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Question 1.
How is diapause different from hibernation ?
Solution:
Diapause is different from hibernation. The table below shows the differences between them :

Question 2.
If a marine fish is placed in a freshwater aquarium/will the fish be able to survive? Why or why not?
Solution:
If a marine fish is placed in a freshwater aquarium, then its chances of survival will diminish. This is because their bodies are adapted to high salt concentrations in the marine environment. In freshwater conditions, they are unable to regulate the water entering the body (through osmosis). Water enters their body due to the hypotonic environment outside. This results in the swelling up of the body, eventually leading to the death of the marine fish.

Question 3.
Define phenotypic adaptation. Give one example.
Solution:
Phenotypic adaptation involves non-genetic changes in individuals such as physiological modifications like acclimatization or behavioural changes.Question 4.
Most living organisms cannot survive at temperatures above 45°C. How are some microbes able to live in habitats with temperatures exceeding 100°C?
Solution:
organisms survive at a temperature range of 0° to 40°C or less. However, there are some notable exceptions. Certain microorganisms live in hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents where temperature far exceeds 100°C. They survive at the high temperature due to the occurrence of branched-chain lipids in their cell membrane that reduces the fluidity of cell membranes and the occurrence of the minimum amount of free water in their cells that provides resistance to high temperature

Question 5.
List the attributes that populations but not individuals possess.
Solution:

1. Natality
2. Mortality
3. Growth forms
4. Population density
5. Population dispersion
6. Population age distribution

Question 6.
If a population growing exponentially double in size in 3 years, what is the intrinsic rate of increase (r) of the population?
Solution:
The intrinsic rate of increase(r), can be calculated by the following exponential growth equation:

Question 7.
Name important defence mechanisms in plants against herbivory.
Solution:

1. Modification of leaves into thorns.
2. Development of spiny margins on leaves.
3. Development of sharp silicated edges on leaves.

Question 8.
An orchid plant is growing on the branch of the mango tree. How do you describe this interaction between the orchid and the mango tree?
Solution:
An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a branch of mango tree is an example of commensalism. Commensalism is the relationship between individuals of two species of which one is benefited and the other is almost unaffected, i.e., neither benefited nor harmed. A commensal may get shelter (protection), or ride, or support instead of or in addition to food. Epiphytes are space parasites, they use trees only for attachment and manufacture their own food by photosynthesis. In Vanda, an epiphytic orchid, a special kind of aerial roots (hanging roots) hang freely in the air and absorb moisture with the help of their special absorptive tissue called velamen.

Question 9.
What is the ecological principle behind the biological control method of managing pest insects?
Solution:
Predation is the means of biological control to manage pest insects where predators prey upon pests and regulate their numbers in the habitat.

Question 10.
Distinguish between the following:

1. Hibernation and Aestivation
2. Ectotherms and Endotherms

Solution:

1. Differences between hibernation and aestivation are as follows :
   
2. Differences between ectotherms and endotherms are as follows:
   

Question 11.
Write a short note on :
(a) Adaptations of desert plants and animals
(b) Adaptations of plants to water scarcity
(c) Behavioral adaptations in animals
(d) Importance of light to plants
(e) Effect of temperature or water scarcity and the adaptations of animals.
Solution:
a. Desert plants are called xerophytes. They have adaptations for increased water absorption, reduction in transpiration and water storage. Many desert plants have a thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces and have their stomata arranged in deep pits to minimise water loss through transpiration. They also have a special photosynthetic pathway that enables their stomata to remain closed during day time. In desert plants like Opuntia, leaves are reduced to spines. Animals of dry areas may use metabolic water and reduce water loss bypassing nearly solid faeces and urine.

b. Xerophytes have special adaptations to withstand prolonged periods of drought. These are of four types – ephemerals, annuals, succulents and non-succulent perennials.

