Class 11th

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands

• Prior to the rise of Islam, Arabia was quite backward socially, politically, economically and religiously in the 7th century.
• Before the rise of Islam, Arabia was dominated by the Bedouins, a nomadic tribe.
• Family was the basic unit of the Arabian society. Patriarchal family system was prevalent in which the head of the family was the eldest male member.
• The position of the women in the society was very deplorable.
• Date-palm and milk were the main constituents of their food items.
• Institution of slavery was also prevalent in the society. The slaves were treated ruthlesslyand were severely punished if broke the social norms. k
• Prior to the rise of Islam, the trade was not much developed. It was because Bedouins Iwere always indulged in loot and plunder and trade routes were not safe.
• The principle of‘Might is right’ prevailed in the society prior to the rise of Islam, because there was lack of a central authority.
• Prophet Muhammad is regarded as one of the greatest personalities in the world history. He was born at Mecca in 570.
• Reciting Raima, Namaz, Rauja, Zakat and Hajj are five pillars of Islam.
• Islam laid special stress on the principle of equality and believed that all men are the descendants of Allah.
• Islam strongly opposed idol worship.
• The successors of Prophet Muhammad were called Khalifas (Caliphs).
• The main duties of the Khalifas were to safeguard and spread Islam.
• The Umayyad dynasty was founded by Muawiya in 661. The rule of this dynasty continued till 750.
• The Abbasids came to power in 750. The foundation of Abbasids dynasty was laid down by Abu-ol-Abbas in 750.
• 9th century witnessed the downfall of the Abbasid empire. Taking the advantage of this, several sultanates emerged.
• The economic condition of Islamic world, during the medieval period was very prosperous.
• During medieval period, a new sect arose among the people having faith in Islamic doctrines, known as sufi sect.
• The Sufis were liberal in their thought and they dedicated their lives for the service of humanity and propagation of Islam.
• Ibn Sina was a great philosopher and a medical practitioner from Arabia. He was also known as Avicenna in Europe.

Important terms:

• Bedouins: The nomadic tribe of Arabia.
• Umma: The society founded by Prophet Muhammad.
• Hizrat: The event of Prophet Muhammad’s emigration from Mecca to Medina.
• Zakat: A religious tax collected from Muslims.
• Jaziya: A tax imposed upon the non-Muslims.
• Dhimmis: They were the protected people who paid tax to the government for the protection of their life and property.
• Synagogues: Places of worship for the Jews.

Timeline
595	Muhammad marries Khadija, a wealthy Meccan trader who later supports Islam
610-12	Muhammad has first revelation; first public preaching of Islam (612)
621	First agreement at Aqaba with Medinan converts
622	Migration from Mecca to Medina. Arab tribes of Medina (ansar) shelter Meccan migrants (muhajir)
632-61	Early caliphate; conquests of Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt; civil wars
661-750	Umayyad rule; Damascus becomes the capital
750-945	Abbasid rule; Baghdad becomes the capital
945	Buyids capture Baghdad; literary and cultural efflorescence
1063-1092	Rule of Nizamul mulk, the powerful Saljuq wazir who established a string of madrasas called Nizamiyya; killed by Hashishayn (Assassins)
1095-1291	Crusades; contacts between Muslims and Christians
1111	Death of Ghazali, the influential Iranian scholar who opposed rationalism
1258	Mongols capture Baghdad

Class 11 History Revision Notes for An Empire Across Three Continents of Chapter 3

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SNIPPETS FROM THE CHAPTER

Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like – texts, documents and material remains. 
1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c) Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts
2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts –  Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents
3. Aerial Photographs

Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin.

The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life.

Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists.

Boundaries of Roman Empire

• The ancient Roman empire which was spread across the three continents namely – Europe, Asia and Africa.
• To the North, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two great rivers – the Rhine and the Danube.
• To the South, by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara.
• To the East river Euphrates and to the West Atlantic Ocean.
• This vast stretch of territory was the Roman Empire. That is why Roman Empire is called an Empire across Three Continents.
• The Mediterranean Sea is called the heart of Rome’s empire.

Division of Roman Empire: 

• The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases, ‘early’ and‘late’, divided by the third century as a sort of historical watershed between them.
• In other words, the whole period from the beginning of Roman Empire to the main part of the third century can be called the ‘early empire’, and the period from the third century to the end called the ‘late empire’ or ‘late antiquity’.

