Class 8th

NCERT Solutions for Class 8th: Ch 1 The Indian Constitution Social and Political Life  III

Excercises

1. Why does a democratic country need a Constitution?

Answer

A democratic country need a Constitution because:
→ It lays out the important guidelines that govern decision making within the various societies of the country.
→ It lays down the ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that its citizens aspire to live in.
→ It serves as asset of rules and principles as the basis by which the country has to be governed.
→ It provides rules to safeguard the interests of minorities and prevent any kind of domination by the majority on minorities.

→ It lays down rules that guard against the misuse of power by any politician leader.
→ It also provides rights to its citizens and protects their freedom.

2. Look at the wordings of the two documents given below. The first column is from the 1990 Nepal Constitution. The second column is from the more recent interim Constitution of Nepal.

1990 Constitution of Nepal Part 7: Executive	2007 Interim Constitution Part 5: Executive
Article 35: Executive Power: The executive power of the Kingdom of Nepal shall be vested in His Majesty and the Council of Ministers.	Article 37: Executive Power: the executive power of Nepal shall be vested in the council of Ministers.

What is the difference in who exercises ‘Executive Power’ in the above two Constitutions of Nepal? Keeping this in mind, why do you think Nepal needs a new Constitution today?

Answer

The difference in who exercises “Executive Power” in the given two Constitutions of Nepal is that in the 1990 Constitution, this power was vested in the King and his Council of Ministers, while in the 2007 Interim Constitution of Nepal, “Executive Power” changed hands to being vested only in the Council of Ministers, thereby making Nepal a democracy from being a monarchy.
Nepal needs a new Constitution today because it is no longer a monarchy. The older Constitution vested power in the King, but when the country is now a democracy, a new Constitution is needed to reflect the “democratic” ideals of Nepal that the peoples’ movement desired and fought for. In order to achieve this, all its constitutive rules must be changed.

3. What would happen if there were no restrictions on the power of elected representatives?

Answer

If there are no restrictions on the power of the elected representatives the leaders might misuse the powers given to them. The Constitution provides safeguards against this misuse of power by our political leaders.

4. In each of the following situations, identify the minority. Write one reason why you think it is important to respect the views of the minority in each of these situations.

(a) In a school with 30 teachers, 20 of them are male.
(b) In a city, 5 per cent of the population are Buddhists.
(c) In a factory mess for all employees, 80 per cent are vegetarians.
(d) In a class of 50 students, 40 belong to more well-off families.

(a) In a school with 30 teachers, 20 of them are male.
(b) In a city, 5 per cent of the population are Buddhists.
(c) In a factory mess for all employees, 80 per cent are vegetarians.
(d) In a class of 50 students, 40 belong to more well-off families.

Answer

(a) Female teachers are in minority. The female teachers must be allowed space to voice their opinion so that their efforts at teaching are not hindered by their minority status.

(b) Budhhists are in minority. Every individual has the right to follow the religion of his/her choice. People of other faith must respect the religion other than their own.

(c) Non-vegetrians are in minority. Food choice is personal wish so he/she should have the freedom to eat what he/she wants.

(d) Under privileged are in minority. Citizens cannnot be discriminated by their birth so their views have to be respected.

5. The column on the left lists some of the key features of the Indian Constitution. In the other column write two sentences, in your own words, on why you think this feature is important:

Key Feature	Significance
Federalism Separation of Powers Fundamental Rights Parliamentary Form of Government

Answer

Key features

1. Federalism: It ensures national unity and at the same time allows individual progress. A federal government allows the Centre to hold supreme power but its Constituent States have some power as well.

2. Separation of Powers: This serves two purposes: firstly, tyrannical use of power is avoided since it does not vest power in any single authority. Secondly, the 3 organs of power also work as a check on each other, thereby maintaining a good balance.

3. Fundamental Rights: These are important because they conform to a humane society. They also protect citizens against arbitrary and absolute use of power by the State.

4. Parliamentary Form of Government: It upholds universal adult franchise. This entails the fact that the people of a country play a direct role in electing their representatives to run the state as well as the nation.

