Class 11th

Motivation And Emotion- Notes for Class 11 Psychology

• The concept of motivation is central in our attempt to understand behaviour and its causes. The term itself comes from the latin word movere, meaning ‘to move’. Motivation is a process that influences the direction, persistence and vigor of goal directed behaviour.
• The process of motivation functions in a cycle i.e., Need —» Drive —» Arousal —» Goal Directed Behaviour -» Achievement -» Reduction of Arousal -» Need.
• Motives can be classified as Biological motives and Psychological motives.
• Biological motives emphasise on inborn, biological causes like Neurotransmitters, hormones and thenervous system.
• Psychological motives emphasise on Socio-environmental factors, e.g,, Achievement . need, affiliation, power, curiosity, etc.
• Abraham Maslow, a humanistic theorist, proposed a broad motivational model. He believed that Psychology’s other perspectives ignore a key human motive our striving for personal growth. He proposed the concept of a need hierarchy. To Maslow, self actualisation, which represents the need to fulfil our potential, is the ultimate human motive.
• When individual’s needs and motives are not fulfilled then frustration, conflict and pressure become internal sources of stress and disturb the equilibrium of the individual.
• Need refers to a physical state involving any lack or defeat within the organism.
• Drive refers to an around condition of the organism based upon deprivation.
• Psychological motives, in contrast to biological motives, are determined primarily by learning. They appear later in development, and become important after basic needs are satisfied.
• Aggression, defined as behaviour intended to injure another person or to destroy property, may be primarily hostile-aimed at inflicting injury-or instrumental -aimed at goals other than the victim’s suffering.
• Emotions can serve as motives, goals, or accompaniments of motivated behaviour. Intense emotions involve widespread bodily changes that result from activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. The James-Lange theory proposes that feedback from these bodily responses determines the quality of an emotion. Canon’s theory argues that emotions and autonomic responses occur simultaneously one is not the cause of the other.
• Although feedback from autonomic responses is important, attempts to differentiate between different emotions, such as fear and anger, on the basis of physiological responses, have had little success. The individual’s appraisal of the emotion-producing situation largely determines the quality of the emotion.
• The cognitive-physiological theory proposes that emotional states are a function of the interaction of cognitive factors and physiological arousal experiments in which subjects were injected with epinephrine show the importance of cognitive factors in labeling emotional states.
• Some forms of emotional expression appear to be in borm or to develop through maturation. But learning is important in modifying emotional expression to conform to the patterns approved by the culture.
• Existentialism is a school of thought that led stress on the question of human existence. It asserts that the ultimate and unquestionable reality is not consciousness but existence. Unlike many organisms in the animal kingdom, human beings are bom in society and their existence depends on the assistance available from the primary caretakers.
• Competence means a person’s ability to perform a given task. In other way we can say that it is the state of being adequately or well qualified or having the ability to perform a specific task skillfully.
• Self-efficacy is an individual’s trust on his/her own capabilities to produce designated levels of performance. Having a strong sense of self-efficacy enhances human accomplishments and well-being in many ways. Self-efficacy enhances intrinsic interest and facilitates deep engagement in activities.
Words That Matter
1. Motivation: The process of persistent behaviour directed towards a specific goal, which results from certain driving forces, is called motivation.
2. Need: Lack or deficit of some necessity.
3. Drive : A state of tension or arousal produced by a need.
4. Instinct : Inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically determined rather than learned.
5. Affiliation: Seeking other human beings and wanting to be close to them both physically and psychologically is called affiliation.
6. Need for power: Ability of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour and emotions of another person.
7. Need for achievement : It energises and directs behaviour as well as influences the perception of situations.
8. Frustration: It occurs when an anticipated desirable goal is not attained and the motives is blocked. It is an aversive state and no one likes it.
9. Conflict: Choosing between contradictory needs, desires, motives, or demands.
10. Emotion: It is stirred up state. A complex pattern of arousal that involves physiological activation, conscious awareness of feeling, and a specific cognitive label that describes the process.
11. Mood : Affective state of long duration but of lesser intensity that emotion.
12. James Lange Theory : A theory of emotion that holds that body’s reaction to a stimulus produces emotional perceptional; the overt feeling of emotion is a result of the bodily changes.
13. Canon-Bard Theory: This theory claims that the entire process of emotion is mediated by thalamus which after perception of the emotion provoking stimulus, conveys this information simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and to the skeletal muscles and sympathetic nervous system.
14. Anxiety : It is a condition that an individual develops in case of failure to adopt an appropriate ego defence.
15. Emotional intelligence : The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Thinking – Notes for Class 11 Psychology

