Class 11th PCMB Notes

The Adventure Summary in English

Professor Gangadharpant Gaitonde was travelling in the Jijamata Express on the Pune-Bombay route. This train was much faster than the Deccan Queen and he noticed that there were no industrial townships outside Pune. The train first stopped at Lonavala, 40 minutes after it started from Pune and then for a little while at Karjat. It went on even faster through Kalyan.

In the meantime, Professor Qaitonde, being a historian, was thinking of going to a big library in Bombay and looking through history books. He wanted to understand the present situation. He also decided to return to Pune and discuss with Rajendra Deshpande, who would surely help him understand what had happened. He hoped that a person called Rajendra Deshpande existed.

When the train stopped at a small station, Sarhad, an Anglo-Indian ticket-checker went around checking tickets. Khan Sahib informed Gangadharpant that that was where the British Raj began. He inquired if Gangadharpant was going to Bombay for the first time. Gangadharpant had not been to this Bombay before. He asked Khan Sahib how he would go to Peshawar. Khan Sahib replied that he would go to the Victoria Terminus and would take the Frontier Mail. It would go from Bombay to Delhi, then to Lahore and then Peshawar. He would reach the next day.

Then Khan Sahib discussed his business and Gangadharpant listened eagerly. As the train passed through the suburban rail traffic, Khan Sahib explained that the blue carriages carried the letters, GBMR, that meant Greater Bombay Metropolitan Railway. The Union Jack painted on each carriage was a reminder that they were in British territory.

When the train reached Victoria Terminus, the station looked remarkably neat and clean. Most of the staff was Anglo-Indian and Parsee along with a few British officers.

As Gangadharpant came out of the station he found himself facing an impressive building. It was the East India house headquarters of the East India Company. He was shocked, because as per the history books The East India Company had been shut down soon after 1857. But here it was prospering.

He walked ahead along Hornby Road but he found there was no Handloom House building. Instead, there were Boots and Woolworth departmental stores, grand offices of Lloyds, Barclays and other British banks, as in a typical high street of a town in England.

He entered the Forbes building and asked the English receptionist that he wished to meet Mr Vinay Gaitonde, his son. She searched through the telephone list and said that there was nobody with that name there. He was shocked. He had a quick lunch at a restaurant; he went to the Town Hall to the library of the Asiatic Society to solve the mystery of history.

In the library he started browsing through the five volumes of history books including his own. Volume one was about the history up to the period of Ashoka, volume two up to Samudragupta, volume three up to Mohammad Ghori and volume four up to the death of Aurangzeb. Reading volume five, Gangadharpant finally arrived on the precise moment where history had taken a different turn. That page in the book described the Battle of Panipat, and it mentioned that the Marathas won the battle. Abdali was defeated and he was chased back to Kabul by the triumphant Maratha army led by Sadashivrao Bhau and his nephew, the young Vishwasrao.

The book did not give a detailed explanation of the battle but explained in detail its impact for the power struggle in Ipdia. Gangadharpant read the account eagerly. The style of writing was definitely his, but much to his surprise he was reading the explanation for the first time.

Their victory in the battle had not only increased the confidence of the Marathas but it also established their domination in northern India. The East India Company, observing these developments for the time being postponed its policy of expanding in India’s territory.

For the Peshwas it resulted in an increased power of Bhausaheb and Vishwasrao who succeeded his father in 1780 A.D. The threat, Dadasaheb, was pushed to the background and he finally left state politics.

The East India Company was disappointed, as the new Maratha ruler, Vishwasrao and his brother, Madhavrao, combined political sharpness with bravery and extended their control all over India. The Company’s hold was then limited to places near Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. This was exactly like that of the Portuguese and the French.

The Peshwas kept the Mughal rule alive in Delhi to manipulate the situation. In the nineteenth century these rulers from Pune were shrewd enough to recognise the beginning of the technological age in Europe. They set up their own centres for science and technology. The East India Company saw another chance to enlarge its influence. It offered aid and experts. They were accepted only to make the local centres self-sufficient.

In the twentieth century more changes were brought about because of the Western influence.

Now, India moved towards a democracy. By then, the Peshwas had lost their zeal and democratically elected bodies slowly replaced them. The Sultanate at Delhi survived this change, mainly because it exercised no influence. The Shahenshah of Delhi was just a nominal head to rubberstamp the suggestions made by the parliament.

Gangadharpant began to understand India as a country that had learnt to be self-reliant and knew what self-respect was. It was in a position of strength but for only business reasons, it had allowed the British to be there. Bombay was the only colony on the subcontinent. That lease was to expire in the year 2001, according to a treaty of 1908.

Gangadharpant could not help comparing the country he knew with what he was viewing now. But he had to find how the Marathas had won the battle. For this he started looking for reports of the battle itself. Finally he found Bhausahebanchi Bakhar. Even though he rarely trusted the Bakhars for historical verification, he found them entertaining to read. He managed to find a brief mention of how Vishwasrao luckily survived his close brush with death.

