Class 6th

Rotation

• Rotation is the movement of the Earth, on its axis.
• The axis of the Earth, which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66/2° with its orbital plane.
• The portion facing the Sun experiences day, while the other half away from the Sun experiences night.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• The Earth takes about 24 hrs to complete one rotation around its axis, it is known as earthday.

Revolution

• The movement of the Earth around the Sun in a fixed path or orbit is called revolution.
• Earth takes 365)4 days to revolve around the Sun.
• Every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is called a leap year.
• Earth is going around the Sun in an elliptical-orbit.
• Seasons change due to change in the position of the Earth around the Sun.
• Summer solstice is the position of the Earth when the Northern Hemisphere has the longest day and the shortest night. It
• occurs on 21st June.
• In the Southern Hemisphere, it is winter season at this time. The days are short and the nights are long.
• Winter Solstice is the position of the earth when Southern Hemisphere has long days and shorter nights. In the Northern
• Hemisphere, the days are short and the nights are long. It occurs on 22nd December.
• On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator and the whole earth experiences equal days
• and equal nights. This is called an equinox.

The earth has two types of motions—rotation and revolution.

Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. In revolution the earth moves around the sun in a fixed path or orbit.

The axis of the earth is an imaginary line.

The earth receives light from the sun. As the shape of the earth is spherical, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time. The other half remains dark. In this way day and night are caused.

The earth completes one rotation around its axis in about 24 hours. This rotation is the daily motion of the earth.

The earth takes 365 14 days or one year to complete one revolution around the sun.

There are four seasons in a year—summer, winter, spring and autumn. Seasons change due to the change in the position of the earth around the sun.

The rays of sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. Hence, these areas are hot.

• The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.

In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the summer solstice.

When there is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere enjoys winter season and vice-versa.

In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the winter solstice.

On 21st March and September 23rd the whole earth experiences equal’days and equal nights. This is phenomenon is known as equinox.

On 23rd September, it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Sourthern Hemisphere.

On 21st March, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Sourthern Hemisphere.

Days and nights occur due to rotation while changes in seasons occur due to revolution.

Rotation: The movement of the earth on its axis is known as rotation.

Revolution: The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is known as revolution.

Orbital plane: The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.

Circle of illumination: The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.

Leap year: The year in which February is of 29 days instead of 28 days is called a leap year.

Summer solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere, the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called summer solstice.

Winter solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called winter solstice.

Equinox: On 21st March and September 23rd the entire earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is known as the equinox.

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Heat Zones of the Earth

Torrid Zones – The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the Torrid Zone.

Temperate Zones – The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. These are called Temperate Zones.

Frigid Zones – Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere are very cold. It is because here the sun does not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting and provide less heat. These are called Frigid Zones.

What are Longitudes?

Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole and are at right angles to the Equator. The distances between meridians of longitude are measured in degrees of longitude. Each degree is further divided into minutes, and minutes into seconds.

Prime Meridian is an imaginary line on Earth that passes north to south through the Greenwich Observatory in London, England. The prime meridian divides Earth into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. The prime meridian is at 0° (0 degrees) longitude. The longitude of a place is followed by the letter E for the east and W for the west.

Longitude and Time

The best means of measuring time is by the movement of the earth, the moon and the planets. When the Prime Meridian of Greenwich has the sun at the highest point in the sky, all the places along this meridian will have mid-day or noon. As the earth rotates from west to east, those places east of Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich time and those to the west will be behind it.

The rate of difference can be calculated as follows. The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15° an hour or 1° in four minutes. Thus, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich, the time at 15° east of Greenwich will be 15 × 4 = 60 minutes, i.e., 1 hour ahead of Greenwich time, which means 1 p.m. But at 15° west of Greenwich, the time will be behind Greenwich time by one hour, i.e., it will be 11.00 a.m. Similarly, at 180°, it will be midnight when it is 12 noon at Greenwich.

Why do we have Standard Time?

The local time of places, which are on different meridians are bound to differ. In India, for instance, there will be a difference of about 1 hour and 45 minutes in the local times of Dwarka in Gujarat and Dibrugarh in Assam. It is, therefore, necessary to adopt the local time of some central meridian of a country as the standard time for the country. In India, the longitude of 82½° E (82° 30’E) is treated as the standard meridian. The local time at this meridian is taken as the standard time for the whole country. It is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).