• Thinking is a cognitive process in which mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organising and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others. It is organised and goal directed. Thinking is an internal cognitive process which can be inferred from overt behaviour. We can say that thinking is a silent speech because thinking is based on concepts and words.
• Our thought process is based on mental images, i.e., mental representations that stand for objects or events that have a picture like quality. It is basically mental representation of a sensory experience.
• Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.
• Concepts can represent many different levels of objects or events. Concepts can be very general form such as ‘fruit’ called superordinate concept. The concept ‘mango’ is more specific but can still be a basic level type. An Alphonso mango would be a subordinate concept.
• Concepts can be classified as Natural Concepts and Artificial Concepts also.
• Mental images and concepts are building blocks of thinking.
• Cognition includes thinking, problem solving, concept formation, and the processing of information to obtain judgments and decisions. Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in place of overt activity. It varies from the use of motor trial and error to thquse of mental images and previously programmed rules.
• The information processing approach is a different way of understanding thinking and related processes. This approach looks at the process of thinking in terms of active processing of information by the human brain. It involves various capacities as planning, decision making and solving the problem.
• The information processing perspective suggest that cognitive development can best be understood in terms of improvements in basic aspects of information processing.
• Thinking is involved in the system of inputs-central processing-outputs where these three aspects function as a whole. Language is important in thinking.
• Reasoning differs from trial and error in three important ways. In reasoning the goal may not be clear; whereas in explicit problem solving, variations in behaviour result from changed external stimuli, in reasoning this may not be so simple. And in reasoning, symbolic stimuli are used. Reasoning begins with a question for which we do not have a ready answer.
• Problem solving is an orderly process. It begins with a definition of the problem, asking first of all if it is a real problem. Next comes working on the problem, organizing it in relation to principles. We go through the process of coming to a conclusion, determining the best possible one. Effective problem solving then involves doing something about the conclusion. Reviewing our activity is necessary to building good thinking habits, so that we know what to do or not to do when next we meet a similar problem. The review is important in enabling us to learn from experience.
• Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem. Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation and persistence are some of the obstacles in problem solving.
• Reasoning refers to realistic thinking process that draws a conclusion from a set of facts. Deductive and inductive reasoning facilitate problem solving. When we start with assumption then it is called deductive reasoning but when our reasoning is based on facts and observation than it is called inductive reasoning. Analogy is a form of reasoning. These two forms of reasoning lead us to make judgement.
• Judgement is a process of forming opinions, reaching conclusions and making evaluations based on available material.
• Judgement and decision making are interrelated process.
• The production of something novel and original with social appropriateness is called creative thinking. The-process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviour in new ways is creativity. Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer is known as convergent thinking. Type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and come up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point is called divergent thinking.
• Process of creative thinking involves preparation, incubation, illumination and verification stages. Creative thinking is a product of heredity and environment. Habitual learning, perceptual, motivational and emotional blocks and cultural barriers are main obstacles to develop creative thinking.
• Brain Storming Practicing fluency and flexibility of thoughts, enjoying activities in which imagination and original thinking is involved, avoiding temptation for immediate reward, being self confident and positive attitude are some of the strategies through which one can realise the creative potential.
• Language is a system of combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others. Language is distinctly human. Language and thought are intricately related. Major development in language occurs during the first two or three years of age.
• Most of Psychologists believe that language development in children is a product of heredity and environment. Children universally seem to have a ‘critical period’ for learning language.
• Cognitive development is about how a child’s way of knowing the world or thinking, changes over time. Piaget and Vygotsky were pioneers in this field and developed theories about the way cognitive development occurs. According to Piaget, children’s thinking is qualitatively different from that of adults, passing through distinct stages of development. He further stated that all children progress through these changes in exactly the same sequence, although the specific age at which a child makes a transition from one stage to another can vary.
•  Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist lead emphasis on the role of the social environment in the development of cognitive processes in children.
  Words That Matter
  1. Thinking : It is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It is a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyse the acquired or existing information.
  2. Image : An image is a mental representation of a sensory experience. It can be used to think about things, places, and events.
  3. Concept: Concepts are mental categories for objects and events, which are similar to each other in one or more than one way.
  4. Prototype : A prototype is a best represented active member of category.
  5. Mentally set: It is a tendency of a person to solve problems by following already tried mental operations or steps.
  6. Reasoning: It is the process of gathering and analyzing information to arrive at conclusions.
  7. Deductive Reasoning : The kind of reasoning that begins with an assumptions is called deductive reasoning.
  8. Inductive Reasoning : Reasoning, that is based on specific facts and observation, is called inductive reasoning.
  9. Judgement: In judgement we draw conclusion, form opinions, evaluate events, objects, based on knowledge and available evidences.
  10. Creative Thinking: It involves the production of something new and original it may be
  an idea, object or solution to a problem. .
  11. Vertical Thinking : It involves mental operations that move in a straight line back and forth between lower and higher level concepts.
  12. Lateral Thinking : It involves looking for alternative ways of defining and interpreting only one correct answer.
  13. Functional Fixedness : It problem solving it occurs when people fail to solve a problem because they are fixed on a thing’s usual function.

Human Memory – Notes for Class 11 Psychology

• Memory is a term that can be used in many different ways, but most often in one of the three ways:
• A mental function by which we are able to retain and retrieve information about events that have happened in the past. When we organise something so that we can remember it or recall it later on, we are said to be using memory.
• The storage system whereby these memories are retained in the brain. Terms such as STM and LTM are used to indicate the time span of such system.
• The information that we actually remember i.e., we have a memory of something.
• According to the second perspective Memory is seen as consisting of three interrelated . processes of encoding, storage and retrieval.
• Encoding is a process by which information is processed and registered in memory system.
• Storage refers to the process through which information is retained.
• Retrieval refers to bringing the stored information to ones awareness so that it can be used for performance.
• Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Stage Model of Memory explains the process of Memorisation in the lines of computer and suggests that incoming information is processed through three stages, i.e., sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
• Craiks and Lockhart’s levels of processing view of memory suggests that information can be encoded at three levels i.e,, the structural, the phonatic and the semantic. The information which is encoded and processed semantically than it leads to better storage.
Any information which has been encoded verbally with the help of concepts and Sehemas as well as in the form of images, i.e., dual coding is retained better and can be recalled for performance easily.
• According to Bartlett—a British Psychologist, memory is not only a reproductive but also a constructive process. The retained information during storage undergoes change and modification within ones past knowledge and Schema.
• Memory can be enhanced. There are various strategies for improving memory called ‘ Mnemonics’. The Mnemonics can be classified as Mnemonics using images Mnemonics using organisation.
• Image based Mnemonics use the Keyword Method and the Method of Loci. Whereas Mnemonics using organisation makes retrieval effective by using chunking and first letter technique.
• These Mnemonics can enhance simple memory but for complex mental processes a comprehensive approach to memory enhancement is required. For this purpose deep level processing of information, minimising interference, developing enough retrieval cues can help better.
Thomas and Robinson developed PQRST method for improvement of memory which is very practical and gives better results.
• We can think of human memory as being composed of three different, but related, stages of memory.
• The sensory register holds a replica of the visual, auditory, or other sensory input for a very brief interval while relevant information is selected for further processing.
• Short term memory holds information, generally as acoustic codes, for about a half minute unless it’s renewed through rehearsal.
• The capacity of short-term memory (STM) is quite limited unless information is organized into larger chunks.
• Long-term memory (LTM) stores information primarily in terms of its meaning, or semantic codes. Its capacity is very large and memories store there seem to be permanent.
• The store of information in Long Term Memory is so vast that it must be organized in some way to facilitate retrieval of information. Current theories suggest that that the organization is primarily in terms of categories of meaning or in associative networks.
• Forgetting occurs because information is distorted or can no longer be retrieved rather than because it’s lost from the long-term memory store.
• The division of memory into a distinct STM and LTM has been questioned by some theorists. They suggest, instead, that the duration that information can be held in memory depends on the depth at which it is processed, not the stage of memory in which it is held.
• Information that is processed deeply during the encoding process (more richly elaborated is stored more permanently than information that is processed in a shallow way. If this distinction is kept in mind, however, it still may be useful to think of memory in terms of the STM/LTM stage model.
• There are four major causes of forgetting, each with different relevance to the three stages of memory.
• Forgetting in the sensory register seems to occur primarily because of simple decay of the memory over time.
• Forgetting in short-term memory can be attributed to decay over time but also to interference from other similar information stored in memory.
• Interference from other memories explains some forgetting in long-term memory also, but much forgetting also seems to be caused by the reconstruction of memories to the point that they are inaccurate or irretrievable.
• Memories may also be lost from LTM because they are unpleasant or threatening to us in some way (motivated forgetting), but both positive and negative emotions appear to facilitate memory.
• Retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia are the two major types of memory disorders that are caused by problems in the functioning of the memory areas of the human brain. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia found in adults and elderly.
Words That Matter
1. Chunking: A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit.
2. Cognitive economy : A term to denote maximum and efficient use of the capacity of long-term memory through organisation of concepts in a hierarchical network.
3. Concept: A general category of ideas, objects, people, or experiences whose members share certain properties.
4. Control processes: Mechanisms which govern transfer of information from one system of storage to another.
5. Dual-coding theory: Paivio’s theory that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and
visual codes, since either can lead to recall. .
6. Echoic memory : A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
7. Elaborative rehearsals : The linking of new information in short-term memory to familiar material stored in long-term memory.
8. Encoding : The process of recording information into the memory system of the first time.
9. Fugue state : Amnesia accompanied by actual physical flight – the person may wander away for several hours or move to another area and establish a new life with a new identity
10. Information-processing approach : An approach concerned with how individuals process information about their world, how information enters our minds, how it is stored and transformed, and how it is retrieved to perform problem solving and reasoning.
11. Maintenance rehearsal: Active repetition of information to enhance subsequent access to it.
12. Mnemonics : Strategies or techniques that use familiar associations in storing new information to be more easily retrieved.
13. Schema : A cognitive structure; a network of associations that organizes and guides an individual’s perceptions.
14. Semantic memory : LTM component that stores memory for basic meanings of words and concepts.
15. Serial learning : The learning of a sequence of responses in the precise order of their
presentation.
16. Working memory: Memory processes that preserve recently perceived events or experiences, also called short-term memory.

I. Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behaviour or in the potential for behaviour brought about through experience.
• Learning is normally distinguished from other changes in behaviour or in the predisposition to behave in a certain way. Learning is normally distinguished from other changes in behaviour that might be due to evolution or maturation, in that it normally occurs as a result of practice or other related experience during the life time of the organism. Behavioural changes that occur due to learning are relatively permanent. The changes in behaviour due to continuous exposure to stimuli i.e., habituation is not due to learning. Learning is sequential i.e., it involves a sequence of psychological events. Learning is different from performance. Learning is an inferred process. Performance is person’s observed behaviour which gives guarantee of learning although learning never gives guarantee of performance.
II. Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which a previously learnt stimulus;. CS) neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits an unlearned or unconditioned response (UCR). As a result, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is identical or very similar to the UCR.

(A) Classical conditioning occurs because of the association in time of a neutral stimulus that already elicits the response. The CS becomes a signal that predicts the occurrence of the UCS.
III. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour lead to changes in the probability of its occurrence.
(A) In positive reinforcement, a positive consequence of behaviour leads to an increase in the probability of the occurrence of the response.
1. Primary reinforcers are innately reinforcing.
2. Secondary reinforcers are learned through classical conditioning.
3. Four different schedules of reinforcement that result in different patterns of behaviour are fixed ration, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval.
4. Shaping is the process of positively reinforcing responses that are progressively more similar to the response that is wanted.
(B) Negative reinforcement occurs when the reinforcing consequence is the removal or avoidance of a negative event.
(C) Punishment is the process through which an aversive consequence of behaviour reduces the frequency of the behaviour.
IV. New stimuli come to influence behaviour through the process of learning.
(A) We say that a stimulus discrimination has been learned when a response is more likely to occur in the presence of a specific stimulus that in its absence.
(B) Stimulus generalization has occurred when an individual responds in the same way to a stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus.
V. The process of unlearning a learned response because of the removal of the aspect of the environment that originally caused the learning is termed as extinction. Extinction is sometimes slowed because of spontaneous recovery and external disinheriting.
• Imitation is another form of learning which is called observational learning. The reinforcement provided by parents when their children imitate grown up actions ensures that children acquire many aspects of behaviour in this way. It is also known as modelling. In modelling somebody observes another (the model) and then attempts to imitate their behaviour. The concept is based on Bandura’s Social learning theory.
• Human beings mostly learn through knowledge about objects and events in terms of words. This is called Verbal learning.
• Verbal learning can be studied through method of paired-associates learning, serial learning and free recall. Meaningfulness of the material time devoted on learning, category clustering, i.e., subjective organisation are the main determinants of verbal learning.
• Learning occurs in the form of concept, i.e., in terms of category. Concept involves a set of features connected with a rule or instruction: concept can be natural or artificial. Natural concepts are ill defined and difficult to learn whereas Artificial concepts are well defined and easy to learn.
• Skill refers to the ability of an individual to perform an act with ease and precision. Skills are acquired through stages that are cognitive, associative and autonomous phase.
• Transfer of learning refers to the way in which we might transfer skills learnt in one situation to a second, related situation. Thus, learning to play Tennis may introduce a range of coordination and racket skills that would then transfer to similar games such as Squash.
• Factors facilitating learning include reinforcement, motivation and preparedness of the learner and the learner’s performance is facilitated by his/her cognitive style. Cognitive style refers to a learner’s consistant way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning.
• Learning disability refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested in terms of difficulty in the acquisition of learning, reading, writing, speaking, reasoning and mathematical activities. These disabilities are mostly inherited or neurologically determined.
• Learning curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between the duration of learning experience or practice trials and observed changes in performance on the learning task. In learning curve, the units of practice/trials are depicted on the horizontal axis and the degree of learning measured in terms of number of errors, correct responses, time taken etc. are shown on the vertical axis.
VI. Psychologists disagree about whether learning results from neural connections between specific stimuli and specific responses or whether learning is a change in cognition.
(A) Research that supports the cognitive view includes Tolman’s studies of place learning and latent learning, Kohler’s studies of insight learning, and Bandura’s work on modeling.
(B) The ability of humans to learn from experience is not limitless; it is influenced in a number of ways by biological factors.
Words That Matter
1. Learning : It is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience or practice.
2. Associative learning: Learning that certain events occur together. Te events may be two stimuli (As in classical conditioning) or a response and it consequences (As in operant conditioning)
3. Cognitive learning: In this type of learning an organism comes to associate stimuli.
4. Operant: An operant is any response voluntarily emitted by an organism.
5. Operant learning : This is a type of learning in which response is strengthened if followed by reinforcement.
6. Reinforcer: Any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a desired response is known as reinforcer.
7. Reinforcement : Reinforcer are stimuli that increase the rate or probability of the responses that precede
8. Negative reinforcer : Any unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future.
9. Generalisation: The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses.
10. Observational learning : In this type of learning observers acquire knowledge by observing the model’s behaviour.
11. Insight learning : The process by which the solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear is termed as insight learning.
12. Latent learning: In this type of learning, a new behaviour is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it.
13. Cognitive learning: In this kind of learning, there is a change in what the learner knows rather than what she/he does.
14. Verbal learning: In verbal learning words get associated with one another on the basis of structural, phonetic and semantic similarity and contrast.
15. Concept: A concept is a pategory that is used to refer to a number of objects and events.
16. Artificial concepts: These are those concepts that are well-defined and rules connecting the features are precise and rigid.
17. Skill: It refers to the ability to carry out complex tasks smoothly and efficiently. They are learned by practice and exercise.
18. Motivation: It is a mental as well as a physiological state, which arouses an organism to act for fulfilling the current need.
19. Learning style: It is a learner’s consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning.
20. Perceptual modality: These are biologically based reactions to the physical environment. It refers to the preferences of persons through which they take in information such as auditory, visual, smell, kinesthetic and tactile.