NCERT Solutions for Class 8th: Ch Industries Geography

Excercises

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What is meant by the term ‘industry’?

Answer

The term ‘industry’ refers to an economic activity that is concerned with the production of goods (e.g., iron and steel industry), extraction of minerals (e.g., coal mining industry) or provision of services (e.g., tourism industry).

(ii) What are the main factors which influence the location of an industry?

Answer

Factors influencing the location of an industry:
→ Availability of raw material
→ Availability of land
→ Adequate supply of water
→ Adequate supply of labour
→ Access to power
→ Amount of capital
→ Access to transport
→Presence of market

(iii) Which industry is often referred to as the backbone of modern industry and why?

Answer

Iron and steel industry is often referred to as the backbone of the modern industry because almost everything is either made from iron or steel or has been made using tools and machineries of these metals. There are plenty of examples like -ships, trains, vehicles; all are made largely of steel. Materials of our day-to-day use starting safety pin to our building in which we live, are made from steel. Without the use of iron no industry can run.

(iv) Why cotton textile industry rapidly expanded in Mumbai?

Answer

Cotton textile rapidly expanded in Mumbai because its warm, moist climate, facility of port for importing of machinery and above all the easy availability of skilled labour.

(v) What are the similarities between information technology industry in Bangalore and California?

Answer

Similarities between information technology industry in Bangalore and California:
→ Presence of high quality educational institutions, and advanced scientific and technological centres
→ Pleasant climate and clean environment.
→ Presence of good quality, skilled workforce.
→ Access to markets.
→ Well-developed and well-connected.

2. Tick the correct answer.

(i) Silicon Valley is located in
(a) Bangalore
(b) California
(c) Ahmedabad
► (b) California

(ii) Which one of the following industries is known as sunrise industry?
(a) Iron and steel industry
(b) Cotton textile

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(c) Information technology
► (c) Information technology

(iii) Which one of the following is a natural fibre?
(a) Nylon
(b) Jute
(c) Acrylic
► (b) Jute

3. Distinguish between the following

(i) Agro-based and mineral-based industry

Agro-based industry	Mineral-based industry
Uses plant and animal products as raw materials	Uses mineral ores as raw materials
Source of employment for people in rural areas	Source of employment for people in rural as well as urban areas
Example: Dairy industry, cotton textile industry	Example: Iron and steel industry, heavy machinery industry

(ii) Public-sector and joint-sector industry

Public-sector industry	Joint-sector industry
Owned and operated by the government	Jointly owned and operated by the government and individuals or a group of individuals
Example: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Steel Authority of India Limited	Example: Maruti Udyog Limited

4. Give two examples of the following in the space provided.

(i) Raw materials: ____________ and _____________
(ii) End product: ____________ and _____________
(iii) Tertiary activities: ____________ and _____________
(iv) Agro-based industries: ____________ and _____________

(v) Cottage industries: ____________ and _____________
(vi) Co-operatives: ____________ and _____________

Answer

(i)Raw materials: cotton and steel
(ii)End product: shirt and safety pin
(iii)Tertiary activities: banking and transport
(iv)Agro-based industries: dairy industry and cotton textile industry
(v)Cottage industries: pottery industry and basket-weaving industry
(vi)Co-operatives: Anand Milk Union Limited and Sudha Dairy

NCERT Solutions for Class 8th: Ch 4 Agriculture Geography Social Studies

Excercises

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What is agriculture?

Answer

Agriculture is the primary activity which includes growing of crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock. It is also known as farming.

(ii) Name the factors influencing agriculture.

Answer

Various factors influencing agriculture are – Favourable topography, Soil and Climate.

(iii) What is shifting cultivation? What are its disadvantages?

Answer

Shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn cultivation is a type of farming activity which involves clearing a plot of land by felling trees, burning the felled trees, mixing the ashes with soil, and then growing crops like maize, yam, potatoes and cassava on the cleared land. After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves on to a new plot. 

This type of farming has the following disadvantages.

→ Deforestation
→ After some time the land loses its fertility.
→ Soil erosion.
→ Small patches of cultivation which is insufficient for feeding a large population.

