Class 8th

Short Summary

Glimpses of the Past is an insight into India’s history before Independence. It gives readers an understanding into what led to India’s freedom struggle.

When the British first set foot on the Indian soil, they had no plans of invading their country. All they wanted to do was to establish trade for their livelihood. However, they soon noticed loopholes in the administration by Indians and used this to their advantage. They took control over the country and enforced various laws that affected the livelihood of Indians in their own motherland.

But, things took a different turn when India witnessed the rise of various people like Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Inspired by them, Indians started their revolt against the British and marked the herald of the Great Revolt of 1857. All this and more noteworthy episodes of India’s struggle for freedom are highlighted in Glimpses of the Past.

The Glimpses of the Past Summary in English

The Glimpse of the Past is in the form of conversation dealing with India’s struggle for Independence. It is written by S. D. Sawant. The chapter describes the events and the circumstances that took place in India during the year 1757 to 1857. It starts with the time when the East India Company was very strong in India.

The Indian princes and states were busy fighting with each other. They often sought British help and thus British took advantage of this to gain power and establish their rule in India. The social conditions were also not in good shape. Social evils such as child marriages, untouchability, sati pratha, etc. were prevalent in society. Also, the farmers had to pay heavy taxes.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy worked a lot towards reforming society. British also passed many resolutions to ruin India and Indian industries. Lord Macaulay also brought a bill according to which the medium of education could only be English.

The main aim of the British was to prepare clerks who can assist them in the administration. By 1856, India had fully become a British colony. However, after the revolt of 1857, the British rule started to shake. The Indians revolted and struggled for freedom until 1947, i.e. till they achieved it.

The chapter starts with the events that were taking place in the year 1757. At this time, the British were in a strong position in India. They had superior arms and ammunitions and also financial resources. On the other hand, the Indian states and the princes were short-sighted and were busy fighting with each other. They lacked unity. They also often sought British help and East India Company took full advantage of this.

The British followed the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ and also subdued the Princes. Some people favoured the British while some did not. However, Tipu Sultan of Mysore fought with the British. But unfortunately, he died in the year 1799 fighting the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.

The chapter further describes the social fabric from 1765 to 1836. Evil social practices such as untouchability, child marriages, Sati pratha, etc. were preached by the religious leaders. The British disdained the Indians and, in the process, Indians lost their self-respect also. The British imposed heavy taxes on the farmers. They also cut the thumbs of the expert artisans. However, the imports from England were tax-free. Thus, the main motive of the British was the maximisation of profit and wealth at any cost.

From 1772 to 1833, Raja Ram Mohan Roy started his efforts to reform Indian society. He established Brahmo Samaj for this purpose. He propagated the idea that the main teachings and principals of all religions are the same. Also, he started newspapers in India. He was against evil practices such as Sati pratha, polygamy, child marriages, and the caste system. He played a major role in the abolishment of Sati pratha.

In 1818, the British passed The Third Regulation Act. According to it, an Indian could be sent to jail even without any trial in the court. This was a phase of oppression of the Indians. By 1829, the value of British exports was worth seven crore rupees. While the Indian industries were ruining, the British were prospering.

It seems this was not enough so the British now aimed at preparing clerks for running the administration. Thus, in 1835, Lord Macaulay recommended that the medium of education should be English. This education policy also generated some intellectuals who understood the evils of British Raj and educated the fellow Indians.

By 1856, India had become a fully controlled British Colony. The suppression was at its peak and thus it led to revolts. In 1855, the Santhals rebelled and killed the British as well as their servants. In 1857, the first Sepoy Mutiny started with the execution of Mangal Pandey.

The sepoys marched towards Delhi shouting slogans in favour of Bahadur Shah Zafar. The landlords also joined this movement. People circulated chapattis with the message that their native ruler needs their help. Similarly, a lotus flower was distributed among the Indian soldiers.

Many rulers like Hazrat Mahal of Lucknow, Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, Tatya Tope, and Peshwa Nana Saheb of the Maratha empire and Kunwar Singh of Bihar also joined the revolt. This was the beginning of the Indian freedom struggle.

The Glimpses of the Past Summary in Hindi

यह एक चित्रकथा है। यह स्वतन्त्रता संग्राम की गाथा को चित्रों द्वारा दर्शाता है। इसमें यह वर्णन किया गया है कि 1857 के पहले स्वतन्त्रता संग्राम किन कारणों से शुरु हुआ था।
दिल्ली के एक समारोह में लता मंगेस्कर ने एक देशभक्ति का गीत, ऐ मेरे वतन के लोगों गाया था। उसने भारत के लोगों को आंसू भरी आंखों से भारतीय स्वतंत्रता सेनानियों के प्राणों की आहुतियों को याद करने का आग्रह किया।

अंग्रेजी ईस्ट इण्डिया कम्पनी भारत में व्यापार के सिलसिले से आई। पर अपने उत्तम एवं कूटनीतिक कौशल द्वारा उसने 18वीं शताब्दी में अपना प्रभुत्व फैला लिया। भारतीय राजा आपस में विभाजित तथा संकीर्ण दृष्टिकोण वाले थे। लोगों को राज्यों के बीच निरन्तर होने वाली लड़ाइयों के कारण शांति नहीं मिल पा रही थी। उन्होंने अंग्रेज सौदागरों की मदद माँगी ताकि एक दूसरे को नीचा दिखा सकें। आपसी प्रतिद्वन्द्विता ने कम्पनी का रास्ता साफ कर दिया। एक-एक करके उसने भारतीय नवाबों पर अपना अधिकार जमा लिया।