The Solar System

The sun, eight planets, satellites and some other celestial bodies known as asteroids and meteoroids form the solar system.

The Sun

The sun is in the centre of the solar system. It is huge and made up of extremely hot gases. It provides the pulling force that binds the solar system. The sun is the ultimate source of heat and light for the solar system. The sun is about 150 million km away from earth.

Planets

There are eight planets in our solar system. In order of their distance from the sun, they are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. All the eight planets of the solar system move around the sun in fixed paths. These paths are called orbits. Mercury is nearest to the sun. It takes only about 88 days to complete one round along its orbit. Venus is considered as ‘Earth’s-twin’ because its size and shape are very much similar to that of the earth. Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was also considered a planet. However, in a meeting of the International Astronomical Union, a decision was taken that Pluto, like other celestial objects (Ceres, 2003 UB313) discovered in recent past may be called ‘dwarf planets.”

The Earth

The earth is the third nearest planet to the sun. In size, it is the fifth-largest planet. It is slightly flattened at the poles. The Earth shape is described as a Geoid. Conditions favourable to support life are probably found only on the earth. It has water and air, which are very essential for survival. The air has life-supporting gases like oxygen. From the outer space, the earth appears blue because its two-thirds surface is covered by water. It is also called a blue planet.

The Moon

Moon is the earth’s satellite. Its diameter is only one-quarter that of the earth. It appear so big because it is nearer to our planet than other celestial bodies. It is about 3,84,400 km away from us. The moon moves around the earth in about 27 days. It takes exactly the same time to complete one spin. As a result, only one side of the moon is visible to us on the earth. The moon does not have conditions favourable for life. It has mountains, plains and depressions on its surface. These cast shadows on the moon’s surface.

Asteroids

Asteroids are tiny bodies that move around the sun. They are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Scientists are of the view that asteroids are parts of a planet, which exploded many years back.

Meteoroids

The small pieces of rocks, which move around the sun are called meteoroids. Sometimes, these meteoroids come near the earth and tend to drop upon it. During this process due to friction with the air, they get heated up and burn. It causes a flash of light. Sometimes, a meteor without being completely burnt falls on the earth and creates a hollow.

A cluster of millions of stars is called the Milky Way galaxy. Our solar system is a part of this galaxy. In ancient India, it was imagined to be a river of light flowing in the sky. Thus, it was named Akash Ganga.

Galaxy – A galaxy is a huge system of billions of stars

Notes of Chapter 9 Urban Livelihoods Class 6th Civics

• There are more than five thousand towns and twenty seven big cities in India. 

→ Big cities like Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata etc. have more than a million people living and working here.

• The main reason for the increase in number of towns is migration. 

• Villagers move to cities because of better facilities such as water, electricity, sanitation, education for children, employment opportunities, etc.

In the Market

• There are almost one crore ‘street vendors’ in the country working in urban areas.

• There are many people who own shops in various markets of the city. 

→ These shops may be small or large and they sell different things. 

• Most business-persons manage their own shops or business. 

→ They employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers.

In the Factory-Workshop Area

• People employed in factories are mostly casual workers (called to work and have to leave according to the availability of work).

→ Casual workers have to work long hours in poor conditions without job security and other benefits.

In the office area

• Many workers in the city who work in offices, factories, and government departments where they
are employed as regular and permanent workers.

• They attend the same office or factory regularly. 

• They get a regular salary.

• Unlike casual workers they will not be asked to leave if the factory does not have much work.

Kalpattu village

• People in Kalpattu village are involved in different professions such as blacksmiths, teachers, washer men, weavers, barbers, mechanics, shopkeepers and traders.

→ There are also some shopkeepers and traders.

→ There are variety of small shops such as tea shops, grocery shops, barber shops, a cloth shop, a tailor and two fertiliser and seed shops.

• Most of the families earn a living through agriculture.

• Paddy is the main crop that is grown in irrigated lands.

Rural Livelihoods

• Nearly two-fifth of all rural families are agricultural labourers in India.

• There are some who have small plots of land while others are landless.