(iv) What is plantation agriculture?

Answer

Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming where a single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton is grown. Large amount of labour and capital is required in this type of farming. The produce is either processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories. Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world, like rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka, etc.

(v) Name the fibre crops and name the climatic conditions required for their growth.

Answer

Jute & cotton are known as fiber crops. The climatic conditions required for their growth are:
→ Jute (Golden Fiber): High temperature more than 25°C, heavy rainfall, warm and humid climate.
→ Cotton: High temperature around 30 – 40°C, low rainfall and most importantly 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine. Means lot of cloud-free sunny days is essential for cotton growing.

2. Tick the correct answer.

(i) Horticulture means
(a) Growing of fruits and vegetables
(b) Primitive farming
(c) Growing of wheat
► (a) Growing of fruits and vegetables

(ii) Golden fibre refers to
(a) Tea
(b) Cotton
(c) Jute
► (c) Jute

(iii) Leading producer of coffee
(a) Brazil
(b) India
(c) Russia
► (a) Brazil 

3. Give reasons.

(i) In India agriculture is a primary activity.

Answer

Two-third of India’s population is dependent upon agriculture. Hence, in India, agriculture is a primary activity.

(ii) Different crops are grown in different regions.

Answer

Different crops are grown in different regions because growing of crops depends upon the geographical conditions, demand of produce, labour and level of technology. Favourable topography of soil, climates also play an important role in selection of crops to be grown in that area.

4. Distinguish between the following.

(i) Primary activities and tertiary activities

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Primary activities	Tertiary activities
Connected with the extraction and production of natural resources	Provide support to the primary and secondary sectors
Example: Agriculture, fishing	Example: Services such as banking and transport

(ii) Subsistence farming and intensive farming

Subsistence farming	Intensive farming
Practised to meet the needs of the farmer’s family; involves the use of low levels of technology and household labour for producing a small output	A type of subsistence farming; involves the annual cultivation of a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour

NCERT Solutions for Class 8th: Ch 3 Mineral and Power Resources Geography Social Studies

Page No: 37

Exercises

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) Name any three common minerals used by you everyday.

Answer

Salt, Gold and Copper are three common minerals used everyday

(ii) What is an ore? Where are the ores of metallic minerals generally located?

Answer

Rocks from which minerals are mined are known as ores. For any material to be called ore of any mineral, it must contain minimum adequate quantity of that mineral so that it can be extracted profitably.

(iii) Name two regions rich in natural gas resources.

Answer

Russia and Norway are the two regions rich in natural gas resources.

(iv) Which sources of energy would you suggest for

(a) Rural areas
(b) Coastal areas
(c) Arid regions

Answer

(a) Biogas energy for rural areas
(b) Hydel and tidal energy for coastal areas
(c) Wind and solar energy for arid regions

(v) Give five ways in which you can save energy at home.

Answer

Five ways in which energy can be saved at home:
→ Switching off lights, fans and other electrical appliances when not in use
→ By seeing to it that electrical devices are operating efficiently; for example, defrosting refrigerator regularly and not keeping the refrigerator door open for longer than necessary

→ Using energy-efficient devices such as fluorescent bulbs and tubes

→ Using energy efficiently while cooking; for example, keeping the lids of pans on while cooking
→ Unplugging electrical devices when not in use prevents leakage of electricity; thus saving energy.

2. Tick the correct answer.

(i) Which one of the following is nota characteristic of minerals?
(a) They are created by natural processes.
(b) They have a definite chemical composition.
(c) They are inexhaustible.
(d) Their distribution is uneven.
► (c) They are inexhaustible.

(ii) Which one of the following is nota producer of mica?
(a) Jharkhand
(b) Karnataka
(c) Rajasthan
(d) Andhra Pradesh
► (b) Karnataka

(iii) Which one of the following is a leading producer of copper in the world?
(a) Bolivia
(b) Ghana
(c) Chile
(d) Zimbabwe
► (c) Chile

(iv) Which one of the following practises will not conserve LPG in your kitchen?
(a) Soaking the dal for some time before cooking it.
(b) Cooking food in a pressure cooker.
(c) Keeping the vegetables chopped before lighting the gas for cooking.
(d) Cooking food in an open pan kept on low flame.
► (d) Cooking food in an open pan kept on low flame.