दूरदृष्टि वाला एक वीर मैसूर का शासक टीपू सुल्तान अंग्रेजों से युद्ध करते हुए शहीद हो गया। भारतीयों ने अब अंग्रेज कम्पनी की विजय यात्रा को स्वीकार कर लिया। कुछेक ने तो परमात्मा तथा कम्पनी दोनों का आभार व्यक्त किया कि उन्होंने ठगों की लूटपाट रोककर देश में शांति स्थापित की। वे कहने लगे की भारत कि किस्मत अंग्रेजों के साथ जुड़ी है। पर कुछ अन्य व्यक्ति दुखी हो गये। उन्होंने शिकायत की कि गोरे लोग या तो राजाओं की हत्या कर रहे हैं अथवा उनसे उनकी राजसत्ता छीन रहे हैं। भारतीय गोरों के दास बनते गये।

कुछ धार्मिक नेताओं ने सामाजिक बुराइयों जैसे छुआछूत तथा बाल विवाह का समर्थन किया। उन्होंने समुद्री यात्रा करके देश से बाहर जाने को मना कर दिया। कुछेक बोले कि सभी कष्टों की जड़ महिलायें हैं। सच यह था कि भारतीय आत्मसम्मान खो चुके थे। अंग्रेज उन पर अविश्वास करते थे तथा उनसे घृणा करते थे।

अंग्रेज मूलरुप से सौदागर थे। उनका लक्ष्य था तेजी से धन कमाना। उन्होंने किसानों पर भारी कर लगा दिए तथा कर न देने पर उन्हें जेल भेज देते थे। उन्होंने भारतीय कुटीर उद्योगों को खत्म कर दिया ताकि वे इंग्लैण्ड में निर्मित सामान भारत को निर्यात करते रहें। उन्होंने इंग्लैण्ड से आयात किये सभी प्रकार की चीजों को कर मुक्त कर दिया। इस प्रकार उन्होंने भारतीय कारीगरों एवं व्यापार को नष्ट कर दिया।

राजा राम मोहन राय बंगाल के एक विद्वान एवं समाज सुधारक थे। उन्होंने समझ लिया कि देश में क्या कमी है। उन्होंने लोगें से कहा कि अपनी पुरानी संस्कृति पर गर्व करो तथा समाज को मूर्खतापूर्ण अंधविश्वासों से छुटकारा दिलाओ। उन्होंने बताया कि सभी धर्म एक ही शिक्षा देते हैं। उन्होने विज्ञान एवं आधुनिक ज्ञान के महत्त्व को पहचाना। उन्होंने अखबार प्रकाशन शुरु किया पर अंग्रेजों ने 1823 में उन्हें बंद कर दिया। वह समुद्र पार करके इंग्लैण्ड गये, यह पता लगाने कि किस कारण अंग्रेज इनसे बलशाली हो गये। उन्होनें फिर मध्यमार्ग अपनाया। उन्होने अंग्रेजों को शासक के रुप में स्वीकार कर लिया। पर उन्हें यह बताया कि उन्हें याद रखना चाहिए कि एक शासक का अपनी प्रजा के प्रति क्या उत्तरदायित्व होता है।

1765 से 1835 तक अंग्रेज भारतीयों पर अत्याचार करते रहे। 1818 में उन्होंने एक प्रस्ताव पारित किया जिसके अनुसार वे किसी भी भारतीय को बिना मुकदमे के जेल भेज सकते थे। भारत में अंग्रेज अफसरों को ज्यादा वेतन मिलता था तथा वे अपने निजी व्यवसाय द्वारा भी धन कमाते थे। अंग्रेज समृद्ध होते गये पर भारतीय उद्योग बन्द होने लगे। गवर्नर जनरल बेन्टिक ने इंग्लैण्ड लिखकर भेजा कि भारतीय कपड़ा उद्योग में लगे कारीगर भूख से मर रहे हैं।

भारतीयों को फारसी तथा संस्कृत पढायी जाती थी। 1835 में मैकाले नामक व्यक्ति ने अंग्रेजी शिक्षा की सिफारिश की। अंग्रेजी शिक्षा ऐसे क्लर्क बनाने लगी जिन्हें छोटी-छोटी नौकरियाँ मिल जाती थीं। पर अंग्रेजी शिक्षा ने बुद्धिजीवियों को भी पैदा किया जिन्होंने कहा कि भारतीयों को अंग्रेजी पढ़ना चाहिये, जिससे वे अपने आर्थिक स्थिति तथा शिकायतों को ब्रिटिश संसद में भेज सकें।

1856 तक अंग्रेजों ने पूरे भारत को अपने अधीन कर लिया था। उन्हें भारतीयों की कुशलता की तो चिन्ता थी ही नहीं। भारतीय राजा और शासक उनके हाथ की कठपुतली बन गये थे। लोगों से उनके काम, धाम और उनकी भूमि-सब कुछ छिन गई थी। उन्हें लगा कि अंग्रेजों को भारत से खदेड़ना जरुरी है। संथालियों ने 1855 में विद्रोह कर दिया और बहुत से यूरोपियन लोगों की हत्या कर दी। अंग्रेजी सेना में जो भारतीय सैनिक थे, उनमें भी असंतोष पनप रहा था क्योंकि उनको वेतन कम मिलता था। उन्हें देश के बाहर भेज दिया जाता था। सिपाही मंगल पाण्डे ने गोरे अफसर पर हमला कर दिया जिससे उसे फाँसी पर लटका दिया गया।

