Samiti. Lots of blocks form a district.
District level-Zila Parishad.
All people above 18 years in every village vote for the village panchayat and the head is sarpanch.
All the members of the village panchayat vote for the Block Samiti (all villages in a block).
All members of all the Block Samitis vote for the Zila Parishad.
Important terms:
Authority: It refers to a person who has inherent power to give reward and punishment to subordinates. It is an exercise of influence which is voluntarily accepted by the persons on whom it is exercised.
Citizen: A member of a political community. Membership includes certain rights and duties to members. ‘
Civil rights: Freedom to Speech and Religion, Right of Equality, Right to Live, according to one’s choice.
Endogamy: A marriage practice which occurs within a particular caste, class or tribal group.
Ideology: Shared ideas or beliefs, which serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. The concept of ideology
connects closely with that of power.
Service sector: With the rise of industrialisation, urbanisation, liberalisation and globalisation various forms of work are being provided to people in communication, education, health, transportation, aviation, I.T etc.
Family: It refers to a group defined by sex, relationship, sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.
Formal education: Education which is important in a well defined institutional setting like-schools, colleges, universities etc.
Gender: Culturally determined behaviour regarded as suitable for the members of each sex.
Ideology: Shared ideas or beliefs which serve to justify the interest of dominant groups.
Polygamy: A marriage practice in which more than one man is married to a woman.
Polyandry: A marriage practice in which more than one woman is married to a man.
Social Institution: Structure of society that is organised to meet the needs of the people mainly through well established patterns. There are certain rules, regulations and norms in every institution.
Capitalism: The economic system bom out of industrialisation that divided the society into two classes—the capitalist and the working class.
Socialism: An economic system in which production and distribution in a society are collectively owned rather than privately. The main object is to fulfil people’s needs rather than obtain high profits.
Kinship: Children are exposed to kins and they are expected to be emotionally attached to them. The system of making such close relationship is known as kinship. These relations chronologically depend on heredity. Adopted children become legitimate members of kinship.
Marriage: Refers to society’s sanction for the establishment of family through procreation.
Religion: A unified system of beliefs and rituals relative to sacred things, writing into a single moral community.
Division of Labour: A system of distribution of work among the people based on their skill and competence.
Monogamy: A man marries only one woman.
Education: A system of imparting experiences which direct people towards a successful, controlled and systematic life. It is a process to pass one’s knowledge from generation which is essential to the development of culture.
Formal Education: System of education imparted in a well defined setting like school, college, university. It follows a prescribed syllabus with an objective of all round development in a time bound period.
Distance Learning: A system of formal education in which students get education at their doorsteps by getting study material through post or e-mail. In India, IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University) imparts distance education across the country.
Elementry Education: Elementry education has four sub-levels:
Chapter Wise CBSE OliveTree Books Class 6 Science Exercise Solution of All Chapters Pdf Download was designed by expert teachers from the latest edition of OliveTree books publisher co. Textbook. Here we have
Chapter Wise CBSE OliveTree Books Class 6 Science Exercise Solution of All Chapters Pdf Download was designed by expert teachers from the latest edition of OliveTree books publisher co. Textbook. Here we have
Familiarization with the basics of Python programming:
Introduction to Python,
Features of Python
Advantages & Disadvantages
Installation of Python
Working with Python
Execution modes:
Interactive mode and
Script mode
Executing a simple “hello world” program
Introduction
Python is an open-source, object-oriented, high-level programming language developed by Guido Van Rossum in 1990, and released in 1991, at the National Research Institute for Mathematics, Netherlands.
Presently owned by Python Software Foundation (PSF).
Python is influenced by two programming languages:
ABC language, a teaching language created to replace the programming language BASIC.
Modula-3 is a language that preserves the power of a systems programming language
Python is a general-purpose programming language that can be used to build any kind of program that does not require direct access to the computer’s hardware.
Characteristics of Python
It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.
It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large applications.
It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.
It supports automatic garbage collection.
It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.
It can be used to develop a large application with small codes.
Python – Advantages
It has become popular because of its salient features –
Easy – loosely typed OOP language with few keywords and simple English like structure, and is easy to learn
Takes less time to develop the program, typically 3-5 times shorter than equivalent Java programs. Due to Built-in high-level data types, and dynamic typing.
Free and Open Source, High-Level, Portable, and Object-Oriented
Extensible & Embeddable
Interpreted – Python is interpreted, interactive, and directly executed with pre-compiled code. This means that it is processed at runtime by the interpreter and you need not compile your program before executing it.
Large Standard Library and support GUI Programming (using MFC, Tkinter)
Python is used for both scientific and non-scientific programming.
Python is a case-sensitive programming language.
Python – Disadvantages
It has some minus i.e. disadvantages –
Not the fastest Languages – Python is an interpreted language, not a compiled language. It converts python source code into the internal bytecode, which is then executed by the Python interpreter. It makes slower than fully compiled languages.
Not strong as Type Binding – Python does not strongly bind with data types i.e. type.
Not easy to convert code into other languages – It is not easy to translate a Python program into other programming languages because Python does not have strong syntax.
Installation of Python
Working with Python:
Python Interpreter: Python interpreter must be installed on your computer, to write and execute a Python program. It is also called a Python shell.
>>> : Symbol >>> is called Python prompt.
Python prompt: Python prompt, which indicates that the interpreter is ready to receive instructions. We can type commands or statements on this prompt for execution.
Execution Mode
There are two ways to run a program using the Python interpreter: a) Interactive mode and b) Script mode
(A) Interactive Mode In the interactive mode, we can type a Python statement on the >>> prompt directly. As soon as we press enter, the interpreter executes the statement and displays the result(s)
Executing code in Interactive mode
Advantages of using interactive mode :
It is convenient for testing a single line code for instant execution.
The disadvantage of using Interactive mode :
In the interactive mode, we cannot save the statements for future use and we have to retype the statements to run them again.
(B) Script Mode In the script mode, we can write a Python program in a file, save it and then use the interpreter to execute the program from the file.
Python program files have a .py extension.
Python programs are also known as scripts.
Python has a built-in editor called IDLE which can be used to create programs / scripts.
Python IDLE :
IDLE: Integrated Development and Learning Environment
To Create a Program
First open the IDLE,
Click File>New File to create a new file,
then write your program on that file and
save it with the desired name. By default, the Python scripts are saved in the Python installation folder.
To run/execute a program in script mode:
Open the program using an IDLE editor
In IDLE, go to [Run]->[Run Module] to execute the program