3. Give reasons.

(i) Environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before building huge dams.

Answer

Environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before building huge dams because of the following reasons –
→ Dams create imbalance in the earth’s equilibrium.
→. Deforestation leads to environmental pollution.
→ People become displaced.

→ Cities / villages / towns may require shifting causing lot of hardships for the people.
→ Flood threats loom large.
→ Earthquake threats
→ Silting of lakes is a problem.

(ii) Most industries are concentrated around coal mines.

Answer

Coal is used as a source of energy and power and also as a raw material in most of the industries. Hence most industries are concentrated around coal mines of the purpose saving cost of transportation of coal (cost effectiveness).

(iii) Petroleum is referred to as “black gold”.

Answer

Petroleum is referred to as “black gold” because it is black in colour in the crude form and its derivatives are extremely valuable as petroleum itself. Today it is almost inevitable in our day-to-day life. A variety of products like – kerosene, diesel, petrol, wax, plastics, lubricants etc. are produced from these mineral resources.

(iv) Quarrying can become a major environmental concern.

Answer

Quarrying can become a major environmental concern because of the following reasons:
→ It may destroy the humus of soil which is much required for the growth of plants and crops.

→It produces a lot of noise pollution due to use of explosives at times in order to break the huge chunks of rocks.
→ In the process of quarrying lot of dust is generated which causes air pollution and also occupational hazards.
→ Blasting done in the process of quarrying generate vibration which damage in the nearby buildings, dams or any other similar structure.
4. Distinguish between the following.

(i) Conventional and non-conventional sources of energy

Conventional sources of energy	Non-conventional sources of energy
Have been in common use for a long time	Are not commonly used
Are generally exhaustible	Are generally inexhaustible
Are mostly polluting	Are mostly non-polluting
Example: Firewood, coal	Example: Solar energy, nuclear energy

(ii) Biogas and natural gas

Biogas	Natural gas
Formed using organic wastes such as dead plant and animal matter, animal dung and kitchen waste	Found along with petroleum deposits and gets released when crude oil is brought to the surface
Is a non-conventional source of energy	Is a conventional source of energy
Is easily available, especially in rural areas	Is not easily available; very few countries have sufficient natural gas reserves of their own
Is polluting; causes greenhouse effect as it releases carbon dioxide	Is a cleaner fuel
Used as a domestic fuel for cooking and lighting	Used as a domestic fuel as well as an industrial fuel

(iii) Ferrous and non-ferrous minerals

Ferrous mineral	Non-ferrous mineral
A metallic mineral that contains iron	A metallic mineral that does not contain iron
Example: Iron ore, manganese	Example: Gold, silver

(iv) Metallic and non-metallic minerals

Metallic mineral	Non-metallic mineral
A mineral containing metal in raw form	A mineral not containing metal
Example: Bauxite, iron ore	Example: Limestone, gypsum

NCERT Solutions for Class 8th: Ch 2 Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources Geography Social Studies

EXCERSICES



1. Answer the following questions.

(i) Which are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil formation?

Answer

Temperature and rainfall are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil formation.

(ii) Write any two reasons for land degradation today.

Answer

Deforestation and the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers in agricultural lands are two factors contributing to land degradation.

(iii) Why is land considered an important resource?

Answer

Land is considered as an important resource as it provides habitation to a wide variety of flora and fauna. Also used by Human beings for various purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses and roads, and setting up industries.

(iv) Name any two steps that government has taken to conserve plants and animals.

Answer

Two steps that the government has taken to conserve plants and animals:
→ Has set up national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves for protecting natural vegetation and wildlife; for example, the Kaziranga National Park in Assam.

→ Has banned the killing of lions, tigers, deer, great Indian bustards and peacocks. It has also prohibited the trade of the species of plants and animals protected under the international agreement CITES.