हजारों अन्य सिपाहियों को भी जंजीर से बाँध दिया गया। कुछ ब्राह्मण सैनिकों को पता चल गया कि उनकी गोलियों में गायों तथा सुअरों की चर्बी लगी है। विद्रोह के लिये तैयार रहने हेतु हर गांव में संदेश भेज दिया गया। मेरठ में हिंसात्मक कार्यवाई शुरु हो गई। सिपाही दिल्ली की ओर कूच कर गये तथा सम्राट बहादुर शाह को अपना नेता मान लिया।

विद्रोह फैलता गया। अनेक जमींदार भी इसमें शामिल हो गये। लखनऊ की बेगम हजरत महल, अजीमुल्ला खान, पेशवा नाना साहव, बिहार के कुँअर सिंह-सब ने पूरे उत्तरी भारत में अंग्रेजों से डटकर लड़ाई की। बरेली, कानपुर तथा इलाहाबाद में भी लोग भड़क गये। इस प्रकार से भारत का पहला स्वतंत्रता संग्राम शुरु हो गया।

Short Summary

Tsunami’ refers to a very large and powerful wave in the sea. It is caused by some earthquake under the sea. One such calamity hit several countries on December 26, 2004. The worst affected parts were coastal parts of India, the Andaman and Nicobar islands and Thailand. Some 1,50,000 people lost their lives. But animals suffered very few casualties. Perhaps they had sensed the coming earthquake and they ran to safer high places.

This lesson recounts a few stories of bravery and intelligence when the Tsunami hit the Andamans. The first story is about ignesious, the manager of a cooperative society in Katchall. He was woken up by his wife at 6 am. The family rushed out of the house. When the earth stopped shaking, the sea started rising. The waves washed away his two children and in-laws. But his three other children were saved because they were with him.

The Tsunami Summary in English

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The Tsunami chapter of Class 8 comprises of three parts. This chapter deals with the inspiring incidents that took place when the Tsunami hit the different parts of the world. The first part includes stories from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The first story is of Igneous. He was the manager of a co-operative society in Katchall. At around 6 a.m., his wife woke him up sensing an earthquake. He put the television set on the floor in order to save it while the family rushed out of the house. When the earth stopped shaking, they could see the sea rising. The tsunami swept his wife, two children, father-in-law, and brother-in-law.

The second story is about a policeman, Sanjeev. Sanjeev was able to save himself, his wife, and his daughter. But, after hearing the cries of the guest house cook John’s wife, he jumped into the water in order to save her. He could not save her as well as himself and both got drowned.

The third story is about a 13 years old girl, Meghna. The tsunami swept her along with her parents and seventy-seven other people. But fortunately, she held on to a wooden door. After floating for two days, a wave brought her back to the shore and saved her. The last story is about Almas, a ten years old girl. Her father saw the water receding after the tremors and understood that it will come back with immense force. He thus woke everybody so that they can go to a safe place. In all this chaos, her grandfather fell down and her father went to help him. A big wave swept them away during this. Her mother and aunts swept away along with the tree that they were holding on to. While Almas climbed on a floating wooden log and fainted. She was taken to the hospital in Kamorta.

Thailand

The second part of the chapter consists of a story from Thailand. This is the story of an intelligent girl, Tilly. It was 26^th December and Tilly along with her family were on the beach. Tilly and her family were originally from England and had come to Thailand to celebrate Christmas. Tilly and her mother saw the sea rise slowly, start to foams, and making whirlpools. Her mother was not worried by these signs but it occurred to Tilly that these were the signs of Tsunami. She informed about this to her family and they along with other people on the beach returned to the hotel. Luckily, the hotel building withstood the force of Tsunami and they all were saved.

The third part of the chapter speaks about the sixth sense of the animals. Around 1,50,000 people lost their lives but only a few animals died. For instance, in the Yala National Park situated in Sri Lanka, 60 visitors died while only two animals died. Also, in the same park people noticed that three elephants ran away from the beach an hour prior to the struck of Tsunami. Another incident is also from Galle in Sri Lanka. Here, the two dogs refused to go to the beach for the walk. Their master also thus could not go and was saved.

The Tsunami Summary in Hindi

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

सुनामी समुद्र में उठने वाली बहुत विशाल, शक्तिशाली लहर को कहते हैं। यह समुद्र के अन्दर आने वाले भूचाल के कारण उठती है। ऐसी एक विपदा 26 दिसम्बर 2004 में कई देशों पर आई थी। सर्वाधिक कहर वाले स्थान थे भारत के कुछ समुद्री तटीय भाग, अंडमाननिकोबार द्वीप समूह तथा थाइलैण्ड लगभग डेढ़ लाख लोगों की जानें गई। पर पशुओं के मरने की संख्या बहुत कम रही। शायद वे आने वाले भूचाल को पहले से महसूस कर लेते हैं और सुरक्षित ऊँचे स्थानों पर चले जाते हैं।

यह पाठ ऐसी ही सुनामी प्रभावित अंडमान में बहादुरी एवं बुद्धिमत्ता दर्शाती कहानियों का विवरण देता है। पहली कहानी है इग्निसियस की जो कैचल में एक सहकारी संस्था का मैनेजर था। 6 बजे प्रात: उसकी पत्नी ने उसे जगाया। परिवार घर से बाहर भाग निकला। जब धरती का हिलना थमा, तो समुद्र की सतह में उफान आने लगा। लहरें उस व्यक्ति के दो बच्चों और ससुर एवं सास को बहा ले गईं। पर उसके दूसरे तीन बच्चे बच गये क्योंकि वे उसके साथ थे।