At eight o’clock the library was to close. As Gangadharpant left the table he put some notes into his right pocket. Forgetfully, he also thrust the Bakhar into his left pocket.

After a measly meal at the guesthouse, he leisurely walked towards the Azad Maidan. There a lecture was to take place. Professor Gaitonde walked towards the pandal and was awestruck staring at the platform. The presidential chair was vacant. He was drawn to it. The speaker stopped his lecture, as he was too surprised to continue. But the audience shouted at him to leave the chair.

Professor Gaitonde went to the mike and expressed his views. He said that an unchaired lecture was like Shakespeare’s Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark. The audience was in no mood to listen but Gangadharpant was an experienced orator. He braved a shower of tomatoes, eggs and other objects. Finally, the audience came to the stage to throw him out but Gangadharpant had disappeared in the crowd.

This was all he had to tell Rajendra. All he knew was that he was found in the Azad Maidan in the morning. He was back in the world he was familiar with. But he did not know where he had spent the two days when he was absent from there.

The story astonished Rajendra. He asked him where he had been, just before his accident with the truck. Professor Gaitonde said that he was thinking of the disaster theory and its consequences for history. Professor Gaitonde produced the page tom out of a book as evidence that he had not been imagining things. Rajendra read the text and seemed equally surprised.

Gangadharpant said that he had intended to return the book to the library but in the episode of Azad Maidan, the book was lost and only this tom-off page remained. And that had the essential evidence.

Rajendra read the page; how Vishwasrao narrowly missed the bullet; and how that event, taken as a sign by the Maratha army, turned things to their advantage. Then Gangadharpant took out his own copy of Bhausahebanchi Bakhar, where the bullet hit Vishwasrao.

Rajendra and Professor Gaitonde were both very curious to know the facts.

Rajendra tried to explain Professor Gaitonde’s experience on the basis of two scientific theories. He explained that Professor Gaitonde had heard a lot about the upheaval theory at that seminar. He wanted to relate it to the Battle of Panipat. He said that wars fought face to face on open grounds offered excellent examples of this theory. The Maratha army was facing Abdali’s troops on the field of Panipat. There was no great disparity between them as their protection was similar. So, a lot depended on the leadership and the confidence of the troops.

When Vishwasrao was killed, it proved to be the important moment of change. His uncle, Bhausaheb, rushed into the fight and was never seen again. The troops were thoroughly demotivated as they had lost their important leaders. This led to their crushing defeat. The tom page was the path taken by the battle, when the bullet missed Vishwasrao, thus its effect on the troops was also just the opposite. Gangadharpant said that there was a likelihood of this as similar statements are made about the Battle of Waterloo, which Napoleon could have won. But since we live in a unique world, which has a unique history, this might just be guesswork but not reality.

Rajendra made his second point. He said ‘reality’ is what we experience directly with our senses or indirectly via instruments. But it is not limited to what we see.

Experiments on atoms and their constituent particles have proved that reality may not be exclusive. The Physicist discovered that the behaviour of these systems cannot be forecast conclusively even if all the physical laws governing those systems are known. For example if a bullet were fired from a gun in a given direction at a given speed, one would know where it would be at a later time. But one cannot make such an assertion for the electron. It may be here, there, anywhere. Professor Gaitonde felt that the quantum theory offered a lack of determinism.

Rajendra argued his case further. He asked Professor Gaitonde to imagine many world pictures. In each world the electron could be found in different location. Once the observer found where it was, he would know which world we were talking about. But all those alternative worlds could exist just the same.

Professor Gaitonde wanted to know if there was any contact between those many worlds.

Rajendra said that there was a possibility both ways. We know the exact route of the planet. The electron could be orbiting in any of a large number of specified states. These states may be used to identify the world. In state no. 1 the electron was in a state of higher energy. In state no. 2 it was in a state of lower energy. It could make a jump from high to low energy and send out a pulse of radiation. Or a pulse of radiation could knock it out of state no. 2 into state no. 1. Such transitions were common in microscopic systems. These transitions could happen on a macroscopic level as well.

He felt that Gangadharpant could have made a transition from one world to another and back again. He said that his theory was that disastrous situations offer completely different options for the world to proceed. It seemed that so far as reality was concerned all alternatives were viable but the observer could experience only one of them at a time.

By making a shift, Gangadharpant was able to experience two worlds although one at a time. The one he lived in and the one where he spent two days. One had the history we know, the other a different history. The separation or split took place in the Battle of Panipat. He had neither travelled to the past nor to the future but was in the present but experiencing a different world. There must be many more different worlds at different points of time.

Gangadharpant wanted to know why had he made the transition. Rajendra said that there were many unsolved questions in science and this was one of them. However, he made a guess. He felt that Gangadharpant needed some contact to cause a transition. Perhaps, at the time of the collision he was thinking about the catastrophe theory and its role in wars or perhaps he was wondering about the Battle of Panipat and the neurons in his brain activated the transition.