• Ephemerals (drought escapers): Plants which live for a brief period and complete their life cycle during the rains.
• Annuals (drought evaders): Plants which continue to live for a few
  months even after rains in hot dry conditions. They have modifications to reduce transpiration.
• Succulents (drought resistants): Plants have fleshy organs to store large amounts of water. They have a very thick cuticle, sunken stomata which open during night only.
• Non-succulent perennials: These are true xerophytes. They have an extensive root system to absorb the maximum amount of water. They possess waxy coatings on leaves, sunken stomata, reduced leaf blades etc. to reduce transpiration.

c. The animals with variable temperatures called poikilotherms are affected by temperature variations. They are also called ectotherms. They show different adaptations like hibernation, aestivation, periodic activity, winter eggs, and migration.

d. Sun is the ultimate source of energy for most of the organisms on this earth. Light is the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light (400 nm-700nm) is effective in photosynthesis and is called photo-synthetically active radiation or PAR. The intensity of light, duration of light, etc. are also influencing the growth of plants.

e. Animals live in arid regions show two kinds of adaptations

1. Reducing loss of water from their bodies.
2. Ability to tolerate arid conditions.

Question 12.
List the various abiotic environmental factors.
Solution:
Abiotic factors are non-living factors and conditions of the environment which influence the survival, function and behaviour of organisms. Various abiotic factors are :

(i) Temperature – Temperature is one of the most important environmental factors. The average temperature varies seasonally. It ranges from subzero level in polar areas and high altitudes to more than 50°C in tropical deserts in summer and exceeds 100°C in thermal springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

(ii) Water – Next to temperature, water is the most important factor which influences the life of organisms. The productivity and distribution of land plants are dependent upon the availability of water. Animals are adapted according to water availability. E.g., aquatic animals are ammonotelic while xerophytic animals excrete dry feces and concentrated urine.

(iii) Light – Plants produce food through photosynthesis for which sunlight is essential to the source of energy. Light intensity, light duration and light quality influences the number of life processes in organisms, such as – photosynthesis, growth, transpiration, germination, pigmentation, movement and photoperiodism.

(iv) Humidity – Humidity refers to the moisture (water vapour) content of the air. It determines the formation of clouds, dew and fog. It affects the land organisms by regulating the loss of water as vapour from their bodies through evaporation, perspiration and transpiration.

(v) Precipitation – Precipitation means rainfall, snow, sleet or dew. Total annual rainfall, seasonal distribution humidity of the air and amount of water retained in the soil are the main criteria that limit the distribution of plants and animals on land.

(vi) Soil – The soil is one of the most important ecological factor called the edaphic factor. It comprises of different layers called horizons. The upper weathered humus containing part of soil sustains terrestrial plant life.

Question 13.
Give an example for:

1. An endothermic animal
2. An ectothermic animal
3. An organism of the benthic zone.

Solution:

1. Hedgehog
2. Frog
3. Sponges

Question 14.
Define population and community.
Solution:
Population: A population is a group of individuals of the same species, which can reproduce among themselves and occupy a particular area in a given time.

Community: It is an assemblage of several populations in a particular area and time and exhibits interaction and interdependence through trophic relationship.

Question 15.
Define the following terms and give one example for each.
(a) Commensalism
(b) Parasitism
(c) Camouflage
(d) Mutualism
(e) Interspecific competition
Solution:

a. Commensalism is an interspecific interaction between individuals of two species where one species is benefitted and the other is not affected.
e. g. Orchid and mango tree.

b. Parasitism is an interspecific interaction between individuals of two species where generally small species is benefitted and the large species are affected, e.g. Malarial parasite and human beings.

c. Camouflage: It is the ability of the animals to blend with the surroundings or background. In this way, animals remain unnoticed for protection or aggression. An example is a stick insect.

d. Mutualism is an interspecific interaction between individuals of two species where both the interacting species are benefitted in an obligatory way. e.g. Pollination in plants by animals.

e. Interspecific competition: It is an interaction between individuals of two species where both the interacting species are affected, e.g. Monarch butterfly and Queen monarch.