(v) Suggest three ways to conserve water.

Answer

Three ways to conserve water:
→ Rain-water harvesting.
→ Lining irrigation canals to avoid seepage of water.
→ Replenishing ground water by promoting afforestation.

2. Tick the correct answer.

(i) Which one of the following is nota factor of soil formation?
(a) Time
(b) Soil texture
(c) Organic matter

► (b) Soil texture

(ii) Which one of the following methods is most appropriate to check soil erosion on steep slopes?
(a) Shelter belts
(b) Mulching
(c) Terrace cultivation
► (c) Terrace cultivation

(iii) Which one of the following is not in favour of the conservation of nature?
(a) Switch off the bulb when not in use
(b) Close the tap immediately after using

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(c) Dispose polypacks after shopping ► (c) Dispose polypacks after shopping

3. Match the following.

(i) Land use	(a) Prevent soil erosion
(ii) Humus	(b) Land suitable for agriculture
(iii) Rock dams	(c) Productive use of land
(iv) Arable land	(d) Organic matter deposited on top soil
	(e) Contour ploughing

Answer

(i) Land use	(c) Productive use of land
(ii) Humus	(d) Organic matter deposited on top soil
(iii) Rock dams	(a) Prevent soil erosion
(iv) Arable land	(b) Land suitable for agriculture

4. State whether the given statements are true or false. If true, write the reasons.

Questions

(i) Ganga-Brahmaputra plain of India is an overpopulated region.
(ii) Water availability per person in India is declining.
(iii) Rows of trees planted in the coastal areas to check the wind movement is called intercropping.
(iv) Human interference and changes of climate can maintain the ecosystem.

Answer

(i) This statement is true. Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these are densely-populated areas of the world.

(ii) This statement is true. Though water is present in abundance, fresh water is a scarce resource. Water availability is a serious problem in many regions of the world. Due to the wastage of water, deforestation, and the pollution and depletion of fresh water reserves (such as rivers and ground water), the availability of water is fast declining.

(iii) This statement is false. The described process is called shelter belts.
Intercropping is the process in which different crops are grown in alternate rows, and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.

(iv) This statement is false. Human interferences and climatic changes for the most part adversely affect the balance of the ecosystem.

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 3 Understanding Quadrilaterals Ex 3.1

NCERT Solutions for Class 8th: Ch 12 India After Independence Our Past

QUESTIONS:

1. Name three problems that the newly independent nation of India faced.

Answer

Three problems that the newly independent nation of India faced:
→ As a result of Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country from Pakistan. These people had to be found homes and jobs.

→ The maharajas and nawabs of the princely states (almost 500) had to be persuaded to join the new nation.
→ A political system had to be adopted which would best serve the hopes and expectations of the Indian population.

2. What was the role of the Planning Commission?

Answer

The Planning Commission was set up to help design and execute suitable policies for the economic development of India.

3. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Subjects that were placed on the Union List were ________, ________ and ___________.
(b) Subjects on the Concurrent List were __________ and _________.

(c) Economic planning by which both the state and the private sector played a role in development was called a ________ _________ model.
(d) The death of ___________ sparked off such violent protests that the government was forced to give in to the demand for the linguistic state of Andhra.

Answer

(a)Subjects that were placed on the Union List were taxes, defence and foreign affairs.
(b)Subjects on the Concurrent List were forest and agriculture.

–

(c)Economic planning by which both the state and the private sector played a role in development was called a mixed-economy model.
(d)The death of Potti Sriramulu sparked off such violent protests that the government was forced to give in to the demand for the linguistic state of Andhra.

Page No: 173

4. State whether true or false:

(a) At independence, the majority of Indians lived in villages.
► True

(b) The Constituent Assembly was made up of members of the Congress party.
► False

(c) In the first national election, only men were allowed to vote.
► False

(d) The Second Five Year Plan focussed on the development of heavy industry.
► True

Let’s Discuss

5. What did Dr Ambedkar mean when he said that “In politics we will have equality, and in social and economic life we will have inequality”?