Professor Gaitonde said he found the explanation probable. He had been wondering what path history would have taken if the result of the battle had gone the other way. That was what he was going to speak about in the Azad Maidan.

Rajendra laughed and said that now he was in a better position, as he would talk of his real life experience rather than just an assumption. But Gangadharpant looked serious. He said that his thousandth address was made on the Azad Maidan where he was so rudely interrupted. The Professor Gaitonde who disappeared while defending his chair on the platform will now never be seen presiding at another meeting as he had expressed his regrets to the organisers of the Panipat seminar.

The Adventure Summary Questions and Answers

Question 1.
‘That is, assuming that in this world there existed someone called Rajendra Deshpande!’ Why does Professor Gaitonde feel so?
Answer:
Professor Gaitonde had gone through a strange and a harrowing experience. He had been literally transported into an alternative universe. In the alternative world the reality was very different. History had altered its course. Now back into the real world Professor Gaitonde, as a historian felt he would go to a big library and browse through history books and would return to Pune and have a long talk with Rajendra Deshpande, to help him understand what had happened. After the queer happening, he was unsure about the reality and wondered if Rajendra Deshpande existed.

Question 2.
What were the things that Professor Gaitonde noticed as the train entered the British Raj territory?
Answer:
As the train touched Sarhad, from where the British Raj began, an Anglo-Indian in uniform went through the train checking permits. The blue carriages of the train carried the letters GBMR on the side—an acronym for ‘Greater Bombay Metropolitan Railway’. There was the tiny Union Jack painted on each carriage as a . reminder that they were in British territory. As the train stopped at its destination, Victoria Terminus, the station looked remarkably neat and clean. The staff was mostly made up of Anglo-Indians and Parsees along with a handful of British officers.

Question 3.
Where was Khan Sahib going? How did he intend to reach there?
Answer:
Khan Sahib was going to Peshawar. After the train reached Victoria Terminus he would take the Frontier Mail out of Central,-the same night. From Bombay he would go to Delhi, then to Lahore and then Peshawar. It would be a long journey and he would reach Peshawar two days later.

Question 4.
What was the strange reality that Professor Gaitonde saw as he stepped out of the station?
Answer:
As Professor Gaitonde came out of the station, he saw an impressive building. The letters on it revealed that it was the East India headquarters of the East India Company. He was shocked as it was supposed to have had stopped operating soon after the events of 1857 but here it was flourishing.

Question 5.
What came as the biggest blow to Professor Gaitonde?
Answer:
Professor Gaitonde was shocked to see the East India Company flourishing, a different set of shops and office buildings at Hornby Road. But when he turned right along Home Street and entered Forbes building, a greater shock awaited him. He asked for his son Mr Vinay Gaitonde but the English receptionist, looked through the telephone list, the staff list and then through the directory of employees of all the branches of the firm but could not find anyone of that name.

Question 6.
What did Professor Gaitonde decide to do when the reality that he was living seemed very strange?
Answer:
When Professor Gaitoride saw unfamiliar sights and felt that he was reliving history he was very surprised but not finding his son as an employee in Forbes baffled him completely. He decided to go to the library of the Asiatic Society to solve the riddle of history. So he made his way to the Town Hall.

Question 7.
What books did he browse through in the library? What did he discover?
Answer:
In the Town Hall library, he asked for a list of history books including his own.

When he got the five volumes, he started looking through them from the beginning. Volume one dealt with the history up to the period of Ashoka, volume two up to Samudragupta, volume three up to Mohammad Ghori, and volume four up to the death of Aurangzeb. This was history as he had known. However in the last (fifth) volume, history had taken a different turn during the Battle of Panipat. The book mentioned that the Marathas won it handsomely and Abdali was chased back to Kabul by the triumphant Maratha army led by Sadashivrao Bhau and his nephew, the young Vishwasrao.

Question 8.
How did the victory of the Peshwas in the Battle of Panipat help them?
Answer:
The victory in the battle was not only successful in building their confidence tremendously but it also established the supremacy of the Marathas in northern India. The East India Company, watching these events temporarily deferred its plan to spread out further.

For the Peshwas the immediate result was that the influence of Bhausaheb and Vishwasrao increased and Vishwarao succeeded his father in 1780 A.D. The rabble-rouser, Dadasaheb, had to retire from state politics.

Question 9.
What was the effect of the victory of the Peshwas on the East India Company?
Answer:
The East India Company was alarmed when the new Maratha ruler, Vishwasrao, and his brother, Madhavrao, expanded their influence all over India. The Company was limited to pockets of influence near Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. However, in the nineteenth century the Marathas were aware of the importance of the technological age starting in Europe. Hence when they set up their own centres for science and technology, the East India Company saw another chance to extend its influence, it offered support and experts. But they were accepted only to make the local centres self-sufficient.