THE EARLY EMPIRE

Administration: i. The Army – ii. The Senate – iii. the Aristocracy – iv. The Emperor – v. Republic – vi. Provincial Territory – vii. Taxation

• Many languages were spoken in the empire, but for the officially Latin and Greek were the most widely used.
• The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the ‘Principate’ (which means he was ‘leading citizen’, ‘Princeps‘ in Latin, not the absolute ruler). He ruled till 14 BCE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing in Roman empire.
• The Principate was advised by the Senate, which had existed in Rome for centuries. This body which had controlled Rome earlier, in the days when it was a Republic, and remained a body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest families of Roman and, later, Italian descent, mainly landowners.
• Next to the emperor and the Senate, the other key institution of imperial rule was the army. Rome had professional conscripted army, which was forcibly recruited. Military service was compulsory for certain groups or categories of the population for a minimum of 25 years.
• The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main ‘players’ in the political history of the empire. The success of individual emperors depended on their control of the army, and when the armies were divided, the result usually was civil war. Except for one notorious year (69 CE), when four emperors mounted the throne in quick succession.

Emperors:  a) Nero, b) Julius Caesar, c) Octavian Augustus, d) Tiberius, e) Trajan

• Roman empire made unprecedented growth in the field of literature during Augustan age. Augustus played a significant role in expansion of Roman empire.
• The ‘Augustan age’ is remembered for the peace it ushered in after decades of internal strife and centuries of military conquest.
• Augustus appointed Tiberius, his adopted son, as his successor who ruled from 14-37 CE. The empire he was already so vast that further expansion was felt to be unnecessary.
• Trajan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98-117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding Roman empire. The only major campaign of expansion in the early empire was Trajan’s fruitless occupation of territory across the Euphrates, in the years 113-17 CE abandoned by his successors.

Territories: The Roman Empire had two types of territories – dependent kingdoms and provincial territory. The Near East was full of dependent kingdoms but they disappeared and were swallowed up by Rome. These kingdoms were exceedingly wealthy, for example Herod’s kingdom yielded 5.4million denarii per year, equal to over 125,000 kg of gold per year.
A city in the Roman Empire was an urban centre with its own magistrates, city council and a ‘territory’ containing villages which were under its jurisdiction. Thus, one city could not be in the territory of another city, but villages almost always were included.

THE THIRD CENTURY CRISIS:  The first two centuries were free fromcivil war,therefore, it was known as period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. But the third century brought in the first sign of internal conflict.

• From the 230s, the Roman Empire found itself fighting on several fronts simultaneously. An aggressive dynasty called the ‘Sasanians’,  emerged in 225 which expanded rapidly just within 15 years in the direction of the Euphrates. Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed he had crushed Roman army of 60,000 and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
•  Simultaneously, a whole series of Germanic tribes or rather tribal confederacies began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the  entire period from 233 to 280 saw repeated invasions of a whole lone of provinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory beyond the Danube.
• There was a rapid succession of emperors in this century (25 emperors in 47 years!) is an obvious symptom of the strains faced by the empire in this period.

Gender, Literacy, Culture

• The system of nuclear family in the Roman society was one of its modern feature. The family used to be patriarchal in nature. Slaves were included in the family.
•  Marriages were generally arranged, and there is no doubt that women were often subject to domination by their husbands.
• The literacy rate was casual and varied greatly between different parts of the empire.
• The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways. Numerous languages that were spoken in Roman Empire were – Aramaic, Coptic,Punic, Berber and Celtic. But many of these linguistic cultures were purely oral, at least until a script was invented for them.  Among the above mentioned languages Armenian began to be written as late as the fifth century.

A. Sources of Entertainment

• Colosseum – Huge place where gladiators fought with beast. It could accommodate 60,000 people.
• Amphitheatre – It was used for military drill and for staging entertainments for the soldiers.
• Urban populations also enjoyed a much higher level of entertainment, for example, one calendar tells us that spectacula (shows) filled no less than 176 days of the year!