Answer

According to Dr Ambedkar, political democracy had to be accompanied by economic and social democracy. Giving the right to vote would not automatically lead to the removal of other inequalities such as between rich and poor, or between upper and lower castes. He believed that India needed to work towards eradicating all forms of inequality in the economic and social spheres. Only then would the equality granted by the Constitution in the sphere of politics (i.e., one vote for every adult Indian citizen) be of any value. Otherwise, India would just be a land of contradictions – following the principle of “one man, one vote and one value” in its political life, and denying the principle of “one man, one value” in its economic and social lives.

6. After Independence, why was there a reluctance to divide the country on linguistic lines?

Answer

In the 1920s, the Congress had promised that once the country won independence, each major linguistic group would have its own province. However, after independence, it did not take any steps to honour this promise. There was a reason for this. India had already been divided on the basis of religion. The joy of freedom had come along with the tragedy of Partition. This Partition had led to the killing of a million people in riots. Fresh divisions were not considered to be feasible. Congress leaders believed that any further divisions of the country would only disrupt its unity and progress. They felt that the need of the hour was for India to remain strong and united, and work towards becoming a nation, and anything that hindered the growth of nationalism had to be rejected.

7. Give one reason why English continued to be used in India after Independence.

Answer

People of the south those who could not speak Hindi, opposed Hindi as National Language. They threatened to separate from India if Hindi was imposed on them. The Constituent Assembly finally decided that Hindi would be the “official language” of India and English would be used in the courts, the services, and communications between one state and another.

8. How was the economic development of India visualised in the early decades after Independence?

Answer

The economic development of India visualised in the early decades after Independence were:

→ Objectives: Lifting India and Indians out of poverty, and building a modern technical and industrial base were among the major objectives of the new nation.

→ Planning Commission and Five Year Plans: A Planning Commission was set up to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development.

→ Mixed-economy: A mixed-economy model was agreed upon. In this economic model, both the State and the private sector would play important and complementary roles in increasing production and generating jobs.

→ Focus on heavy industries and dams: In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated. This focussed strongly on the development of heavy industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams.

→ The focus on heavy industry, and the effort at state regulation of the economy (which was to guide the economic policy for the next few decades) had many critics. This approach was criticised because:
(i) It put inadequate emphasis on agriculture
(ii) It neglected primary education
(iii) It did not take into account the environmental implications of concentrating on science and machinery

NCERT Solutions for Class 8th: Ch 11 The Making of the National Movement:

QUESTIONS:

1. Why were people dissatisfied with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s?

Answer

There was great dissatisfaction with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s. Some of the reasons for this dissatisfaction are as follows:
→ The Arms Act- Passed in 1878, this Act disallowed Indians from possessing arms.

→ The Vernacular Press Act in 1878, this Act was aimed at silencing those who were critical of the government. Under this Act, the government could confiscate the assets of newspapers if they published anything that was found “objectionable”.
→ The Ilbert Bill controversy- In 1883, the government tried introducing the Ilbert Bill. This bill provided for the trial of British or European individuals by Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. However, the white opposition forced the government to withdraw the bill. This enraged the Indians further.

2. Who did the Indian National Congress wish to speak for?

Answer

Indian National Congress wished to speak for all the people of India, irrespective of class, colouc caste, creed, language, or gender. It stated that India, its resources and systems were not of any one class or community of India, but of all the different communities of India.

3. What economic impact did the First World War have on India?

Answer

The First World War led to a huge rise in the defence expenditure of the Government of India. The government in turn increased taxes on individual incomes and business profits. Increased military expenditure and the demands for war supplies led to a sharp rise in prices which created great difficulties for the common people. On the other hand, business groups reaped fabulous profits from the war. The war created a demand for industrial goods such as jute bags, cloth and rails, and caused a decline in the imports from other countries into India. As a result, Indian industries expanded during the war.

4. What did the Muslim League resolution of 1940 ask for?

Answer

The Muslim League resolution of 1940 asked for “Independent States” for Muslims in the North-Western and Eastern areas of the country.