Question 10.
What was the final outcome of the Peshwas?
Answer:
During the twentieth century, inspired by the West, India moved towards a democracy. By then, the Peshwas had lost their enterprise and democratically elected bodies slowly but surely replaced them. The Sultanate at Delhi survived even this change because it exerted no real influence. The Shahenshah of Delhi was a nominal head to rubber-stamp the ‘recommendations’ made by the central parliament.

The Browning Version Summary In English

This is an excerpt from Terence Rattigan’s play’i te Browning Version’. The scene is set in a good school. Taplow, a boy of sixteen has come in to do extra work for his master Mr. CrockerHarris. He has not yet arrived. Another master, Frank, younger in years than Mr. CrockerHarris finds Taplow waiting. Incidentally, it is the last day of the term.

Toplow is a student in the lower fifth form. He does not know whether he will get his division all right or not. He tells Frank that Mr. Crocker-Harris does not tell them the results like the other masters. Frank informs Taplow that there is a rule that form results should only be announced by the headmaster on the last day of the term. Taplow says that no one except Mr. Crocker-Harris pays attention to it.

Frank then asks Taplow what he would like to study if his result is favourable. Taplow indicates his preference for science. Frank remarks that they get all the slackers in science. Taplow disagrees with him and says that he is extremely interested in science. Frank observes frankly that he is not interested in the science he is to teach. Taplow, on the other hand, finds the study of Greek play ‘Agamemnon’ muck. His objection is to the way, the play is taught to them-just a lot of Greek words strung together and fifty lines if one gets them wrong. Taplow’s answers show that he is feeling a bit bitter. Frank is surprised that Taplow has come in to do extra work even on the last day of school. Taplow says that he missed a day last week when he was ill. So he has to put in extra work. The weather is quite fine and he might be playing golf. He knows that Mr. Crocker-Harris must be quite busy then as he is leaving the school for good the next day.

The conversation then shifts to Mr. Cocker-Harris. Taplow had asked him the previous day if he had given him a good division and he said that he had given Taplow exactly what he deserved-No less and certainly no more. Taplow is afraid that he might have marked him down, rather than up, for taking extra work. The man is hardly human. Frank then encourages Taplow to repeat the remarks of Mr. Crocker-Harris. Frank does not find his imitation up to the mark and asks him to read his Aeschylus and be quiet.

Frank suggests to Taplow that he might cut the class and play golf as Mr. Crocker-Harris has not turned up. Taplow is shocked at the suggestion as he can’t think of ever doing so. Frank envies Mr. Crocker-Harris for the effect he has on the boys. They seem scared to death of him. Taplow says that the Crock is not a sadist like other masters. He would not be so frightening if he were. It would then seem that he had some feelings. He seems dry like a nut and hates people to like him. Still Taplow likes him. Sometimes Mr Crocker-Harris sees it and he shrivels up even more.

Taplow then relates an incident when his master related one of his classical jokes in the class. Nobody laughed, as they couldn’t understand it. Taplow laughed as he knew he had meant it as funny. He felt sorry for his master for having made such a poor joke. Taplow has forgotten the joke, but offers to imitate the reaction of Mr Crocker-Harris. The laughter of Mr Frank encourages Taplow to do so. Frank seems to enjoy the joke and asks Taplow to tell it to others.

In the meanwhile Millie Crocker-Harris enters. Frank and Taplow are surprised to see her. Taplow is afraid that she might have overheard their joke. If she told her husband, Taplow’s division would be in danger. Frank dismisses his fear. Millie tells Taplow that her husband is at the Bursar’s and might be there quite a time. She says that if she were Taplow, she would go. Taplow is filled with doubt. He says that Mr Crocker-Harris had especially asked him to come. Millie then suggests that he might run away for a quarter of an hour and come back. Taplow is still uncertain and wonders what will happen, if he gets there before his arrival. Millie offers to take the blame. She then hands him over a prescription and asks him to go to the chemist and get it made up. Thus he can do a job for him. Taplow agrees and leaves the room.

The Browning Version Summary In Hindi

यह टेरेन्स रैटीगन के नाटक ‘ब्राउनिंग वर्शन’ का एक अंश है। दृश्य एक अच्छे विद्यालय में स्थित है। सोलह वर्षीय लड़का टैपलो, अपने अध्यापक मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस के लिए अतिरिक्त कार्य करने के लिये आया है। वह अभी वहाँ नहीं पहुँचा है। एक अन्य अध्यापक फ्रैंक, जो मि० क्रोकर हैरिस से आयु में छोटा है, टैपलो को प्रतीक्षा करते हुए पाता है। संयोगवश यह उस सत्र का अन्तिम दिवस है।