B. CRAFT & INDUSTRY

• Minting
• Mining
• Amphorae
• Making Papyrus scrolls
• Public baths were a striking feature of Roman urban life

Economic expansion

•  The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc. Wheat, wine and olive-oil were traded and consumed in huge quantities, and they came mainly from Spain, the Gallic provinces, North Africa, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Italy, where conditions were best for these crops.
• Liquids like wine and olive oil were transported in containers called ‘amphorae’.Spanish producers succeeded in capturing markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. This would only have happened if Spanish producers supplied better quality oil at lower prices.
• The Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called ‘Dressel 20’.
• The empire included many regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility. Italy, Sicily, Egypt and southern Spain were all among the most densely settled or wealthiest parts of the empire. The best kinds of wine, wheat and olive oil came mainly from numerous estates of these territories.
• Diversified applications of waterpower around the Mediterranean as well as advances in water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and the gigantic industrial scale on which those mines were worked.
• The existence of well-organized commercial and banking networks and the widespread use of money are all indications of Roman economy.
• A strong tradition of Roman law had emerged by the fourth century, and this acted as a brake on even the most fearsome emperors.

WORKERS:

• Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in the ancient world, both in the Mediterranean and in the Near East, and and not even Christianity when it emerged and triumphed as the state religion (in the fourth century) seriously challenged this institution. Under Augustus there were still 3 million slaves in a total Italian population of 7.5 million.
• With establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to turn either to slave breeding or to cheaper substitutes.
• The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to the management of labour. Columella, a first-century writer who came from the south of Spain, recommended that landowners should keep a reserve stock of implements and tools, twice as many as they needed, so that production could be continuous, ‘for the loss in slave labour time exceeds the cost of such items’.
• The position of slave in Roman Empire was miserable as they were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours.

SOCIAL DIVISION
(A) Presbyterian
(i) The Aristocratic class
(ii) Second Class
(B) Plebeian
(i) The lower Class
(ii) Slaves

• The social structures of the empire as follows: Senators, Equites (horse men and knights), the respectable section of the people (middle class), lower class and finally the slaves.
• In the early third century when the Senate numbered roughly 1,000, approximately half of all senators still came from Italian families. By the late empire,the senators and the Equites had merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy.
• The ‘middle’ class now consisted of the considerable mass of persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy. Below them were the vast mass of the lower classes known collectively ashumiliores (literally- ‘Lower’).They comprised a rural labour force.
• The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land.  There was a great deal of corruption, especially in the judicial system and in the administration of military supplies.

JEWISH WAR 

• Roman people were polytheists and used to worship several gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva and Isis.
• One of the most important religious sects practiced in the Roman Empire from about the first to the fourth century was Mithraism.
• The other great religious tradition in the empire was Judaism. It considered Jehova as the creator of the universe.
• But Judaism was not a monolith either, and there was a great deal of diversity within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. Thus, the ‘Christianisation’ of the empire in the fourth and fifth centuries was a gradual and complex process.
• Polytheism did not disappear overnight, especially in the western provinces, where the Christian bishops waged a running battle against beliefs and practices they condemned more than the Christian laity (the ordinary members of a religious community as opposed to the priests or clergy who have official positions within the community) did.
• The boundaries between religious communities were much more fluid in the fourth century than they would become thanks to the repeated efforts of religious leaders, the powerful bishops who now led the Church, to rein in their followers and enforce a more rigid set of beliefs and practices.

LATE ANTIQUITY 
‘Late antiquity’ is the term now used to describe the final, fascinating period in the evolution and break-up of the Roman Empire and refers broadly to the fourth to seventh centuries. The fourth century itself was one of considerable ferment, both cultural and economic.

Cultural features of the Roman world from the Fourth to Seventh Centuries: 

Emperors and their Achievements
I. Constantine’s Achievements

a. Overexpansion of the Empire: 
b. Capital at Constantinople:  The other area of innovation was division of Roman Empire into east and west and the creation of a second capital at Constantinople (at the site of modern Istanbul in Turkey, and previously called Byzantium), surrounded on three sides by the sea.
c. Christianity was made official religion:  At the cultural level, the period saw momentous developments in religious life, with the emperor Constantine deciding to make Christianity the official religion, and with the rise of Islam in the seventh century.
d. Monetary sphere: Constantine founded the new monetary system on gold and there were vast amounts of this in circulation. Constantine’s chief innovations were in the monetary sphere, where he introduced a new denomination, the solidus, a coin of 4½ gm of pure gold that would in fact outlast the Roman Empire itself. Solidi were minted on a very large scale and their circulation ran into millions.
II. Diocletian’s Achievements
a. Abandons territories of little economic and strategic importance: Overexpansion had led Diocletian to ‘cut back’ by abandoning territories with little strategic or economic value.
b. Duces: Diocletian also fortified the frontiers, reorganised provincial boundaries, and separated civilian from military functions, granting greater autonomy to the military commanders (duces), who now became a more powerful group.
III. Justinian’s Achievements: 
a. Justinian Code
b. Expansion of Empire: The reign of Justinian is the highwater mark of prosperity and imperial ambition. Justinian recaptured Africa from the Vandals (in 533) but his recovery of Italy (from the Ostrogoths) left that country devastated and paved the way for the Lombard invasion.
c. Monetary Sphere:  Monetary stability and an expanding population stimulated economic growth. Egypt contributed taxes of over 2½ million solidi a year (roughly 35,000 lbs of gold) in the reign of Justinian in the sixth century.
i. Glass factories established
ii. Introduction of Solidus
iii. Urban Prosperity
DOWNFALL OF THE EMPIRE