Sensory, Attentional And Perceptual Processes – Notes for Class 11 Psychology

• We know our environment in particular and the world at large through our sense organs. The information collected by our sense organs is basis of our cognition. The whole phenomena of cognitive functioning is determined by sensation, attention and perception. Sensation refers to the stimulation of a receptor (e.g., eyes) rather than the experience (e.g., seeing i.e. perception). Attention refers to the tendency of an organism to focus on selected features of the environment. Perception is a process by which information in the environment is transformed into an experience.

I. External stimuli are received through specialized sensory receptor cells.
(A) Sense organs receive stimuli, convert sensory energy into neural impulses, and send neural messages to the brain for interpretation.
(B) Psychophysics is the field of psychology that studies the relationships between physical stimuli and psychological sensations and perceptions.
II. The sense organs of sight transduce light energy.
(A) The intensity of light waves largely determines brightness, while the wavelength (frequency) largely determines colour.
(B) The eye, working much like a camera, is the primary sense organ for seeing.
1. Light enters the eye through the cornea (with the iris regulating the size of the pupil) and the lens into the retina.
2. Rods and cdnes convert light waves into neural impulses for transportation to the brain.
3. The 125 million rods, located throughout the retina except for the fovea, are active in peripheral vision and vision in dim light, but they do not play a role in colour vision.
4. The 6 million cones clustered mostly near the fovea code information for colour.
5. Both trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory are helpful in understanding colour vision.
III. The sense of hearing detects sound waves.
(A) The frequency of sound waves determines pitch, while the intensity determines loudness.
(B) The ear is the primary sense organ for hearing.
(C) Sound waves vibrate the eardrum, which is connected to a series of three movable bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) in the midDiffemtial thresholde ear.
(D) The inner ear, containing the cochlea and the organ of Corti, transduces the sound wave energy into neural impulses for transportation to the brain.
IV. Chemical senses respond to chemicals rather than to energy in the environment.
(A) In the sense of taste, chemicals produce the perception of qualities of sweet, sour, bitter, and salty.
(B) In the sense of smell, chemicals produce the perception of odours.
V. Internal stimuli are also received by the sensory system.
(A) The vestibular organ provides information about body orientation, while the kinesthetic sense reports bodily position and movement.
(B) The various skin senses can detect pressure, temperature, and pain.
1. Two sensations of pain reach the brain at slightly different times because they travel on different neural pathways.
(a) The first sensation reaches the somatosensory area quickly on myelinated neurons.
(b) The more emotional type of pain reaches the limbic system more slowly on unmyelinated neurons.

Word That Matter

1. Absolute threshold : The minimum intensity necessary for a stimulus to be detected.
2. After images : A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.
3. Binocular cues : Depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes.
4. Bottom-up processing : In form perception, progression from individual elements to
the whole.
5. Cochlea : The fluid-filled, coiled tunnel in the inner ear that contains the receptors for hearing.
6. Cones : Specialised visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and colour vision.
7. Dark adaptation : The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.
8. Depth perception : The perception of the distance of an object from the observer or the distance from front to back of a solid object.
9. Difference threshold : The minimum difference between a pair of stimuli that can be perceived.
10. Divided attention : The process by which attention is split between two or more sets of stimuli.
11. Eustachian tube : Passage that connects the middle ear to the throat and allows release of pressure.
12. Gestalt: An organized whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasise our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
13. Lightadaptationr : Theadjustmentoftherodsandconesintheeyeto changes in illumination.
14. Loudness : The perception of a sound wave’s amplitude.
15. Monocular cues : Visual cues from one eye only.
16. Organ of corti : Structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptor cells for hearing.
17. Perceptual constancy : The ability, in perception, to draw similar inferences about the world from different patterns of sensory activity (e.g., a person seen from many different angles is still perceived as the same person).
18. Phi phenomenon : The illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession.
19. Pitch : The perceptual interpretation of a sound’s frequency.
20. Primary colours: A set of three colours, i.e. red, green, and blue, when mixed in unequal amounts can produce any colour.
21. Retina: Layer of cells at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors.
22. Rods : Specialised visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.
23. Selective attention : The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
24. Timbre : The characteristic quality of a tone produced by the combination of overtones heard along with the pure tone.
25. Top-down processing : In form perception, a progression from the whole to the elements.
26. Visual illusions: Physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception.
27. Wavelength: The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