संजीव एक सिपाही था। उसने स्वयं को, अपनी पत्नी तथा लड़की को लहरों से बचा लिया। पर जब वह अपने रसोइया की पत्नी को बचाने गया तो दोनों को ही लहरें बहा ले गई।

13 वर्षीय मेघना को भी उसके माता-पिता एवं 77 अन्य लोगों के साथ लहरें बहा ले गई थीं। पर मेघना दो दिनों तक एकलकड़ी के दरवाजे पर बैठी भटकती रही। 11 बार राहत पहुंचाने वाले हेलीकॉप्टर उसके ऊपर से गुजरे पर वे उसे देख नहीं पाये। अंत में एक लहर ही उसे तट पर पहुँचा गई।

अल्मास जावेद 10 वर्ष की पोर्टब्लेअर स्थित कान्वेट स्कूल की छात्रा थी। उसका परिवार क्रिसमस मनाने दूसरे टापू पर गया था। अल्मास के पिता ने सबेरे समुद्री लहरों को पीछे हटते देखा। वह समझ गया कि ये लहरें पूरे वेग से वापस लौटेगी। उसने अपने परिवार को सुरक्षित स्थान पर ले जाने की चेष्टा की। परन्तु उसके पिता तथा दादा को एक विशाल लहर द्वारा बहा कर ले जाया गया। उसकी मां और चाचियों को भी लहरें बहा ले गई। अल्मास स्वयं एक लकड़ी के गट्टे पर चढ़कर बैठ गई। बाद में उसने स्वयं को अस्पताल में भर्ती पाया।

Thailand

एक घटना है थाइलैण्ड की। स्मिथ परिवार एक तटीय रिजार्ट में क्रिसमस मना रहा था। माता-पिता तथा उनकी दो बेटियाँ थीं। 26 दिसम्बर 2004 को समुद्र जल अन्दर आने लगा। पर छोटी लड़की टिल्ली ने आने वाले खतरे को पहले ही भांप लिया। उसे अपना भूगोल का पाठ याद आया जिसमें लिखा था कि भूचाल, ज्वालामुखी तथा भूस्खलन के कारण सुनामी का जन्म होता है, उसने परिवार के सदस्यों को आवाज दी कि तट से भाग चलो। उसके माता-पिता होटल की तीसरी मंजिल पर चले गये और बच गये। इस प्रकार भूगोल के पाठ की जानकारी ने उनकी प्राण रक्षा कर दी।

मनुष्य तो अपने प्राण खो बैठते हैं, जबकि वन्य तथा पालतू पशु समय रहते खतरे को महसूस कर लेते हैं। हाथी ऊँचे स्थान पर भाग गये और कुत्तों, पक्षियों तथा जीवोद्यान के पशुओं ने सुरक्षित स्थान खोज लिये। शायद पशुओं की एक छठी इंद्रिय होती है। वे झटकों को मानवों से कहीं पहले महसूस कर लेते हैं। इसके कारण उनके हताहत होने की संख्या बहुत कम रहती है। लंका स्थित याला नेशनल पार्क में किसी भी पशु के हताहत होने का समाचार नहीं मिला जबकि 60 पर्यटक सुनामी के शिकार हो गये।

Summary of the Chapter in English

The narrator of the story went to a junk shop and purchased a roll-top desk which was in bad condition. The narrator started its repairing on Christmas Eve and found a letter in its drawer. He read the letter. It was from Jim Macpherson to his wife Connie as written on top. After reading the letter, he found that Jim Macpherson was the leader of the England Army and he described that England and German were engaged in a war but on the Christmas morning a wonderful thing happened, first Germans wishes happy Christmas to English soldiers and same response was given by English also. The leaders shared their ideas and feelings with each other and celebrated Christmas by eating, laughing, talking and drinking. After that they played football match in which Germans won. In the night both troops sang carols and had a peaceful Christmas.

The author decided to gave this letter to Jim’s wife back. He went to the address which was written on the letter envelope where he found that an accidental fire caught in the house and she was in nursing home. He rushed to nursing home where he found Jim’s wife. As she was grown too old in the waiting of his husband he mistook the author by understanding him as Jim, his husband when narrator met him. She declared him as best Christmas present in the world.

Summary of the Chapter in Hindi

कहानी का वर्णनकर्ता एक कबाड़ की दुकान में गया और एक रोल-टॉप डेस्क खरीदा जो खराब स्थिति में था। वर्णनकर्ता ने क्रिसमस की पूर्व संध्या पर इसकी मरम्मत शुरू की और इसकी दराज में एक पत्र मिला। उसने पत्र पढ़ा। यह जिम मैकफर्सन से लेकर उनकी पत्नी कोनी तक के रूप में शीर्ष पर लिखा था। पत्र पढ़ने के बाद, उन्होंने पाया कि जिम मैकफर्सन इंग्लैंड की सेना के नेता थे और उन्होंने वर्णन किया कि इंग्लैंड और जर्मन एक युद्ध में लगे हुए थे लेकिन क्रिसमस की सुबह एक अद्भुत बात हुई, पहले जर्मनों ने अंग्रेजी सैनिकों को क्रिसमस की शुभकामनाएं दीं और उसी प्रतिक्रिया अंग्रेजी द्वारा भी दिया गया था। नेताओं ने एक-दूसरे के साथ अपने विचारों और भावनाओं को साझा किया और खाने, हंसने, बात करने और पीने के द्वारा क्रिसमस मनाया। उसके बाद उन्होंने फुटबॉल मैच खेला जिसमें जर्मनों की जीत हुई। रात में दोनों सैनिकों ने कैरल गाया और शांतिपूर्ण क्रिसमस मनाया।