Question 16.
With the help of a suitable diagram describe the logistic population growth curve.
Solution:
Logistic population growth curve or S-shaped or sigmoid growth curve is shown by the populations of most organisms. It has the following phases: lag phase, log phase, exponential phase and stationary phase. In lag phase there is little or no increase in population. In log phase increase in population starts and occurs at a slow rate in the beginning. During exponential phase, increase in population becomes rapid and soon attains its full potential rate. This is due to the constant environment, availability of food and other requirements of life in plenty, absence of predation and interspecific competition and no serious intraspecific competition so that the curve rises steeply upward. The growth rate finally slows down as environmental resistance increases.

Finally, the population becomes stable during the stationary phase because now the number of new cells produced almost equals to the number of cells that die. Every population tends to reach a number at which it becomes stabilized with the resources of its environment. A stable population is said to be in equilibrium, or at saturation level. This limit in population is a constant K and is imposed by the carrying capacity of the environment. The sigmoid growth form is represented by the following equation :

r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
N = population density at time t; K = carrying capacity.

Question 17.
Select the statement which best explains parasitism.
(a) One organism is benefited.
(b) Both the organisms are benefited
(c) One organism is benefited, other is not affected
(d) One organism is benefited, other is affected.
Solution:
(d) One organism is benefited, other is affected,

Question 18.
List any three important characteristics of a population and explain.
Solution:
The three important characteristics of a population are:

1. Birth and death rate
2. Age structure
3. Sex ratio

(i) The birth rate (natality) of a population refers to the average number of young ones produced per unit time (usually per year). In the case of humans, it is commonly expressed as the number of births per 1,000 individuals in the population per year. The death rate (mortality) of a population is the average number of individuals that die per unit time (usually per year). In humans, it is commonly expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000 persons in a population per year.

(ii) The age structure of a population is the percentage of individuals of different ages such as young, adult and old. Age structure is shown bv organisms in which individuals of more than one generation coexist. The ratio of various age groups in a population determines the current reproductive status of the population. It also indicates what may be expected in the future. The population is divided into three age groups; pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive.

(iii) The sex ratio of a population refers to the number of females per thousand male individuals. There were 933 females per 1,000 males in our country in the 2001 census. The number of females in a population is very important as it is often directly related to the number of births. The number of males may be less significant because in many species a single male can mate with several females.

Question 1.
Crystals of Bt toxin produced by some bacteria do not kill the bacteria themselves because
(a) bacteria are resistant to the toxin
(b) toxin is immature
(c) toxin is inactive
(d) bacteria encloses toxin in a special sac.
Solution:
(c) Toxin is inactive: In bacteria, the toxin is present in an inactive form called prototoxin. This gets converted into the active form when it enters the salivary gland of insects having an alkaline medium.

Question 2.
What are transgenic bacteria? Illustrate using any one example.
Solution:
Transgenic bacteria are one that carries a transgene or a foreign gene of interest introduced using recombinant DNA technology. e. g., bacteria carrying the genes for human insulin.

In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B, chains of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains. Chains A and B were produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human insulin.

Question 3.
Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of the production of genetically modified crops.
Solution:
Advantages of genetically modified crops or transgenic crops are as follows :

• They are resistant to pests, herbicides and diseases.
• They help to reduce post-harvest losses.
• They enhance the nutritional value of food, e.g., a transgenic variety of rice (golden rice) is rich in vitamin A content.
• Some transgenic plants, e.g., poplar trees are used to clean up heavy metal pollution from contaminated soil.
• They are efficient in mineral usage and thus prevent early exhaustion of fertility of the soil.

Transgenic crops have several disadvantages also which are mentioned below:

• Bt toxins expressed in pollen grains of transgenic crops are harmful for useful varieties of insects, e.g., honey bees and butterflies.
• The foods produced by transgenic crops might cause toxicity and might result in allergies.
• The bacteria present in human alimentary canal can become resistant to concerned antibiotic by taking up antibiotic resistance gene present in genetically modified food and become difficult to manage.