Human Development –Notes for Class 11 Psychology

• Development is viewed as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, historically embedded, multidisciplinary and biological. Cognitive and socio-emotional processes influence development.
• The ideas about development revolve around three issues: nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity and stability and change. Some basic principles underline the process of development, which can be observed in all human beings.
• There are differentrstages of development signifying specific developmental tasks to be accomplished during that period or stage of life.
• Infancy is the period from birth to 18 months of age. It marks the beginning of language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
• Early childhood years extend from end of infancy to 5 to 6 years of age and are also called the “preschool year”. The middle and late childhood years is the period from 6 to 11 years of age. The child is able to master the fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic, the child also develops physically, socially and morally.
• Adolescence begins at puberty, and is the transition from childhood to adulthood. Physical changes in adolescence include the development of secondary sex characteristics, hormonal changes, and spurt in growth. The major developmental tasks for the adolescent include identity formation and coming to terms with biological changes taking place.
• Adult year is the time of establishing personal and economic independence, starting a career, getting married and starting a family. Middle adulthood is the time for the individual to adjust to vocational changes, expanding families, changing roles e.g. grand-parenting etc. Old age is the time to respond to changes in physical and cognitive capacities, retirement and death of spouse.
• Later adult years represent another segment of life span which are accompanied by physiological and cognitive changes.
• The chapter gives an overview of the entire lifespan, from birth to death. You must have realized that development and change continue throughout the life span. No period of life is completely stable or unchanging. If one aspect has stabilized others are
. developing. Infact the human being is constantly making adaptation to the changing world throughout his/her life.
Word That Matter
1. Adolescence: The developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, starting at approximately 11 to 13 years of age and ending at 18 to 20 years of age.
2. Animism : A facet of preoperational thought; the belief that inanimate objects have “lifelike” qualities and are capable of action.
3. Attachment: A close emotional bond between the infant and the parents or caregiver.
4. Centration: The focusing or centring of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
5. Cephalocaudal pattern : The sequence in which the greatest growth occurs at the top- the head with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom.
6. Concrete operational stage : The third piagetian stage, lasting approximately from 7 to 11 years.
7. Deductive reasoning: Reaching a conclusion by accepting the premises of an argument and then following the formal logical rules.
8. Development : It is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin at conception and continue throughout life.
9. Egocentrism : A salient feature of pre-operational thought, which refers to the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective.
10. Evolution: The theory proposed by Charles Darwin that over time organisms originate and change in response to adaptational demands of their unique environments.
11. Gender: The social dimension of being male or female.
12. Maturation : The orderly sequence of changes dictated by each person’s genetic blueprint.
13. Menarche : The first occurrence of menstruation.
14. Motor development: The progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities.
15. Object permanence: Understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
16. Operations : Internalised sets of actions that allow the child to do mentally what was done physically before. ‘
17. Phenotype : Observable features by which individuals are recognised.
18. Prenatal period : The time from conception to birth.
19. Pre-operational stage : The second Piagetian stage in which children begin to represent world with words, images, and drawings but cannot perform operations in logical manner.
20. Primary sex characteristics : The sexual structures necessary for reproduction.
21. Proximodistal trend: The center-outward direction of motor development.
22. Puberty : A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence.
23. Reflex arc : A receptor neuron and an efferent neuron capable of mediating a S-R sequence.
24. Secondary sex characteristics : Physical features that are associated with gender but that are not directly involved in reproduction.
25. Self : The individuals perception or awareness of herself or himself-of her or his body, abilities, personality traits, and ways of doing things.
26. Sensorimotor stage: The first Piagetian stage in which infants construct an understanding
of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical and motor actions.

How Neurons Transmit Information?

Let’s begin with the first topic for The Bases of Human Behaviour Class 11 notes, neurons and how they transmit information.

Neurons are the basic unit of our nervous system and these are specialized cells that convert various forms of stimuli into electrical impulses. 

• They receive information from sense organs or adjacent neurons and transfer them to the central nervous system(CNS) and bring motor information from the central nervous system to the motor neurons
• Pathway of how neurons transmit information is illustrated below-

Structure Of Neuron

Here is the structure of a Neuron as per Class 11 Bases of Human Behaviour:

• Dendrites receive the incoming neural impulses from adjacent neurons or directly from sense organs.
• Then the nerve impulse is passed on to the main body of the neuron which is the soma
• From there it is passed on the axon.
• Axon mainly helps in transmitting the information to the terminal buttons.
• The main function of terminal buttons is to transmit the information to another neuron, gland, or muscle.
• Neurons generally conduct information in one direction, which is from dendrites through soma and axon to terminal buttons.

Nervous System

The next topic for Bases of Human Behaviour Class 11 notes is the nervous system. The human nervous system is the most complex and developed part of all living creatures and is a massive network of nerve cells that relays messages to and from the CNS. Its schematic representation is depicted below for ease of clarity and understanding:

• The central nervous system is the part of the brain which is found inside the hard bony cases ( cranium and backbone) is classified as CNS. The brain and Spinal Cord are the organs of this system.
• The parts of the nervous system other than the central nervous system are placed in the Peripheral Nervous System(PNS) which is further classified into the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

• The PNS comprises all the neurons and nerve fibers that facilitate the connection of  CNS to the rest of the body and provides information to the CNS from sensory receptors (eyes, skin) and relays back motor commands from the brain to muscles and glands
• Somatic Nervous System is concerned with voluntary actions and consists of two nerves:

– Sensory nerves that carries information from sense organs to central nervous system. 

– Motor nerves that carries information from central nervous system to sense organs.

• The autonomic nervous system governs those activities which are not under the direct control of humans and activities governed by it are blood circulation, breathing, emotional reactions, etc.
• The autonomic nervous system is further classified into: 

1. Parasympathetic Division

• Inhibits salivation
• Increases sweating
• Decreases digestive functions of the intestine
• Accelerates heart

2. Sympathetic Division 

• Increases digestive functions of the intestine
• Slows heart rate
• Increases salivation
• Inhibits sweating

• The central nervous system is the center of all neural activity and it integrates all incoming sensory information performs all kinds of cognitive activities and issues motor commands to muscle and glands.

• The central nervous system mainly consists of the brain and spinal cord.

The brain has 3 sections: The hindbrain, The Forebrain and the Midbrain.

                      The hindbrain consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Medulla is responsible for regulation of heart rate,blood pressure,pons help in controlling respiration and cerebellum helps in coordinating voluntary muscle movement and maintaining body posture.

The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.

Cerebrum consists of four lobes, mainly frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe. thalamus involves recognition of sensory stimuli and relay of sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex. The Hypothalamus is mainly responsible for regulating cardiac functioning,blood pressure and respiration.

The Midbrain is the major pathway of sensory and motor impulses moving between the forebrain and the midbrain. It is also responsible for the coordination of visual and auditory reflexes.

• The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
• Its  major functions are explained as follows:

1. Carries sensory impulses coming from lower parts of the body to the brain and motor impulses originating from the brain to all over the body
2. Performs some simple reflexes that do not involve the brain.

• Reflex action is an involuntary action that occurs very quickly after its specific kind of stimulation without the conscious decision of the brain. For example, the eye blinking reflex.

The Endocrine System

Let’s read the details about the Endocrine system for the Bases of Human Behaviour Class 11 notes. The endocrine system comprises those glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream and that helps in our development and behavior.

Heredity: Genes And Behavior

The next topic covered in our Bases of Human Behaviour Class 11 notes is Heredity.

1. The study of the inheritance of physical and psychological characteristics from ancestors is termed Genetics.
2. Chromosomes are hereditary elements of the body and they are threadlike paired structures in the nucleus of each cell. The number of chromosomes per nucleus is distinctive and is constant for each organism. Each chromosome consists of DNA and there are 23 pairs of chromosomes.
3. The genotype of an organism is the genetic code in its cells that influences an individual’s development whereas the phenotype depends on the genotype but can be influenced by environmental factors.
4. Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring whereas memes can be transmitted between any two individuals in a matter of hours. 