लेखक ने यह पत्र जिम की पत्नी को वापस देने का निश्चय किया। वह उस पते पर गया जो पत्र के लिफाफे पर लिखा था, जहां उसने पाया कि घर में अचानक आग लग गई और वह नर्सिंग होम में थी। वह नर्सिंग होम पहुंचे जहां उन्हें जिम की पत्नी मिली। जैसे ही वह अपने पति की प्रतीक्षा में बहुत बूढ़ी हो गई थी, उसने लेखक को जिम, अपने पति के रूप में समझकर उसे गलत समझा जब कथाकार उससे मिला। उसने उसे दुनिया का सबसे अच्छा क्रिसमस उपहार घोषित किया।

• To protect people from exploitation the government makes certain laws. These laws try to ensure that the unfair practices are kept at a minimum in the markets.
• To ensure that workers are not underpaid but are paid fairly, minimum wages has been set by governments.
• There are laws that protect the interests of producers and consumers in the market.
• The government has to ensure that these laws are implemented which means that the law must be enforced.
• Enforcement becomes even more important when the laws, the government can control the activities of individuals or private companies so as to ensure social justice.
• Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution like ‘Right against Exploitation’ say that no one can be forced to work for low wages or under bondage.
• The Constitution lays down no child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or mines or engaged in any other hazardous employment.
• The Constitution has also make provisions against any sort of exploitation of human being irrespective of gender and sex.
• By making constitutional rights governments always try to ensure social justice to every section of society.
• The Social and Just society makes the basis of Gandhian socialism and avail the resources to everyone and stop the discrimination.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy:

• The world’s worst industrial tragedy took place in Bhopal 24 years ago.
• Union Carbide (UC) an American company had a factory in the city in which it produced pesticides. MIC, a highly poisonous gas, started leaking on 2 December 1984, at midnight from the factory.
• Within three days more than 8,000 people were dead, Hundreds of thousands were maimed.
• US stopped its operations but left behind tons of toxic chemicals.
• 24 years later, people are still fighting for justice, for safe drinking water, for healthcare facilities and jobs for the people poisoned by UC. After effects still haunts the generations of victims.
• Governments come and go but people are waiting for justice. To stop any such sort of incidents in future the developers and business class should make liable by making strict laws.So that such incidents could not take place in future.

What is a Worker’s worth:

• Foreign companies come to India for cheaper labor.
• Wages in USA are higher than that compared to workers in poorer countries like in India.
• For lower pay, companies can get longer hours of work.
• Cost cutting can be done by other more dangerous means, e.g., lower working conditions including lower safety measures are used as ways of cutting costs.
• Since there is as much unemployment, there are many workers who are willing to work in unsafe conditions in return for a wage.
• In the grave situation of unemployment where people are ready to work in corrosive situation as well, it become the duty of government to ensure the safety of its citizens.
• Proper safety laws should be present to protect the people from damages and incidents.

Enforcement of Safety Laws:

• As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to ensure that safety laws are implemented.
• It is the duty of the government to ensure that the Right to Life guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution is not violated.
• Instead of protecting the interests of the people, their safety was being disregarded both by the government and by private companies.
• With more industries being set up both by local and foreign business in India, there is a great need for stronger laws protecting workers rights and better enforcement of these laws.
• Before approval of any industry laws and codes must be satisfied with and after assessment permission should be given.

New Laws to Protect the Environment:

• In 1984, there were very few laws protecting environment (Environment protection act 1986)in India and there was hardly any enforcement of these laws.
• Environment was treated as a ‘free’ entity and industry could pollute the air and water without any restricted.
• Whether it was our rivers, air or groundwater the environment was being polluted and the health of people disregarded.
• The polluter was to be held accountable for the damage done to environment.
• The Government is responsible for setting up laws and procedures that can check pollution, clean rivers and introduce heavy fines for those who pollute.
• Supreme Court in many of judgments has also said about the right to healthy life and safe drinking water as essential part of article 21 that is right to life.
• Recently by invoking swatch Bharat Abhiyan, Namami Gangay and Rally for rivers government has shown its commitment towards environment protection.
• By imposing high carbon tax and high taxes of petroleum government is deterring individual from misusing these resources.
• At international level as well India is showing its commitment towards environment issue.

Environment as a Public Facility:

• Environment issue in India has highlighted the fact that the growing concern for the environment among the middle classes is often at the expense of the poor.
• The challenge is to look for solutions where everyone can benefit from a clean environment.
• The government has to encourage and support factories to gradually move to cleaner technologies.
• This will ensure that the workers livelihoods are protected and both workers and communities living around the factories enjoy a safe environment.
• By heavy dependency of rich on air condition and vehicles the problem of pollution is getting enhanced and burnt has to be faced by poor.

Conclusion:

• Laws are necessary in many situations, whether this be the market, office or factory so as to protect people from unfair practices.
• Laws that are weak and poorly enforced can cause serious harm.
• While the government has a leading role in the respect, people can exert pressure so that both private companies and the government act in the interests of society.
• Here the role has to be played by government by making better policies and by implementing them in effective manner.

Public facilities are the facilities provided to the people by the government. They are important to sustain and lead a comfortable life.

Water and the People of Chennai:

• Mr. Ramgopal lives in Anna Nagar, Chennai. This area looks lush and green with lawns maintained by generous spraying of water.
• Likewise, in an apartment where Mr.Subramaniam lives water supply is inadequate. They have to spend Rs 500-600 per month to buy water.
• Siva lives in Madipakkam, Chennai. She gets water once in 4 days. For drinking, she buys bottled water.
• Water as a public utility is available in different quantity to different people.
• Safe drinking water comes under the fundamental right of an individual and it is the responsibility of government ot avail it to its citizens.