• The general prosperity was especially marked in the East where population was still expanding till the sixth century, despite the impact of the plague which affected the Mediterranean in the 540s.
• In the West, by contrast, the empire fragmented politically as Germanic groups from the North (Goths, Vandals, Lombards, etc.) took over all the major provinces and established kingdoms that are best described as ‘post-Roman’
• The Visigoths in Spain was destroyed by the Arabs between 711 and 720, that of the Franks in Gaul (c.511-687) and that of the Lombards in Italy (568-774). These kingdoms foreshadowed the beginnings of a different kind of world that is usually called ‘medieval’
• By the early seventh century, the war between Eastern Rome and Iran had flared up again, and the Sasanians who had ruled Iran since the third century launched a wholesale invasion of all the major eastern provinces (including Egypt).
• Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to the Arabs in a series of stunning confrontations.
• Those conquests, extended up to Spain, Sind and Central Asia, began, in fact, with the subjection of the Arab tribes by the emerging Islam state.

Timeline: Refer to Page No. 75 of the chapter/ Theme  of the Text book
Key Words: Civil War, Republic, Senate,  Dressel 20/ Amphorae, Draconian
Transhumance: Herdsman’s regular annual movement between higher mountain regions and low lying ground in search of Pasture..

Class 11 History Revision Notes for Writing and City Life of Chapter 2

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SNIPPETS FROM THE CHAPTER
I. Ancient Mesopotamia 
Geography: 

• City life began in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek words ‘mesos’, meaning middle, and ‘potamos’, meaning river.)
• It is a flat land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is now part of the Republic of Iraq.
• In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where animal herding offers people a better livelihood than agriculture
• Agriculture began between 7000 and 6000 BCE.
• Soil was very fertile here but agriculture was threatened because of natural causes.
• Ur, Lagash, Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of its important cities.
• The excavation work started 150 years ago.

Urbanisation

• Mesopotamian civilization was based on definite plan. 
• Cities and towns are develop when an economy develops in spheres other than food production that it becomes an advantage for people to cluster in towns.
• Urban economies comprise besides food production, trade, manufactures and services.
•  There is social organisation in place
• Helpful for the city manufacturers.
• The division of labour is a mark of urban life.

Movement of Goods into cities

• 

II. Mesopotamian & Writing  Modern Writing
1. Mesopotamian Writing:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

2. Modern Writing: The greatest legacy of Mesopotamia to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and mathematics, calender.
III. Political Factors

• From about 1100 BCE, when the Assyrians established their kingdom in the north, the region became known as Assyria. The first known language of the land was Sumerian.
• Writing was used not only for keeping records, but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary laws of the land.
• It can be inferred that in Mesopotamian understanding it was kingship that organised trade and writing.

Religious Factors

• Early settlers (their origins are unknown) began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Temples were the residences of various gods.
• Temples were centres of religious activities. They were dedicated to different gods and goddess.

(5000 BCE – Settlements began to develop in southern Mesopotamia)

IV. Social Factors
1. Life in the City – Mesopotamian society the nuclear family was the norm, although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family.