→ People do not have their own land, work on the fields of larger landowners to earn their living.

• In India, 80 percent of farmers have small sized lands and only 20 percent of large farmers cultivate most of the land in the villages.

• Many of large farmers have started other businesses such as shops, moneylending, trading, small
factories etc.

• Apart from farming, many people in rural areas depend upon collection from the forest, animal
husbandry, dairy produce, fishing etc.

• Rural people in different regions of the country grow different crops. 

→ But there are various similarities in their life situations and in the problems that they face.

• Some families in rural areas which thrive on large acres of lands, business and other activities.

• Most small farmers, agricultural labourers, fishing families, crafts persons in the villages do not find enough work to keep them employed throughout the year.

• Farmers often borrow money from traders and moneylenders to buy seeds and fertilisers.

• The cities are quite different from villages.

• There are organisations that takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, keeping the streets and the market clean, runs schools, hospitals and dispensaries, maintain gardens. 

→ In big cities, these organisations are called Municipal Corporation. 

→ In smaller towns it is called a Municipal Council.

The Ward Councillor

• They are elected by the people living of their ward.

• Groups of Councillors make a budget and the money is spent according to this.

• The Ward Councillors try and ensure that the particular demands of their wards are placed before the entire council.

Administrative Staff

• Commissioner and administrative staff are appointed people

• They implement the issues.

Functions of the Municipal Corporation or Municipal Council

• The Municipal Corporation looks after the street lights, drainage system, garbage collection, water supply etc.

How does the Municipal Corporation get its money?

• The Municipal Corporation collects taxes in the form of property tax, water tax, education tax, entertainment tax etc.

Area of the Police Station

• Every police station has a fixed area which comes under its control.

• All persons of a particular area can register complaints in their local police station. 

→ The complaints can vary from theft, injury, fight or accident. 

The work at the Police Station

• The report lodged is known as First Information Report (F.I.R.). 

• The Station House Officer (S.H.O.) is in charge of every police station. 

• To get a case registered, one has to report in writing at the police station. 

→ Then, the police officials examine the case and take action as per the law. 

• In the rural areas, disputes occur over land very often.

Maintenance of Land Records

• Measuring land and keeping land records is the main work of the Patwari.

• The Patwari is known by different names in different states – in some villages such officers are
called Lekhpal, in others Kanungo or Karamchari or Village Officer etc.

Functions of Patwari

• The Patwari maintains and updates the records of the village.

• Responsible for organising the collection of land revenue from the farmers and providing information to the government about the crops grown in this area.

Management of Land of Village

• All states in India are divided into districts. 

• These districts are further sub-divided known by different names such as tehsil, taluka, etc.

• At the head is the District Collector and under her are the revenue officers, also known as tehsildars.

• The revenue officers or tehsildars come under the district collector.

• The tehsildar is responsible for supervising the work of Patwari regarding collection of land revenue.

• They also perform administrative tasks like providing farmers with copies of their land records and hearing land disputes.

A New Law: Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005)

 • The Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005) came into force from September 2005.

• In the new law sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share in the land. 

• The same law will apply to all states and union territories of the country.

Gram Sabha

The Gram Sabha-a meeting of all adults who live in the area covered by a Panchayat (could be only one village or a few villages). In some states, the village meeting is held for each village. Anyone who is 18 years old or more with the right to vote is a member of the Gram Sabha. The Gram Sabha meeting often begins with the Panchayat President (who is also called the Sarpanch) and the members of the Panchayat (the Panchs) presenting a plan. Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas. Each ward elects a representative who is known as the Ward Member (Panch). All the members of the Gram Sabha also elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat President. The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanch form the Gram Panchayat, which is elected for 5 years. The Gram Panchayat has a Secretary who is also the Secretary of the Gram Sabha, who is not an elected person but is appointed by the government and is responsible for calling the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat and keeping a record of the proceedings.

The Gram Sabha makes the Gram Panchayat play its role and be responsible and it is where all plans for the work of the Gram Panchayat are placed before the people. The Gram Sabha prevents the Panchayat from doing wrong things like misusing money or favouring certain people and keeps an eye on the elected representatives and makes them responsible to the persons who elected them.