Culture

Culture is another essential aspect under The Bases of Human Behavior Class 11 studies. It is the man-made part of the environment that comprises the diverse products of the behavior of many people including ourselves which can be material products, ideas, approaches, etc.

• It comprises values that will be expressed and a language which will help in expressing values. It also contains a way of life that will be followed by the majority who grow up in that context
• It includes behavioral products of others who preceded us
• It indicates substantial or abstract particulars which have prior existence in one form or the other.

Acculturation And Enculturation

The next topic under The Bases of Human Behavior Class 11 is acculturation and enculturation.

Socialization

It is the process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills, and dispositions that enable them to participate as effective group members and society. The features of socialization are as follows-

1. Forms the basis of social and cultural transmission from one generation to another.
2. Rewards and Punishments serve as the basic means of achieving the goals of socialization.
3. It involves deliberate teaching and engagement of people
4. The four main agents of socialization are Parents, School, Peer Groups, and Media Influences.

Methods of Enquiry in Psychology: Goals

Description

• The description requires recording a particular behaviour and describing it accurately so as to attain a comprehensive understanding of the same
• For example, morning habits may have a diverse range of behaviours like reading positive literature, meditation, exercise, journaling etc.

Prediction

• It is the second goal of psychological enquiry 
• Here we attempt to understand the relationship between the behaviour we are describing with the other types of behaviour.

Explanation

• It is the third goal of psychological enquiry
• It attempts to explain the causal factors of behaviour and attain an understanding of the conditions in which the behaviour occurs or not.

Control

• It is the fourth goal of psychological inquiry
• It focuses on three things
  • Making a particular behaviour happen
  • Reducing it
  • Enhancing it

Application 

• It is the fifth goal of psychological enquiry
• focuses on bringing out a positive change in people’s lives 

Steps in Conducting a Scientific Research

Conceptualizing a problem

• It is the first step of conducting a scientific research
• The researcher selects a topic for study which is done on basis of either review of past research, observations, personal experience

Identification of problem

• It is the second step of scientific research
• Development of a tentative statement about the topic takes place which is termed a hypothesis
• For example, “ greater is the amount of time spent by children in playing violent video games, the greater is the degree of impatience and anger developed by them”

Collection of data

• This step focuses on developing a research design or blueprint of the entire study.
• Decisions are taken about the following
  • Participants in the study
  • Methods of study
  • Tools to be used in research
  • Procedure for data collection

Drawing conclusions

• The next step of scientific research is to analyse data through statistical procedures
• It can be achieved through  measures of central tendency like mean, median, mode and graphical presentations like pie charts, bar diagram

Revising research conclusions

• The researcher revises the whole study and the hypothesis being taken is analysed thoroughly to see whether it stands true or not 