टैपलो निचली पाँचवी कक्षा का विद्यार्थी है। उसे यह नहीं पता कि उसे ठीक श्रेणी (डिवीजन) मिलेगी अथवा नहीं। वह फ्रेन्क को बताता है कि अन्य अध्यापकों की भाँति मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस उन्हें परिणाम नहीं बताता। फ्रैंक टैपलो को सूचित करता है कि एक नियम है कि कक्षा के परिणाम की घोषणा केवल मुख्य अध्यापक को ही सत्र के अन्तिम दिन करनी चाहिए। टैपलो कहता है कि मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस के अतिरिक्त कोई अन्य इस पर ध्यान नहीं देता।

फिर फ्रैंक टैपलो से पूछता है कि यदि उसका परिणाम सकारात्मक रहा तो वह क्या पढ़ना चाहेगा। टैपलो विज्ञान के प्रति अपनी पसन्द दर्शाता है। फ्रैंक कहता है कि उन्हें विज्ञान में सुस्त तथा कामचोर ही मिलते हैं। टैपलो उससे असहमत होता है तथा कहता है कि उसे विज्ञान में अत्यधिक रुचि है। फ्रैंक स्पष्ट रुप से कहता है उसे उस विज्ञान में कोई रूचि नहीं है तो उसे पढ़ाना पड़ता है। दूसरी ओर, टैपलो को यूनानी नाटक ‘अगमेमनॉन’ का अध्ययन अप्रिय लगती है। उसकी आपत्ति उस ढंग से है जिस ढंग से उन्हें नाटक पढ़ाया जाता है-केवल काफी यूनानी शब्द जिन्हें एक साथ पिरोया गया हो तथा पचास पंक्तियाँ (दण्ड स्वरूप) यदि कोई उनमें गलती कर दे। टैपलो का उत्तर दर्शाता है कि वह कुछ कड़वाहट से भरा हुआ है। फ्रैंक को यह जान कर आश्चर्य होता है कि विद्यालय के अन्तिम दिन भी टैपलो अतिरिक्त काम करने आया है। टैपलो कहता है कि पिछले सप्ताह वह एक दिन बीमार था, तो वह कक्षा में नहीं आ सका। अतः उसे अतिरिक्त काम करना पड़ेगा। मौसम काफी सुहावना है तथा वह गोल्फ खेल सकता था। वह जानता है कि मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस काफी व्यस्त होंगे क्योकि वह अगले दिन सदा के लिए विद्यालय छोड़ रहे होंगे।

फिर वार्तालाप मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस की ओर मुड़ जाता है। टैपलो ने उससे पिछले दिन पूछा था कि क्या उसने उसे अच्छी श्रेणी दे दी थी तथा उसने कहा कि उसने टैपलो को बिल्कुल वह ही दिया जिसके वह योग्य था—कुछ कम नहीं तथा निश्चय ही अधिक भी नहीं। टैपलो को भय है कि अतिरिक्त कार्य के कारण उसको अधिक अंकों के बजाय कम अंक मिलेंगे। वह व्यक्ति मानव भावनाओं से रहित है। फ्रैंक फिर टैपलो को प्रोत्साहित करता है कि वह मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस के कथन को दोहराया। फ्रैंक को यह नकल ठीक प्रतीत नहीं होती तथा वह उसे अपना आशईलस पढ़ने तथा चुप रहने को कहता है।

फ्रैंक टैपलो को सुझाव देता है कि वह छुट्टी मार ले तथा गोल्फ खेले क्योंकि मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस अभी तक नहीं आया है। टैपलो . को इस सुझाव से आघात लगता है क्योंकि वह ऐसा करने के लिए कभी सोच भी नहीं सकता। लड़कों पर उसके प्रभाव के कारण, फ्रैंक मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस से ईर्ष्या करता है। वे उससे भय के कारण कांपते हुए लगते हैं। टैपलो कहता है कि अन्य अध्यापकों की भाँति क्रोक परपीड़ा-प्रेमी नहीं है। यदि वह ऐसा होता तो इतना डरावना नहीं होता। तब ऐसा लगता कि उसमें कुछ भावनाएं हैं। वह तो एक अखरोट की भाँति सूखा लगता है तथा उसे पसन्द करने वालों से घृणा करता है। फिर भी टैपलो उसे पसन्द करता है। कई बार मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस इसे देख लेता है तथा और भी अधिक शुष्क हो जाता है।

टैपलो फिर एक घटना का वर्णन करता है जब उसके अध्यापक ने अपना एक उच्चकोटि का मज़ाक कक्षा में सुनाया। कोई भी नहीं हँसा, क्योंकि कोई भी इसे समझ नहीं पाया। टैपलो इसलिए हँस दिया क्योंकि वह जानता था कि वह इसे विनोदमय मानता था। ऐसे निम्न मजाक पर टैपलो को अपने अध्यापक के लिए खेद (अफसोस) हुआ। टैपलो वह मज़ाक तो भूल गया है किन्तु मि० क्रोकर हैरिस की प्रतिक्रिया की नकल उतारने की पेशकश करता है। मि० फ़ैन्क की हँसी उसे ऐसा करने को प्रोत्साहित करती है। फैन्क इस मज़ाक को पसन्द करता हुआ प्रतीत होता है तथा वह टैपलो को इसे अन्य लोगों को बताने को कहता है।