The Gram Panchayat-meets regularly- implement development programmes for all villages that come under it- work of the Gram Panchayat has to be approved by the Gram Sabha- Gram Sabhas form committees like construction and development committees in some states-committees include some members of the Gram Sabha-some from the Gram Panchayat who work together to carry out specific tasks.

The work of a Gram Panchayat includes:

1. The construction and maintenance of water sources, roads, drainage, school buildings and other common property resources.

2. Levying and collecting local taxes.

3. Executing government schemes related to generating employment in the village.

Sources of funds for the Panchayat:

• Collection of taxes on houses, market places etc.
• Government scheme funds received through various departments of the government – through the Janpad and Zila Panchayats.
• Donations for community works etc.

Three Levels of Panchayats

Panchayati Raj System is a process through which people participate in their own government. In rural areas, the Gram Panchayat- first tier or level of democratic government. The Panchs and the Gram Panchayat-answerable to the Gram Sabha-it is the members of the Gram Sabha who elected them. The idea of people’s participation in the Panchayati Raj system extends to two other levels. One is the Block level, called the Janpad Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti with many Gram Panchayats under it. Above the Panchayat Samiti is the District Panchayat or the Zila Parishad that actually makes developmental plans at the district level. With the help of Panchayat Samitis regulates the money distribution among all the Gram Panchayats. Each state in the country has its own laws with regard to Panchayats. The idea is to provide more and more space for people to participate and raise their voices.

Key Elements of A Democratic Government

South Africa is a country of several races including African American people who belong to South Africa, the whites who came there to settle, Indians who came as labourers and traders and so on. Earlier, the country was governed by Apartheid laws. Apartheid means separation on the basis of race. African people were divided into white, African American, Indian and other races. According to the law, these races were not allowed to mingle with each other, live near each other or even use common facilities.

The African National Congress, a group of people led the struggle against apartheid and their most well-known leader, Nelson Mandela fought the apartheid system for several years. Finally, they succeeded and in 1994 South Africa became a democratic country in which people of all races were considered equal.

Participation

Why do we have regular elections? It was already discussed in an earlier chapter that people make decisions in a democracy. People elect leaders to represent them via elections. These leaders can also take decisions on behalf of the people. It is believed that these representatives will keep in mind the voices and the interests of the people. Every Government is elected for a fixed period. In India, it is for five years and every Government that is elected is allowed to stay in power for only that period. However, if they want to continue to be in power, then they will have to be re-elected by the people. In this way, regular elections limit the power of the government.

Other ways of participating

Elections are held once every 5 years. Besides voting, people can participate in the process of the Government by taking an interest in its operations and criticising it when required. For example, In August 2005, when the ruling Government of the time increased the money people had to pay for the electricity, they expressed their disapproval very sharply by taking out rallies and organising a signature campaign. Even though the Government tried to explain and defend their decision, they finally listened to the people’s opinion and withdrew the increase.

If a country’s people are alert and interested in how the country is run, the democratic character of the government of that country will be stronger. So the next time we see a rally winding through the streets of our cities and towns or villages we should pause to find out what the rally is about, who is participating in it, and what they are protesting about. This will help to give us a sense of how our government works. While it is true that democracy allows the people to participate, it is not all the sections of people who are actually able to do so.

Finding another way to participate, people organise themselves into social movements that seek to challenge the government and its functioning. Members of the minority community like the Dalits, Adivasis, women and others often participate in this manner. If the people of a country are alert and interested in how the country is run, then the democratic character of the government is expected to be stronger.

Need to Resolve Conflict

It is seen that conflicts can lead to violence and death when one group decides that it is all right to use force to prevent the other group from protesting. Conflicts arise when people of varied cultures, religions, regions or economic backgrounds do not get along with each other, or when some among them feel they are being discriminated against. People may use violent methods to settle their differences, leading to fear and tension among others living in an area. The Government is responsible for resolving conflicts. Religious processions and celebrations also lead to conflicts sometimes. For example, the route a procession takes may lead to a conflict. The government, particularly the police, play an important role in getting representatives of concerned communities to meet and try and arrive at a solution. Nevertheless, there is also fear that violence may erupt, with people throwing stones or trying to disrupt the procession. The police is in charge of ensuring that violence does not take place.