5. Who were the Moderates? How did they propose to struggle against British rule?

Answer

In the first twenty years of its existence, the Congress was “moderate” in its objectives and methods. The Congress leaders of this period were called the Moderates. They proposed to struggle against British rule in non-violent manner which the radicals called “politics of petitions”. They wanted to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. They published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed how the British rule was leading to the economic ruin of the country. They criticised British rule in their speeches and sent representatives to different parts of the country to mobilise public opinion. They felt that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and justice, and so would accept the just demands of Indians.

6. How was the politics of the Radicals within the Congress different from that of the Moderates?

Answer

The Radicals were opposed to the “politics of prayers” followed by the Moderates within the Congress. They explored more radical objectives and methods. They emphasised the importance of self reliance and constructive work. They argued that people must rely on their own strength, not on the “good” intentions of the government (as was the stated policy of the Moderates). They believed that people must fight for swaraj.

7. Discuss the various forms that the Non-Cooperation Movement took in different parts of India. How did the people understand Gandhiji?

Answer

During 1921 and 1922 the Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum.
→ Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges
→ Many lawyers gave up their practises
→ British titles were surrendered
→ Legislatures were boycotted
→ People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth.

In most cases, the calls for non-cooperation were related to local grievances.
→ In Kheda, Gujrat, Patidar peasants organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British.
→ In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed.
→ In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants protested against the colonial state for restricting their use of forest resources. They staged a number of “forest satyagrahas”, sometimes sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing fees.
→ In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants – supported by the British – from their gurudwaras.
→ In Assam, tea garden labourers demanded a big increase in their wages. When the demands were not met, they left the British-owned plantations.

People thought Gandhiji as messiah, someone who could help them overcome their misery and poverty. Peasants believed that he would help them in their fight against zamindars, while agricultural labourers felt that he would provide them with land.

8. Why did Gandhiji choose to break the salt law?

Answer

Gandhiji choosed to break the salt law as British government had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. It also imposed a tax on the sale of salt. Gandhiji believed that it was sinful to tax salt as it was an essential part of food. He led a march to the coastal town of Dandi, where he broke the salt law by gathering natural salt found on the seashore, and boiling sea water to produce salt. This march related the general desire of freedom to a specific grievance shared by everybody, and thus, did not divide the rich and the poor.

9. Discuss those developments of the 1937-47 period that led to the creation of Pakistan.

Answer

The developments leading to the creation of Pakistan:
→ A two-nation theory – From the late 1930s, the Muslim League began viewing the Muslims as a separate “nation” from the Hindus.

→ Provincial elections of 1937 – The provincial elections of 1937 convinced the League that Muslims were a minority, and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. It feared that Muslims may even go unrepresented.

→ Rift between Congress and Muslim League – In 1937, the Congress rejected the Muslim League’s proposal for a joint Congress-League government in the United Provinces. This annoyed the League.

→ Wide mass support base for Muslim League – In the 1930s, the Congress failed to mobilise the Muslim masses. This allowed the Muslim League to widen its social support. It sought to enlarge its support in the early 1940s when most Congress leaders were in jail.

→ Failure of talks – At the end of the Second World War in 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India. However, the talks failed as the League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India’s Muslims, and the Congress could not accept this claim since a large number of Muslims still supported it.

→ Provincial elections of 1946 – Elections to the provinces were again held in 1946. The Congress did well in the “General” constituencies but the League’s success in the seats reserved for Muslims was spectacular. This led to more demands for a separate nation for Muslims.

→ Failure of talks again – In March 1946, the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to examine this demand and to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India. This mission suggested that India should remain united and constitute itself as a loose confederation with some autonomy for Muslim-majority areas. But it could not get the Congress and the Muslim League to agree to specific details of the proposal. Partition was now more or less inevitable.

→ Mass agitation and riots – After the failure of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League decided on mass agitation for winning its Pakistan demand. It announced 16 August 1946 as “Direct Action Day”. On this day riots broke out in Calcutta, lasting several days and resulting in the death of thousands of people. By March 1947, violence had spread to different parts of Northern India.

→ Partition- Finally, the demand for the Partition of India was finalised, and “Pakistan” was born.