Water as Part of the Fundamental Rights to Life:

• Water is essential for life and for good health.
• India has one of the largest numbers of causes of water-related diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera. More than 1600 Indians, mostly children below the age of five die every day because of water-related diseases.
• The Constitution of India recognizes the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21. That means there should be “universal access” to water.
• The High Courts and Supreme Court have held that the right to safe drinking water is a Fundamental Right.
• Verdicts given by courts make it as the responsibility of government to ensure the supply of fresh drinking water.

Public Facilities:

• Things like electricity, public transport, schools, and colleges, etc.which are necessary for survival are known as public facilities.
• Public facilities are provided so that its benefits can be shared by many people.
• This is the responsibility of government to make public facilities available to every individual and no one should be discriminated just on the basis of social or economic division.

The Government’s Role:

• One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure that these public facilities are made available to everyone:
  • Making provision for education & setting up of schools & colleges.
  • Improving health & sanitation facilities.
  • Ensuring equal distribution of food throughout the country.
  • Improving the means of transport
  • Maintenance of public utility works like post offices, railways and roads
• Private companies operate for profit in the market. Public facilities are related to people’s basic needs.
• The main source of revenue for the government is the taxes collected from the people and the government is empowered to collect these taxes and use them for such programmes.
• For instance, to supply water, the government has to incur costs in pumping water, carrying it over long distances, laying down pipes for its distribution, treating the water for impurities and finally collecting and treating wastewater.
• It meets these expenses partly from the various taxes that it collects and partly by charging a price for water. This price is set so that most people can afford a certain minimum amount of water for daily use.
• One of the most important tasks of government is to ensure the availability of resources to everyone.
• By making the administration strict and effectively implementing the schemes government can help underprivilaged.
• The government by utilising the revenue collected in better social schemes and using the resources in better manner can ensure the well being to maximum of the population.

Water supply to Chennai: is it Available to All:

• Water supply in Chennai is marked by shortage. Municipal supply meets only about half the needs of the people of the city, on an average.
• The burden of shortfalls in water supply falls mostly on the poor.
• In search of Alternatives, the scenario of shortage and acute crisis during the summer months is common to other cities of India.
• A shortage of municipal water is often taken as a sign of failure of the government.
• Throughout the world, water supply is the responsibility of the government. There are very few instances of private water supply.
• In this era of industrialisation, water pollution has become a major problem.
• To avail the clean drinking water to a large population can be done through the technology advancement which needs investment by the government.

Conclusion:

• Public facilities are related to our basic needs and the Indian Constitution has recognised the right to water, health, education, etc. as being a part of the Right to Life.
• The major role of the government is to ensure adequate public facilities for everyone.
• Public facilities provided to everyone give rise to better living indices and help any country to get recognised at international level in terms of development.
• The success of any government is also acknowledged through the facilities and basic needs provided to all the individuals.
• These facilities finally become the building blocks of the development of a nation.

OBC (Other Backward Classes)

The weaker sections of the society other than the Schedule Castes and Scheduled Tribes are called the Other Backward Classes (OBCs).

The Kaka Kelkar Commission which gave its report for OBCs in 1953’s was accepted by government. In 1978, B.P. Mandal gave another report making recommendations for OBCs.

The provisions were implemented in 1990 by V.P. Singh. After a great deal of controversy, the Supreme Court gave the following judgment on OBCs :

(i) The court allowed 27% reservation for the backward caste/classes, but it announced that the ‘creamy layer of the backward class should be excluded. Government was to identify this creamy layer.

(ii) The armed forces and sensitive higher civilian posts like Scientists, Pilots, University Professors, etc. were to be kept outside the purview of the caste reservation.

(iii) The number of backward castes was reduced to 1,238 from 3,743 as recommended by the Mandal Report.

(iv) Those classes which had adequate representation in the government services were to be excluded from the list of OBCs.

(v) While Mandal Commission had recommended reservation policy in the field of promotions also the Supreme Court recommended reservation only  in original appointments.

(vi) The Supreme Court directed that the reservation quota should not exceed 50 percent in any eventuality.

Implementation of Mandal Report

(i) On the Supreme Court’s verdict, the Union government implemented the reservation of 27% quota for 1,238 backward castes in Central Services and Public Undertakings.

(ii) The government has given them relaxation in qualifying marks in written examinations and in interviews.

(iii) Relaxation in upper age limit by 3 years in direct recruitment has also been given to OBCs.(iv) The OBCs are given relaxation to clear the Civil Services examinations in seven attempts. The verdict of the Supreme Court on PIL filed by the Safai Karamchari Andolan and other organisations

The court had directed the departments of central and state government to verify the condition of manual scavenging and to introduce time-bound programme for their liberation and rehabilitation.

Kabir was a fifteenth century poet and weaver. He belonged to the Bhakti tradition. Kabir’s poetry spoke about his love for the supreme being, free of rituals and priests. According to Kabir, untouchability was the highest state of knowledge, i.e. not touched by narrow limiting ideas, so he changed a lower concept to the highest one.

Legal measure taken by the Indian Government against the practice of untouchability are :

(i) The practice of untouchability is a form of social discrimination against certain groups based on their castes. India has been a severe victim of this social evil since ages.

(ii) Framers of the Indian Constitution were unanimous on making a strong law to end this in human practice.

(iii) Article 17 of the Constitution of India declares abolition of the practice of untouchability. In according with the Constitutional provisions, the Government of India has passed the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 and later the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) and Act, 1989 to eradicate caste based discrimination and upliftment of the people belonging to deprived sections of the society.