• A ruling elite had emerged
• Had a major share of wealth
• Followed nuclear family system and  patriarchal system
• Condition of women
• System of marriages

2. Ur  – was a town, one of the earliest cities. It is often compared with Mohenjodaro
3.In Mesopotamian tradition, Uruk was the city par excellence, often known simply as The City.
V. Economic Factors

1. Urbanism
2. Trade
3. Record of transaction

• Writing began in Mesopotamia in 3200 BCE.
• Writing became as a records of transactions
• 2600 BCE the letters became cuneiform and language was Sumerian

VI. Cultural Factors
1. System of Writing:

• Writing was skilled craft
• It conveyed in visual form of system of sounds of a particular language

2. Literacy:

• Writing reflected the mode of speaking
• King and very few could read
• Official letter from a king could be read

3. Uses of Writing:

• Connections between city life trade and writing is brought out.
• It has brought out in a long Sumerian epic poem about Enmerkar (king)
• Kingship was able to organise trade and writing

4. Inter Mixture culture:

• Mesopotamian society and culture were open to different people and cultures.
• Thus the vitality of the civilisation was of course – an intermixture culture

Cuneiform Script
1. Meaning: It is a script of Mesopotamia. The word ‘Cuneiform’ is derived from the Latin words cuneus, meaning ‘wedge’ and forma, meaning ‘shape’. Cuneiform letters were wedge shaped, hence, like nails.
2. Uses: By 2600 BCE or so, the letters became cuneiform, and the language was Sumerian. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued in use until the first century CE, that is, for more than 2,000 years.
VII. Sources
i. Tables (Written around 32000 BCE)
ii. Bible (Old Testament)
iii. British Museum
iv. Texts
VIII. Greatest Legacy of Writing
1. Scholarly tradition of time reckoning
A. Calendar

• Division of years
• Division of Months
• Division of Weeks
• Division of Days
• Division of Hours
• Division of Minutes
• Division of Seconds

B. Recorder of Modern world Phenomenon past
C. Literature: Gilgamesh, which was written on twelve tablets, was the famous epic of Mesopotamia.  It was the work of Uruk who was the ruler of Mesopotamia in 2700 BCE.
2. Mathematical contribution

• Tables with multiplication and division
• Square
• Square route tables
• Tables of compound interest
• Problem regarding
• A field of area
• Volume of water

IX. Timeline – refer to the text book Page No.48
X. Key Words : Mesopotamia, Cuneiform, Syllable, Steles, Nuclear Family.

From the Beginning of Time

❇️ Human :-

🔹 56 lakh years ago such creatures appeared on the earth which we can call humans. Modern humans arose 160,000 years ago.

️❇️ Two theories of the emergence of modern man :-

🔹Regional Continuity Model Theory: – Humans originated at different places in many regions.

🔹 Theory of Substitution :- Humans originated in Africa and spread from there to different areas.

️❇️ Archaeologist :-

🔹It is the scientist who studies human history through the study of excavated remains.

❇️ The main sources of information about the history of primitive man :-

🔹 Fossils.

🔹 Stone tools.

🔹 There are paintings done by humans in caves.

️❇️ Genus :-

🔹 For this the word ‘Vansh’ is used in Hindi.

️❇️ Fossils :-

🔹 ‘Fossil’ is used to refer to the remains or impressions of an old plant, animal or human that have been transformed into a stone, often embedded in a rock and then lying in that form for millions of years.

️❇️ Species :-

🔹 Species is a group of organisms whose male and female can produce children together and their children are also capable of further reproduction i.e. to produce offspring.

️❇️ On the Origin of Species :-

🔹The book On the Origin of Species, written by Charles Darwin, was published on 24 November 1859, in which it was argued that humans evolved from animals. It has evolved gradually from animals and has come to its present form.

️❇️ Primate :-

🔹 Mammals are a much larger group of animals. This includes apes, langurs and humans.

️❇️ Homo :-

🔹 Is a Latin word which means “man”. It includes both men and women.

️ ❇️ Types of Homo :-

🔸Homo – Scientists have divided it into many species. 

🔹 Homo Hawillis: – equipment manufacturer.

🔹 Homo erectus – directly stand to walk on his feet.

🔹 Homo sapiens – Citnshil man.

️❇️ Australopithecus :-

🔹 It is derived from the Latin word ‘Austral’ meaning southern and Greek ‘Pithikus’ meaning ‘monkey’. This name was given because in the middle form of man, many features of his ape state remained intact.

️❇️ Features of Australopithecus :-

🔹 The brain of Australopithecus was larger than that of Homo.

🔹 Their jaws were heavy.

🔹 Their teeth were also big.

🔹 The efficiency of the hands was limited.

🔹 The ability to walk standing upright was not high.

🔹 He used to spend most of his time on the trees.

️❇️ Difference between Australopithecus and Homo :-

🔸Australopithecus :-

🔹 The brain of Australopithecus was larger than that of Homo.