• Psychology is defined as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and
behaviour in different contexts.
In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically.
It makes sense of the data so that it can be organized as knowledge.
• Mental process:
(i) Mental processes are activities of the mind and brain, related to cognition.
(ii) We use mental processes when we think or remember something, or solve a problem.
(iii) However, these mental activities are -different from neural activities, though they are mutually overlapping processes.
(iv) The mind emerges and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically organized in the form of a system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental processes.
(v) Mental processes include reasoning, learning, thinking, problem solving, perception, etc.
• Experiences:
Experiences can be defined as the learning acquired through everyday life situation.
(i) Experiences are subjective in nature, different for every individual.
(ii) We cannot directly observe or know someone’s experience.
(iii) Only the experiencing person can be aware or conscious of his/her experiences. Thus, experiences are imbedded in our awareness or consciousness.
(iv) Experiences are influenced by internal and external conditions of the experiences.
(v) The nature of the experience can only be understood by analyzing a complex set of internal and external conditions.
(vi) Experiences are important because most of our learning is based on experiences.
• Behaviours:
(i) Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. Eg. One can feel the heart pounding before taking an examination.
(ii) Some behaviours such as thinking may be simple or complex, short or enduring.
(iii) On the other hand, some behaviours can be outwardly seen or sensed and are called overt, for example laughing.
(iv) All behaviours can be explained on the basis of S-R (Stimulus Response Relations). Any behaviour, overt or covert, is associated with or triggered by a stimulus.
(v) Both stimulus and response can be internal or external.
(vi) The same stimulus can have different responses, due to the organism variable. It emphasises upon an individual’s uniqueness and variation that make him different from other.
• Psychology as a discipline
(i) It studies behaviour, experience and mental processes.
(ii) It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental processes result in different behaviours.
(iii) When we observe others, our own point of view or ways of understanding the world influence our interpretations of their behaviours and experiences.
(iv) Psychologists try to minimize such biases in their explanations of behaviour and experience in various ways.
(v) Some do so by making their analysis scientific and objective.
(vi) Others seek to explain behaviour from the point of view of those experiencing persons because they think that selectivity is a necessary aspect of human experience.
– Neuroscience and computer science borrow principles continuously from psychology.
There are fast developing brain imaging techniques like MRI, ECG, etc. which make it
possible to study brain processes in real time, i.e, when they are actually taking place.
– Psychology as hybrid science :
Psychology is a hybrid science that draws its influence from both natural and social sciences.
• As a natural science :
(i) Modem Psychology has developed because of the application of the scientific method to study, psychological phenomenon.
(ii) As a physical science, it emphasizes on data that is systematic and can be studied under controlled conditions.
(iii) It is quantitative and requires analysis.
(iv) It takes influences from both physics and biology and believes in the Hypothetico Deductive Model (HDM).
(v) Every or any hypothesis can be accepted or rejected on the basis of factors available. The model suggests that scientific advancement can take place if you have a theory to explain a phenomenon.
(vi) A hypothesis is a tentative solution to a problem that helps in guiding a research or a theory.
(vii) Hypothesis has been successfully used for determining many theories related to learning and memory. For example, the way a child has been brought up in his family will shape his personality.
• Conscious means to be alert and aware of something. We are aware of all the outside environment as well as of the processes taking place in ourselves. Thus we are aware of the diverse sensations, perceptions, memories and feelings that take place in ourselves. In waking consciousness, we perceive time, place and events as real, meaningful and familiar.
• Psychology is a social science because it studies the behaviour of human beings in their social tests cultural context.
• Psychology as a social science discipline focuses on humans as social beings.
• It focuses on the individual and communities in relation to their social, cultural and physical environment.
• If we go back in History Psychology was defined as the science of the Mind. The use of term mind was considered to be relevant since it represents all the mental phenomena such as perceiving, thinking, imagining, reasoning and so on. But, certain difficulties regarding the term mind, its nature and its relationship with the body continued to persist.
• Due to many researches particularly in Neurology the term ‘mind’ has returned in Psychology. It is true that Mind and brain are different and mind cannot exist without brain. Recent studies in Neuro Science has proved that there is a relationship between Mind and Behaviour. These researches and neurological experiments proved that a person suffer from damage of some part of the brain but his mind had remained intact.
• Popular notions about the discipline of Psychology should be understood. Psychology as a science explains patterns of beha viour which can be predicted and explains behaviour before the act occur common sense. Psychology is based on hindsight. Professional Psychologists are trained, affiliated to some institution. They attain educational and professional qualification and understand, predict and modify human behaviour by scientific methods.
• The emergence of Psychology as a science of mental processes, behaviour and experiences can be attributed to certain important development in Physiology and Physics as well as to the efforts of William Wilhelm Wundt who established first Psychological laboratory in 1879.
• The evolution of Psychology can be traced in the major schools of Psychological thoughts.
• Structuralism: It was proposed by Wundt and he studied the structure of conscious experiences by introspection.
• Introspection is a procedure in which individual or subjects in Psychological experiments are asked to describe their own mental processes or experiences scientifically in detail.
• Functionalism: It was proposed by William James and Jonh Dewey. They studied the functions of concious experiences in how people deal with the environment using introspection method. It shows the adaptation of human behaviour according to their changing needs.
• Gestalt Psychology: The school was proposed by Koffka, Kohler and Werthiemer. It focussed on human perception. According to Gestalt Psychology, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
• Behaviourism: It was proposed by John Watson and Skinner. According to this, Psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable.
• Psychoanalysis: It was proposed by Dr Sigmund Freud. He focused on unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
• Humanistic Perspective: It was a revolt against Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism proposed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. It stated that human strive to grow and unfold their inner potential.
• Cognitive Perspective: It focuses on mental processes. It views human beings as actively constructing their mind through their exploration into the Physical and Social world. Piaget stated that children actively construct their own minds whereas Vygofsky suggested that the mind is a joint cultural construction and emerges as a result of interaction between children and adults.
• The modem era of Human Psychology began in the department of Philosophy at Calcutta University where the first syllabus of experiment on Psychology was introduced and the first Psychology Laboratory was established in 1915. Calcutta University started the first department of Psychology in the year 1916 and another department of applied Psychology in 1938. It was greatly influenced by Dr N.N. Sengupta.
• Psychology as a science is closely related to other sciences. Behaviour is closely related to Biological make up, the hereditary predisposition and his level of maturity. Physiology, embroyology genetics and biochemistry are relating knowledge with Psychological functioning of human beings. A large number of hospitals now employ Psychologists.
• The roots of Psychology are found in Philosophy particularly with respect to methods of knowing.
• Psychology is closely related to Economics, Political Science and Sociology. Psychology has provided knowledge related to micro level economic behaviour and consumer behaviour. Psychology provides understanding of voting behaviour, exercise of power, opinion polls etc. Sociology is positively related to Psychology, e.g., Psychology studies human behaviour whereas Sociology studies human behaviour in society, i.e., socio cultural context.
• The information processing approach in cognitive Psychology, to explain memory and concept of Artificial intelligence is highly linked with computer sciences.
• Psychological principles explain crime, criminal behaviour, how well a witness remembers a crime, etc. Accordingly Psychology is closely related to law and criminology. Similarly Psychology has close bonds with Mass Communication, Music and Fine Arts, Architecture and Engineering.
• Psychology as a discipline not only provide understanding to the development of theoretical knowledge of human behaviour but it has close linkages across Psychological processes. Psychologists now a days employed to help in diverse activities in different domains of Professional activities including hospitals, educational settings, industrial organisations, training institutes, military and government organisations.
• Psychology continuously provides knowledge and understanding of human behaviour in different domains. Some of the emerging perspectives are Evolutionary Psychology, Cultural Psychology and Positive Psychology.
• Evolutionary Psychology is an approach in social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modem evolutionary perspective.
• It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are involved in adaptations—that is the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection.
• The goal of research in evolutionary psychology is to discover and understand the design of the human mind.
• It is a theoretical approach to Psychology that attempts to explain useful mental and psychological traits — such as memory, perception or language — as adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection.
• The purpose of this approach is to bring the functional way of thinking about biological mechanism such as the immune system into the field of Psychology.
• In short Evolutionary Psychology is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind and
behaviour.
• Cultural Psychology is the study of how psychological and behavioural tendencies are rooted in and embodied in culture.
• It studies how mind and culture are inseparable and mutually constitute, i.e., people are shaped by culture and their culture is shaped by them.
• Cultural Psychology is the study of the way cultural traditions and social practices, regulate, express and transform the human Psyche, resulting less in Psychic unity for hurrian kind than in ethnic divergences in mind, self and emotion (Richard Shweder).
• Contemporary psychologists have shown increasing interest in understanding what makes life good and meaningful. This development is termed as positive psychology.
• There are some themes which provides direction to research and application of Psychology are to develop principles of behaviour and mental processes, function of the attributes of persons and environment, causality of human behaviour, culturally constructed human behaviour and controlling and modifying the behaviour.
• Psychology can be viewed in two fold perspective which are complementary to each other i.e. Basic Psychology and Applied Psychology. Basic Psychology provides theories through researchers whereas Applied Psychology is related to the category of application according to the needs of society.
• Psychologists study a wide range of issues related to mental and behavioural functioning. Psychologists study how the biological system works and socio-cultural bases shapes human behaviour. Contemporary psychologists study these processes from a perspective of lifespan. The basic psychological processes are parts of a dynamic regulated system. All these processes are interconnected and together help the organism to adapt to environment and grow. Knowing the environment requires several mental processes, which together are called cognition. Psychologists study how information is used in thinking, reasoning, decision-making, communicating and solving problems.
1. Behaviour: Any covert or overt action/reaction a person or animal does that can be observed in some way.
2. Behaviourism: A school of thought that emphasises objectivity, observable behavioural responses, learning, and environmental determinants.
3. Cognition: All the mental activities associated with knowing; namely, perceiving, thinking, and remembering, etc. These are associated with processing, understanding, and communication information.
4. Cognitive economy: A term to denote maximum and efficient use of the capacity of long-term memory through organisation of concepts in a hierarchical network.
5. Consciousness: Awareness of the general condition of one’s mind, awareness of particular mental contents, or self-awareness.
6. Constructivism: Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds through their exploration into the physical and the social world.
7. Developmental Psychology: A branch of psychology which establishes the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages over a life-span, from conception to old age.
8. Functionalism / Functional fixedness: The tendency to think of thinks only in terms of their usual functions, impediments to problem solving. The school of psychology That emphasised the utilitarian, adaptive functions of the human mind or consciousness.
9. Gestalt: An organised whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasise our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
10. Gestalt psychology: A branch of psychology in which behaviour is viewed as an integrated whole, greater than the sum of its parts.
11. Humanistic approach: The approach to Psychology that emphasises the person, or the self, and personal growth land development.
12. Hue: Property of chromatic colours or name of the colours.
13. Introspection: The process of looking inward to one’s feeling and conscious experience.
14. Mind: Mind is a concept, which refers to unique set of individual’s sensations, perceptions, memories, thoughts, dreams, motives and emotional feelings.
15. Neuro psychology: It is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes as function of brain activity and the nervous system.
16. Physiological psychology: A scientific study of human and animal behaviour based on the relationship of physiological processes like those of nervous system, hormones, sensory organs and the behavioural parameters.
17. Psychoanalysis: A method of psychotherapy in which the therapist attempts to bring repressed unconscious material into conscious.
18. Sociology: The systematic study of the biological basis for social behaviour.
19. Stimulus: Any well-defined element in the environment affecting the organism, which may lead to an overt or a covert response.
20. Structuralism: Associated with Wilhelm Wundt, the approach to psychology that seeks to understand the structure and operation of consciousness, or the human mind.