(iv) The government has introduced reservation system in educational institutes, government services and elected institutions.

The government made various laws to protect marginalised citizens. There are some specific laws and policies for the marginalised groups in our Country. There are policies or schemes that emerge through other means like setting up a committee or by undertaking a survey, etc. The government also makes efforts to promote such policies.

The State Governments of India keep a list of Scheduled Castes (or Dalits), Scheduled Tribes, backward and most backward castes. The Central Government also has a list. The students applying to educational institutions of government and those applying for posts in government are  expected to show the proof of their caste or tribe status in the form of caste and tribe certificates issued by the government agencies. If a particular caste or a certain tribe is on the government list, then a candidate from that caste or tribe can gain the benefit of reservation.

C.K. Janu point about the violation of the rights of the tribes

In her observation, C.K. Janu, an Adivasi activist, had pointed out violations of the Constitutional rights assured to tribal people of the various state government of India. They allow non-tribal encroachers in the form of timber merchants, paper mills, etc. to exploit tribal land, and forcibly evict tribal people from their traditional forests in the process of declaring forests as reserved or as sanctuaries. She has also noted out the cases where tribal people have already been expelled and are not allowed to go back to their lands.

The dalits are enlightened about their rights and they utilize the Fundamental Rights if they are discriminated by the individual, community or by the government. Now, they have drawn the attention of the government of India to follow the Constitution and to ensure justice for them.

The minorities like Parsi, Muslims, Sikhs, etc. use the Fundamental Rights to secure themselves. They become the guardian of their cultural content and to preserve it in the best way. The Constitution of India guarantees the cultural justice to cultural, religious or linguistic minorities. The Constitution makes sure that no majority community will dominate or eliminate them. The Constitution provides them the freedom to practice their religion.

The Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes Act 1989 states that the actions that deprive the Dalits and Adivasis of their small resources or which force them into slaved labour are punishable. It means that if someone tries to occupy or cultivate any land owned by or allotted to a member of Schedule Caste or Tribe, he will be punished by law.

Article 15 of the Constitution states that no citizen of India shall be discriminated on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished and no one can prevent Dalits from getting education, entering temples, using public facilities.

1. MARGINALISED SECTIONS.
   • A marginal group is one that does not belong or which dwells at the margin of two cultures and two societies and possesses a marginal mentality with its unresolved identity crises.”
   • It is first seen as a distinctive social group, with their own characteristic’s features, victimised by the dominant members of the host society.
   • They are subjected to unequal treatment by way of acts of discrimination.
   • In India, large numbers of people have experienced marginalisation because of the caste system.
2. ADIVASIS.
   • The term literally means ‘original inhabitants’ – are communities who lived, and often continued to live, in close association with forests.
   • Around 8 per cent of India’s population is Adivasi and many of India’s most important mining and Industrial centres are in Adivasi areas – Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro and Bhilai among others.
   • Adivasis are not homogeneous population: there are over 500 different Adivasi groups in India.
   • Adivasis are particularly numerous in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and in the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.
   • Adivasi societies are also most distinctive because there is often very little hierarchy among them. Thus, makes them radically different from communities organised around principles of jati-varna or those that were ruled by Kings.
   • Adivasis have their own language, which have often deeply influenced the formation of ‘mainstream’ Indian languages, like Bengali.
3. ADIVASIS AND STEREOTYPING.
   • In India, we usually ‘showcase’ Adivasi communities in particular way. Thus, during school functions or other official events or on books and movies, Adivasis are invariably portrayed in very stereotypical ways – in colourful costumes, headgear and through their dancing.
   • This often wrongly leads people believing that they are exotic, primitive and backward. Often Adivasis are blamed for their lack of advancement as they are believed to be resistant to change or new ideas.
4. ADIVASIS AND DEVELOPMENT.
   • Forests covered the major part orb our country till the nineteenth century and the Adivasis had a deep knowledge of, access to, as well as control over most of these vast tracts at least till the middle of the nineteenth century.
   • This meant that they were not ruled by large States and Empires. Instead, often empires heavily depended on Adivasis for the crucial access to forest resources.
   • This is radically contrary to our image of Adivasis today as somewhat marginal and powerless communities. In the pre-colonial world, they were traditionally ranged Hunter-gatherers and nomads and lived by shifting agriculture and cultivating in one place.
   • For the past 200 years Adivasis have been increasingly forced – through economic changes, forest policies and political force applied by the State and private industry – to migrate to live as workers in plantations, at construction sites, in industries and as domestic workers.
   • Adivasis have also lived in areas that are rich in minerals and other large industrial projects.
   • Losing their lands and access to the forest means that tribals lose their main source of livelihood and food. Having gradually lost access to their traditional homelands, many Adivasis have migrated to cities in search of work where they are employed for very low wages in local industries or at building or construction sites.
5. MINORITIES AND MARGINALISATION.
   • Constitution provides safeguard to religious and linguistic minorities as part of our Fundamental Rights.
   • The term minority is most commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically small in relation to the rest of the population.
   • The Indian Constitution recognised that the culture of the majority influences the way in which society and government might express themselves. In such cases, size can be a disadvantage and lead to the marginalisation of the relatively smaller communities.
   • Safeguards are needed to protect minority communities against the possibility of being culturally dominated by the majority. They also protect them against any discrimination and disadvantage that they may face.
   • The Constitution provides these safeguards because it is committed to protecting India’s cultural diversity and promoting equality as well as justice.
6. MUSLIMS AND MARGINALISATION.
   • According to 2001 census, Muslims are 13.4 per cent if India’s population and are a marginalised community in India today because in comparison to other communities, they have over the years been deprived of the benefits of socio-economic development
   • Recognising that Muslims in India were lagging in terms of various development indicators, the government set up a high-level Committee examined the social, economic and Educational status of the Muslim community.