इसी बीच मिली क्रोकर-हैरिस प्रवेश करती है। उसे देखकर, फैन्क तथा टैपलो आश्चर्यचकित होते हैं। टैपलो को भय है कि उसने उसका मज़ाक सुन लिया होगा। यदि वह इसे अपने पति को बता देगी, तो उसकी श्रेणी खतरे में पड़ जाएगी। फ्रैंक उसके भय को महत्त्वहीन मानता है, मिली टैपलो को बताती है कि उसका पति बर्सर (कोषाधिकारी) के कार्यालय में है तथा वहाँ उसे काफी समय लग सकता है। वह कहती है कि यदि वह टैपलो के स्थान पर होती, तो वह चली जाती। टैपलो संदेह से भर जाता है। वह कहता है कि मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस ने विशेष रूप से उसे आने को कहा था। मिली फिर उसे सुझाव देती है कि वह पन्द्रह मिनट के लिए भाग जाए तथा लौट आए। टैपलो अभी भी अनिश्चय से भरा है तथा आश्चर्य करता है कि यदि वह उसके लौटने से पहले आ गया तो क्या होगा। मिली अपने ऊपर दोष लेने का प्रस्ताव करती है। फिर वह उसे दवाई का एक नुस्खा देती है तथा उसे औषधि विक्रेता के पास जाकर इसे बनवाने को कहती है। इस प्रकार वह उस (मि० क्रोकर-हैरिस) के लिए एक काम कर देगा। टैपलो सहमत हो जाता है तथा कक्ष से प्रस्थान करता है।

The Ailing Planet: the Green Movement’s Role Summary In English

The Green Movement started nearly twenty-five years ago. The world’s first nationwide Green party was founded in New Zealand in 1972. Since then, the movement has not looked back. In fact, no other movement in world history has excited human race so much as the Green Movement. For the first time, there is a growing awareness that the earth itself is a living organism. It has its own metabolic needs and essential processes.

The signs pertaining to the Earth’s life show a patient in declining health. People have now fully realised their moral duty to be good custodians of the planet and responsible trustees of the legacy to future generations.

The World Commission on Environment and Development popularized the concept of sustainable development in 1987. It defined the idea as the development that meets the needs of the present with out endangering the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

Man is the most dangerous animal in the world. Now he has realized the wisdom of shifting from a system based on domination to one based on partnership. Scientists have arranged list of 1.4 million living species on earth besides man. About three to hundred million other living species still stay unnamed in humiliating darkness.

The Brandt Commission was the first International Commission to deal with the question of ecology and environment. The first Brandt report raised the question whether we were to leave our successors a dried earth of increasing deserts, poor landscapes and ailing environment. Mr. Lester R. Brown has listed Earth’s four main biological systems. These are fisheries, forests, grasslands and croplands. They form the basis of the world’s economic system. They supply us food and raw materials for industry. In large areas of the world, these systems are reaching unsustainable level. Their productivity is being damaged. When this happens, fisheries break down, forests disappear, grasslands are changed into barren wastelands and croplands become worse.

Overfishing is common in protein hungry world. In poor countries, local forest are destroyed to obtain fuel for cooking. Tropical forests are wearing away at the rate of forty to fifty millions acres a year. The growing use of dung for burning deprives the soil of an important natural fertiliser. Over the last four decades ‘India’s forests have reached disastrous exhaustion. India is losing its forests at the rate of 3.7 million acres a year. Large areas, officially named forest land, are almost treeless. A UN study warns that the environment has deteriorated quite badly in many of the eighty-eight countries investigated.

The growth of world population is one of the strongest factors distorting the future of human society. Mankind reached the first billion mark in more than a million years. That was the world population in the year 1800. By the year 1900, a second billion was added. The twentieth century has added another 3.7 billion. The present world population is estimated at 5.7 billion. Every four days the world population increases by one million.

Fertility falls as income rises, education spreads and health improves. Development is the best contraceptive. However, development may not be possible if population goes on increasing at this rate. The population of India is estimated to be 920 million in 1994. It is more than the entire populations of Africa and South America put together. Unless population control is given top most priority, the hope of the people would die in their hungry hutments. There is no alternative to voluntary family planning without an element of coercion. The choice is really between control of population and continuation of poverty.

We notice a surpassing concern. People are worried not only about their own survival but that of the planet as well. People have begun to take an over-all view of the very basis of life. The environmental problem is our passport for the future. A new world vision has emerged. It has ushered in the Era of Responsibility. It is a holistic view, an ecological view. We now see the world as an integrated whole rather than separate parts.