Maps

• The shape of the earth is a shape
• A map, on the other hand, is a simplified depiction of an entire or part of the earth on a piece of paper. 3D to 2D
• The scale decreases because it cannot be drawn accurately
• Symbols, colors and shades are used
• Selective, symbolic and generalized representation of the entire, or a portion of the Earth՚s surface, on a plane at a low level
• Sketch is without scale
• Map with scale

Types of Maps

• Cadastral Map: A large-scale map drawn on a scale of 1: 500 to 1: 4000 to show property boundaries, with each number designated a parcel of land.
• Map series: A group of maps built on the same scale, style, and specifications for a country or region.
• Projection-map: The system of transformation of a spherical surface to a flat surface.
• Pay Scale: The ratio between the distance of two points on the map, the plan or photograph, and the actual distance between the same two points on the ground.
• Sketch Map: A simplified map that draws freehand that fails to preserve the actual scale or orientation.

Map Making Essentials

• Scale
• Map projection
• Map normalization
• Map design
• Map creation and production
• Scale – The scale of a map determines the extent of information content and the degree of reality with which it can be depicted on the map
• Map Projection – Simplified representation of 3D. Transformation of all sides-curved-geomorphic surface in one direction-conversion in directions, distances, areas and shapes
• Map Normalization – Purpose – Relief, drainage, vegetation, settlements; Select and simplify information
• Map Design – Selection of appropriate symbols, their shape and form, style of lettering, width of lines, selection of colors and shades, arrangement of various elements of map design within the map for map narrative
• Map making and production – first drawn with pen and ink and printed mechanically and now by computer

History of Map Making

• The oldest map was found in Mesopotamia, drawn on an earthen pillar that dated to 2,500 BC.
• Greek and Arab geographers laid the foundation for modern cartography – Earth՚s periphery and geographic coordinates in map-making
• Maps were drawn at various projections to obtain the correct direction, the correct distance, and to measure the area correctly.
• 19^th & 20^th Century – Aerial Photography + Exciting Map
• Mapping in India – Vedic Period
• In the classical treaties of Arya Bhatt, Varahamihir and Bhaskar, the expressions were crystallized into hant doctrines or laws.
• 7 biped by Indian scholars
• Mahabharata imagines a round world surrounded by water
• Sher Shah Suri՚s revenue maps further enriched the mapping techniques during the medieval period.
• Todarmal pioneered land surveying and mapping for revenue collection
• An intensive topographic survey for the preparation of an up-to-date map was taken with the establishment of the Survey of India in 1767, concluding in 1785 with a map of Hindustan.

Types of Maps Based on Scale

• Large-scale maps are produced to show smaller areas at relatively larger scales.
• Small-scale maps are drawn to show large areas.
• Large-scale maps: Large-scale maps are divided into the following types: (a) cadastral maps (b) topographic maps

a) Cadastral Maps: The word ‘cadastral’ is derived from the French word ‘cadaster’ which means ‘register of territorial property’ . These maps are designed to show the ownership of land property by demarcation of arable land and the planning of individual houses in urban areas. Keeping records of ownership as well as realizing revenue and taxes. Village 1: 4000 and city 1: 2000

b) Topographic maps: These maps are also prepared on a large scale. Topographic maps are based on accurate surveys and are drawn as a series of maps created by the national mapping agencies of almost all countries of the world. Pay scale of 1: 250,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 25,000 – relief, drainage, agricultural land, forests, settlements

• Small Scale Maps: Contains wall and atlas maps

a) Wall maps: These maps are usually prepared on the basis of large size paper or plastic for use in classrooms or lecture halls. Atlas Map Scale < Wall Map Scale < Topographic Map

b) Atlas Maps: Atlas maps are very small scale maps. These maps represent large areas and provide highly generalized images of physical or cultural features.

Types of Maps Based on Function

• physical map
• relief
• Geologist
• Climate
• soil
• Cultural map
• Political
• The population
• Economic
• transportation
• Cultural maps show man-made features. These include population distribution and development, gender and age, social and religious structure, literacy, levels of educational attainment, occupational structure, location of settlements, facilities and services, transport lines and various maps showing the production, distribution and flow of various goods. Huh.

Use of Map

• Measurement distance
• Straight line by dividers
• Curved line is moved along the wheel path by thread or rotameter
• Measurement of direction
• Area measurement
• Measuring squares on illuminated table
• The direction is defined as an imaginary straight line on the map that shows a common base direction angular position. The line pointing north is the zero direction or the base direction. A map always shows the north direction. North, South, East and West. These are also called cardinal points.
• Area – The total number of ‘perfect squares’ is combined with the ‘partial squares’ .
• Area =
• The area can also be calculated using a fixed area polar circumference.

Polar Planimeter

• The area is also calculated using the Polar Planimeter. In this device, a measurement is made with the motion of a rod, whose position is constrained by fixing one end of the radial arc. The area to be measured is traced along its circumference clockwise with an index mark, starting at a vantage point at which the index of the tracing arm must return exactly. Reading on the dial before and after tracing the perimeter of the field will return a value in instrumental units. These readings are multiplied by the same constant to convert areas in square inches or centimeters by a special device.