Meanwhile, rivers too can become a source of conflict between states if it begins in one state, flows through another and ends in a third. Sharing of river water between different states that the river goes through can become an issue of conflict. An example is given. The Cauvery Water dispute that broke out between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is an example. The origins of a legal dispute over Cauvery waters date back to 1892 and by the late 1960s, both states and the Central government began to realize the gravity of the situation as the 50-year run of the 1924 agreement was soon coming to an end. The water stored in Krishna Raja Sagara dam in Karnataka was used for irrigating a number of districts and for meeting the needs of the city of Bengaluru. At the same time, the water stored in Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu was used for crops grown in the delta region of that state. A conflict arose because both dams are on the same river. The downstream dam in Tamil Nadu could only be filled up if the water is released from the upstream one located in Karnataka leading to water scarcity in one state, as both states can’t get as much water as they need for people in their states. This leads to conflict. The central government has to step in to see that a fair distribution is worked out for both states.

Equality and Justice

The key idea of a democratic government is its commitment to equality and justice, which are inseparable. The earlier practice of untouchability is now banned by law. They were earlier denied education, transport or medical facilities and even the chance to offer prayers. Dr Ambedkar and many others like him realised that such practices must not continue and justice can only be achieved when people are treated equally. The government also recognises this and makes special provisions for groups within society that are unequal.

A Government is needed for every country to make decisions and get things done ranging from decisions about where to build roads and schools, or how to reduce the price of onions when they get too expensive or ways to increase the supply of electricity. They also take actions on social issues and other important things like running postal and railway services. In the meantime, the Government is also in charge of protecting the boundaries of the country and maintaining peaceful relations with other countries. Also, at the time of any calamity, it is in charge of organising aid and assistance for the affected people.

If you are wondering how these are done or why it needs to be done, then you need to know that when people live and work together, there needs to be some organisation so that decisions can be made. There need to be some rules that apply to everyone. The territory of a country should be protected and resources have to be controlled. The government can exercise its power and make the decision, also implement the decision amongst the people living in their territory.

Levels of Government

Now that you know all that a Government is responsible for, do you know how it manages to do all these things? Government works in three different levels: at the local level (means in your village or town locality),

Laws and the Government

The Government makes laws that everyone living in the country has to follow. It cannot only make a decision but can enforce it as well. Given is an example. Everyone driving a motor vehicle is required to have a licence. Any person caught driving a vehicle without a licence can either be jailed or fined a large sum of money. Same as the decisions that the Government can take, people can also take some steps if they feel that a particular law is not being followed. An example of this is given here. If a person feels that they were not hired for a job because of their religion or caste, he or she may approach the court to claim that the law is not being followed. The court can then give orders about what should be done.

Types of Government

Who gives the government this power to make decisions and enforce laws? In a democracy, people give the government this power via elections in which people vote for particular persons and elect them. These elected people form the Government. In a democracy, the government has to give explanations of its actions and defend its decisions to the people. In a monarchy type of Government, the monarch (king or queen) has the power to make decisions and run the government. They may discuss matters with a small group of people, but the final decision-making power remains with the monarch. Unlike in a democracy, kings and queens have no need to explain or defend their actions or the decisions they make.

Democratic Governments

India is a democracy as a result of a long and eventful struggle of the Indian people. Other places in the world have also struggled to have democracies. The main feature of a democracy is that the people have the power to elect their leaders so it can be called as a rule by the people. The basic idea is that people rule themselves by participating in the making of these rules. Democratic governments are also usually referred to as representative democracies in which people do not participate directly but, instead, choose their representatives through an election process. These representatives meet and make decisions for the entire population. Meanwhile, a government cannot call itself democratic unless it allows what is known as a universal adult franchise, where all adults in the country are allowed to vote. However, it is not always like this. There was a time when governments did not allow women and the poor to participate in elections. In their earliest forms, governments allowed only men who owned property and were educated, to vote, meaning that women, the poor, the property-less and the uneducated were not allowed to vote. The country was governed by the rules and regulations made by a few men. In India, before Independence, only a small minority was allowed to vote and they, therefore, came together to determine the fate of the majority. Many people including Gandhiji shocked at the unfairness of this practice demanded that all adults have the right to vote, giving rise to the universal adult franchise.