Industry has very important role to play in this new Era of Responsibility. Leading businessmen should excel in environmental performance. Then they can continue to exist as leading manufacturers. The words of Margaret Thatcher are used frequently. She remarked: No generation has a free hold on this earth. All we have is a life tenancy with a full repairing lease.’Mr. Lester Brown, the author of ‘The Global Economic Prospecť rightly observes, “We have not inherited this earth from our forefathers, we have borrowed it from our children.”

The Ailing Planet: the Green Movement’s Role Summary In Hindi

हरित आन्दोलन लगभग 25 वर्ष पहले आरम्भ हुआ। संसार का पहला राष्ट्रव्यापी हरित-दल 1972 में न्यूजीलैंड में स्थापित किया गया। उसके उपरान्त इस आन्दोलन ने मुड़कर नहीं देखा है। वास्तव में, संसार में किसी अन्य आन्दोलन ने मानव जाति को इतना अधिक उत्तेजित नहीं किया है जितना कि हरित आन्दोलन ने। पहली बार यह चेतना बढ़ी है कि पृथ्वी स्वयं भी एक जीवधारी रचना है। इसकी अपनी जीव सम्बन्धी आवश्यकताएं एवं अति आवश्यक प्रक्रियाएं हैं।

पृथ्वी के जीवन सम्बन्धी चिन्ह एक मरीज को अवनतिशील स्वास्थ्य में दिखाते हैं। लोगों ने अब धरती के भले रखवाले तथा भविष्य की पीढ़ियों की धरोहर के उत्तरदायी ट्रस्टी होने के अपने नैतिक कर्तव्य को भलीभांति समझ लिया है।

1987 में पर्यावरण एवं विकास पर संसार के कमीशन ने जारी रखे जाने योग्य विकास की धारणा को लोकप्रिय किया। इसने इस विचार की परिभाषा ऐसे विकास के रूप में की जो कि लोगों की भविष्य की पीढ़ियों की अपनी आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति करने की योग्यताओं को खतरे में डाले बिना उनकी अपनी वर्तमान आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति करे।

मनुष्य संसार का सबसे खतरनाक प्राणी है। अब उसने प्रभुत्व पर आधारित प्रणाली से भागीदारी की प्रणाली में बदलने की बुद्धिमत्ता को समझ लिया है। वैज्ञानिको ने मनुष्य के अतिरिक्त पृथ्वी पर 14 लाख जीवित प्रजातियों की सूची तैयार की है। लगभग 30 लाख से 1000 लाख अन्य जीवित प्रजातियाँ (नस्लें) अभी भी अपमानजनक अन्धकार में गुमनाम पड़ी हैं।

बैंड्ट कमीशन पहला अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय कमीशन था जिसने पारिस्थितिकी एवं पर्यावरण से सरोकार रखा। पहली बैंड्टे प्रतिवेदन (रिपोर्ट) ने यह प्रश्न उठाया कि क्या हम अपने उत्तराधिकारियों के लिए बढ़ते हुए मरुस्थलों की सूखी धरती, दरिद्र दृश्यावलियाँ तथा एक बीमार पर्यावरण छोड़ जाएंगे। मि० लिस्टर आर० ब्राउन ने पृथ्वी की चार मुख्य जीव विद्या सम्बन्धी प्रणालियों की सूची बनाई है। ये हैं: मत्स्य (मछलियों), वन, घास के मैदान तथा कृषियोग्य भूमि। ये संसार की आर्थिक प्रणाली का आधार बनाते हैं। ये हमें भोजन तथा उद्योगों के लिए कच्चा माल देते हैं। संसार के विशाल क्षेत्रों में ये प्रणालियाँ जारी न रखे जाने योग्य स्तर तक पहुँच गई हैं। उनकी उत्पाद क्षमता को क्षति पहुँच रही है। जब ऐसा घटित होता है तो मछलीपालन का क्षय हो जाता है, वन अदृश्य हो जाते हैं, घास के मैदान-बंज़र ऊबड़-खाबड़ भूमि में परिवर्तित हो जाते हैं तथा फसल (कृषि) वाली भूमि खराब हो जाती है।

अधिक संख्या में मछलियाँ पकड़ना प्रोटीन के लिए भूखे संसार में सामान्य बात है। निर्धन देशों में खाना पकाने के लिए ईंधन प्राप्त करने के लिए वनों को नष्ट किया जाता है। उष्णकटिबन्धीय वन चालीस से पचास मिलियन (चार से पांच करोड़) एकड़ प्रति वर्ष के हिसाब से क्षीण हो रहे हैं। जलाने के लिए गोबर का बढ़ता हुआ उपयोग भूमि को एक महत्त्वपूर्ण प्राकृतिक उर्वरक (खाद) से वंचित करता है। पिछले चार दशकों में भारत के वन आपत्तिकारक रिक्तीकरण तक पहुँच गए है। भारत 37 लाख एकड़ प्रति वर्ष की दर से वन गॅवाता जा रहा है। विशाल क्षेत्र, जो सरकारी रूप से वन भूमि नामित हैं, लगभग वृक्षविहीन हैं। संयुक्त राष्ट्र का एक अध्ययन चेतावनी देता है कि अठासी जाँच किए गए देशों में से कई में पर्यावरण का बहुत बुरी तरह से पतन हुआ है।