🔹 Their jaws were heavy.

🔹 Their teeth were also big.

🔹 The efficiency of the hands was limited.

🔹 The ability to walk standing upright was not high.

🔹 He used to spend most of his time on the trees.

🔸Homo :-

🔹 Their brain was smaller than that of Australopithecus.

🔹 His jaws were light.

🔹 Their teeth were of small size.

🔹 They used to make good use of hands.

🔹 They had more ability to walk standing upright.

️❇️ Hominoid :-

🔹 They are different from monkeys in many ways, their body is bigger than monkeys and they do not have tail.

️❇️ Features of Hominoid :-

🔹 Hominoids differ from monkeys in many ways.

🔹 Their body is bigger than that of monkeys and they do not have a tail.

🔹 The period of evolution and dependence of hominids would have been much longer.

️❇️ Hominid :-

🔹’Hominid’ are members of the family called Hominidae, this family includes all forms of human beings. 

️❇️ Characteristics of Hominid :-

🔹 The size of his brain was big.

🔹 They had the ability to stand straight on their feet.

🔹 He used to walk on two legs.

🔹 Special ability in his hands by which he could make tools and use them.

❇️ Evidence of the emergence of hominids in Africa :-

🔸There are two proofs for this:

🔹 The group of African apes (apes) is closely related to hominids.

🔹The oldest hominid fossils, from the genus Australopithecus, have been found in East Africa. And the fossils found outside Africa are not that old.

️❇️ Difference between Hominid and Homo Nide :-

🔸Hominid :-

🔹 Their brain was smaller than that of Homonido.

🔹 He used to stand straight and walk on the last two legs. 

🔹 Their hands were of a special kind, with the help of which they could make weapons and use them.

🔹 Their origin is believed to be about 56 lakh years ago.

🔸Hominidae :-

🔹 Their brain is larger than that of hominids.

🔹 They were quadrupeds, that is, they walked on all four legs, but the front part of their body and both the front legs were flexible.

🔹 They had a different hand build and they did not learn to use tools.

🔹 Their origin is believed to be before the origin of hominids.

❇️ How did the primitive man take food?

🔹 Primitive humans used to consume food in different ways. 

🔹 Storage    

🔹 Hunting      

🔹 Fishing      

🔹 Erasure

️❇️ Eradication :-

🔹 It means cleaning or eating discarded things.

️❇️ Communication, Language and Art :-

🔹 There are many types of views on the development of language such as :-

🔹 Hominid language included gestures (gestures) or hand movements (shakes).

🔹 Before spoken language, oral or (a)-verbal communication such as singing or humming was used.

🔹 Man’s speech probably started with the action of invocations or calls, as is seen in male and apes. In the early stages, humans would use very few sounds in speaking. Gradually these sounds developed into language later on.

️❇️ Origin of spoken language :-

🔹 It is believed that Homo habilis had some characteristics in the brain that would have made it possible for him to speak. Language first evolved 20 million years ago. The development of vocal system took place about two lakh years ago. It is especially related to modern man.

️❇️ Hunter Collectors Society :-

🔹 These societies were engaged in hunting as well as economic activities, such as exchanging and trading small things found in the forests.

️❇️ Hadza crowd :-

🔹 It is a small group of hunters and gatherers, who live around the lake formed in the rift valley of “Lake Iasi” salt water. These people hunt all kinds of animals except elephants and eat their meat.

🔹 The Hadza people do not assert their rights over the land and its resources. Despite having unlimited amount of animals available for hunting, these people mainly depend on wild greens and vegetables for their food. Probably 80% of their food is vegetable.

❇️ Features of Altamira Cave :-

🔹 Altamira is a cave-site located in Spain. This cave is famous for its ceiling paintings. Some kind of paste has been used instead of color in its paintings. These paintings are very old, but they look modern in appearance, which even archaeologists are unable to believe.

️❇️ Beginning of Ice Age :-

🔹 The ice age started about 2.5 million years ago, with the polar glaciation. In this, large parts of the earth were covered with ice, due to which there were big changes in the condition of climate and vegetation. Due to the decrease in temperature and rainfall, forests were reduced and the area of ​​grasslands increased.

️❇️ End of Ice Age :-

🔹 The last ice age ended about thirteen thousand years ago. Due to which many changes came in humans.

🔹 For example, farming, animal husbandry etc