Question 4.
What are Cry proteins? Name an organism that produces it. How has man exploited this protein to his benefit?
Solution:
Cry proteins are a group of toxic protein which are highly poisonous to deficient types of insects. It is produced by a soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The genes controlling their formation are called cry genes eg:- Cry I Ab, Cry I Ac, Cry II Ab, The bacterium produces a protein in the crystal form of protoxin. Two cry genes have been incorporated in cotton (Bt cotton) while one has been introduced in corn (Bt corn) As a result Bt Cotton was disease resistant to bollworm and Bt corn was resistant to corn borer.

Question 5.
What is gene therapy? Illustrate using the example of adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
Solution:
Gene therapy is the technique of genetic engineering used to replace a faulty gene with a normal, healthy functional gene. The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4 years old girl with adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA deficiency). This enzyme is very important for the immune system to function. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is caused due to a defect in the gene for the enzyme adenosine deaminase. SCID patient lacks functional T-lymphocytes and, therefore, fails to fight the infecting pathogens.

To perform gene therapy, lymphocytes are extracted from the patient’s bone marrow and a normal functional copy of human gene coding for ADA is introduced into these lymphocytes with the help of a retroviral vector. The cells so treated are reintroduced into the patient’s bone marrow. The lymphocytes produced by these cells contain functional ADA genes which reactivate the victim’s immune system. But, as these lymphocytes do not divide and are short-lived, so periodic infusion of genetically engineered lymphocytes is required. This problem can be overcome if stem cells are modified at an early embryonic stage.

Question 6.
Diagrammatically represent the experimental steps in cloning and expressing a human gene (say the gene for growth hormone) into a bacterium like E.coli?
Solution:
The given diagram represents the experimental steps in cloning and expressing a human gene for growth hormone into a bacterium E. coli.

Question 7.
Can you suggest a method to remove oil (hydrocarbon) from seeds based on your understanding of rDNA technology and the chemistry of oil?
Solution:
rDNA technology is a technique of genetic engineering that involves combining DNA from two different sources to produce recombined or recombinant DNA (rDNA). Oils are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Thus, to produce oil-free seeds genes coding for glycerol or fatty acids should be identified and nucleotide sequences complementary to the sequence of these genes should be inserted adjacent to these genes in the early cells of the endosperm. During transcription, these complementary sequences will produce anti-sense RNAs to the RNAs produced by glycerol or fatty acids gene and will silence these genes. As a result, oil-free seeds will be produced.

Since glycerol is a common component of all the oils whereas various fatty acids combine with glycerol to form oils, thus it will be easier if we silence the gene for glycerol synthesis.

Question 8.
Find out from the internet what is golden rice.
Solution:
Golden rice is a GM rice with increased vitamin A content.

Question 9.
Does our blood have proteases and nucleases?
Solution:
Proteases occur naturally in all organisms. These enzymes are involved in a multitude of physiological reactions from simple digestion of food proteins to highly-regulated cascades (e.g., the blood-clotting cascade, the complement system, apoptotic pathways, and the invertebrate prophenoloxidase activating cascade). Proteases present in blood serum (thrombin, plasmin, Hageman factor, etc.) play important role in blood clotting, as well as in lysis of the clots, and the action of the immune system. Other proteases are present in leukocytes (elastase, cathepsin G) and play several different roles in metabolic control. Nucleases, such as deoxyribonucleases and ribonucleases are found in the blood which helps in the degradation of exogenous deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid circulating in the blood.

Question 10.
Consult the internet and find out how to make orally active protein pharmaceuticals. What is the major problem to be encountered?
Solution:
The problem is stomach enzymes and acids. Once you orally ingest a protein, the proteases in your stomach juices (trypsin, chymotrypsin, pepsin) will cleave the holy-hell out of your therapeutic protein and the acids will denature whatever’s left beyond all recognition. This is why proteins like insulin have to be injected.

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Exercises

2. Make a chart (with diagrammatic representation) showing a restriction enzyme, the substrate DNA on which it acts, the site at which it cuts DNA and the product it produces.

Answer

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