Key Players of Our Criminal Justice System

• The four key players in the criminal justice system are:
→ the police,
→ the Public Prosecutor
→ the defence lawyer
→ the judge

What is the Role of the Police in Investigating a Crime?

• The main function of police is to investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime.
→ An investigation includes recording statements of witnesses and collecting different kinds of evidence.

• On the basis of the investigation, the police are required to form an opinion.
→ Police file a chargesheet in the court if they think accused person is guilty.

• The police can’t decide whether a person is guilty or innocent, that is for the judge to decide.

• The police investigations always have to be conducted in accordance with law and with full respect for human rights.

• Every arrested person has following Fundamental Rights as per Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal law

→ The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is being arrested.
→ The Right to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
→ The Right not to be ill treated or tortured during arrest or in custody.
→ Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused.

→ A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning.

What is the Role of the Public Prosecutor?

• The role of the Prosecutor begins once the police has conducted the investigation and filed the chargesheet in the court.

• The Prosecutor duty to act impartially and present the full and material facts, witnesses and evidence before the court to enable the court to decide the case.

What is the Role of the Judge?

• The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the defence.

• The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the law.

• He may send the person to jail or impose a fine or both, depending on what the law prescribes.

What is a Fair Trial?

• Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the Right to Life states that a person’s life or liberty can be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure.

Essential elements of a fair trial:

• The trial should be held in an open court, in public view.
• The trial should be held in the presence of the accused.
• The accused must be defended by a lawyer.
• Defence lawyer must have opportunity to cross-examine all the prosecution witnesses. Also, have an opportunity to present witnesses in accused’s defence.
• It was the responsibility of the prosecution to prove beyond reasonable doubt that accused was guilty.
• The judge should decide the matter only on the basis of the evidence before the court. He/She must remain impartial.

What is the Role of the Judiciary?

• Judiciary work is divided into the following types:

→ Dispute Resolution: The judicial system resolves disputes between citizens, between citizens and the government, between two state governments and between the centre and state governments.

→ Judicial Review: The judiciary is the final interpreter of the Constitution therefore, it has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. This is called judicial review.

→ Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court or the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated.

What is an Independent Judiciary?

• The other branches of the State-like the legislature and the executive – cannot interfere in the work of the judiciary. 

• The courts are not under the government and do not act on their behalf.

• All judges in the High Court as well as the Supreme Court are appointed with very little interference from other branches of government. 

→ After appointment, it is very difficult to remove a judge.

What is the Structure of Courts in India?

• There are three different levels of courts in our country:

Supreme Court of India

⬇

High Courts of States

⬇

District courts

→ Supreme Court of India: Located in New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of India.

→ High Courts of States:  Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state.

→ Subordinate or district courts: These courts at the district or Tehsil level or in towns and presided over by a District Judge.

• The decisions made by higher courts are binding on the lower courts.

• A person can appeal to a higher court if they believe that the judgment passed by the lower court is not just through the appellate system.

What are the Different Branches of the Legal System?

• The Indian legal system deals with civil and criminal cases:

Does Everyone Have Access to the Courts?

• Theoretically, all citizens of India can access the courts in this country.

• In reality access to courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the poor in India.
→ Legal procedures involve a lot of money and paperwork as well as take up a lot of time.
→ For a poor person who cannot read and whose family depends on a daily wage, the idea of going to court to get justice often so remote.

PIL

• Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is introduced by Supreme Court in the early 1980s.

• It allowed any individual or organisation to file a PIL in the High Court or the Supreme Court on behalf of those whose rights were being violated.

• A letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated as a PIL.

Importance of Judiciary

• The judiciary has played a crucial role in democratic India,

• It also keep a check on the powers of the executive and the legislature

• Also, it helps in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens.

Do Laws Apply to All?

• All persons in independent India are equal before the law.

→ The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender.

• Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment as well as a process through which the guilt of the person has to be established.

Rule of Law

• Rule of law means is that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law.

How Rule of law established in India?

• It is often believed that it was the British colonialists who introduced the rule of law in India.
→ However, historians have disputed this claim because:
1. Colonial law was arbitrary (dictatorial).
2. Indian nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India.

• Nationalists wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to
law as including ideas of justice.

• By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indian legal profession began to use law to defend the legal rights of Indians.
→ Indian judges also began to play a greater role in making decisions.

• Thus, in several ways, Indians played a major role in the evolution of the rule of law during the colonial period.

• After Independence, the document, Constitution served as the foundation on which our representatives began making laws for the country.
→ Every year several new laws made as well as existing ones revised by elected representatives.

How Do New Laws Come About?

• The Parliament has an important role in making laws.

• There are many ways through which this takes place, often, different groups in society that raise the need for a particular law.
→ As the Parliament is sensitive to people’s problems so, the process adopted for this issue to become law.

• From establishing the need for a new law to its being passed, at every stage of the process the
voice of the citizen through various medium such as TV, newspaper etc is a crucial element.

Unpopular and Controversial Laws

• Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to people because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful.

• The people might criticize this law, hold public meetings, write about it in newspapers, report to TV news channels etc.

• When a large number of people begin to feel that a wrong law has been passed, then the Parliament has pressure to change the law.

• After electing representatives, it is duty of citizens to keep a check on them.