संसार की जनसंख्या में वृद्धि मानव समाज के भविष्य में विकृत लाने वाले सुदृढ़ कारणों में से एक है। मानवता को पहला अरब (एक बिलियन) की स्तर (चिन्ह) पहुँचने के लिए दस लाख से अधिक वर्ष लगे। यह संसार की 1800 ई० में जनसंख्या थी। 1900 ई० तक एक अन्य बिलियन दस अरब जोड़ दिया गया। बीसवीं शताब्दी ने और 37 अरब (3.7 बिलियन) जोड़ दिया है। संसार की वर्तमान जनसंख्या को 5.7 अरब होने का अनुमान लगाया जाता है। प्रत्येक चार दिन में संसार की जनसंख्या दस लाख बढ़ जाती है।

जैसे-जैसे आय बढ़ती है तथा स्वास्थ्य सुधरता है तो उपजाऊपन कम होता है। विकास सबसे अच्छा (जनसंख्या) निरोधक है। किन्तु यदि जनसंख्या इसी दर से बढ़ती रहेगी, तो विकास भी सम्भव नहीं हो पायेगा। 1994 ई० में भारत की जनसंख्या 92 करोड़ होने का अनुमान लगाया गया है। यह अफ्रीका तथा दक्षिणी अमेरिका दोनों की पूरी जनसंख्या को एक साथ जोड़ने पर भी इनसे अधिक है। जब तक जनसंख्या नियन्त्रण को सर्वोच्च प्राथमिकता नहीं दी जाएगी, तब तक लोगों की आशा उनकी भूखी झोंपड़ियों में ही मर जाएगी। किसी दबाव (जोर-जबरदस्ती) के तत्त्व से रहित, स्वैच्छिक परिवार नियोजन का कोई विकल्प नहीं है। वास्तव में चुनाव तो जनसंख्या के नियन्त्रण तथा निर्धनती (गरीबी) जारी रखने के बीच में है।

हम एक बढ़ती हुई चिन्ता देखते हैं। लोग न केवल अपने जीवित रहने के विषय में चिन्तित हैं बल्कि इस ग्रह पृथ्वी के विषय में भी। लोग जीवन के आधार के विषय में व्यापक दृष्टि रखने लगे हैं। पर्यावरण की समस्या हमारे लिए भविष्य को सम्भावित करने वाली है। संसार का एक नया आभास (दृष्टि) उत्पन्न हुई है। इसने उत्तरदायित्व के युग का श्री गणेश (आरम्भ) किया है। यह एक समग्र दृष्टि है, परस्पर संबंधों वाली दृष्टि। अब हम संसार को पृथक भागों के बजाय अभिन्न रूप से जुड़ा हुआ पूर्ण रूप समझते हैं।

उत्तरदायित्व के इस युग में उद्योगों को एक महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभानी है। अग्रणी उद्योगपतियों को वातावरण सम्बन्धी कार्यों में आगे बढ़ना चाहिए। तब वे अग्रिम पंक्ति के निर्माणकर्ताओं के रूप में भी जारी रह सकते हैं। मारग्रेट थैचर के शब्द प्रायः प्रयोग किए जाते हैं। उसने कहा था: किसी भी पीढ़ी का इस पृथ्वी पर असीमित समय के लिए अधिकार नहीं है। जो कुछ हमारे पास है वह जीवन पर्यन्त निवास है-जिसमें पूरी तरह से मरम्मत करने का अधिकार है। ‘द ग्लोबल इकॉनामिक प्रॉस्पेक्ट’ नामक पुस्तक के लेखक मि० लेस्टर ब्राउन ने सही (उचित)कहा है, ‘हमने यह भूमि अपने पूर्वजों से पैतृक रूप से प्राप्त नहीं की है, हमने इसे अपने बच्चों से उधार लिया है।’

Landscape of The Soul Summary in English

Wu Daozi, was a painter in the eighth century. His last painting was a landscape that he made for Tang Emperor Xuanzong, to beautify a palace wall. Wu Daozi hid his work behind a screen, so only the Emperor would see it. He told the Emperor that in the cave in the painting, at the bottom of the mountain, lived a spirit. He then, clapped his hands, and the entrance to the cave opened. The painter entered the cave and the entrance closed behind him. Much to the surprise of the Emperor the painting vanished from the wall. After that neither was there any sign of Wu Daozi’s painting nor was he never seen again.

There are many such stories in China’s classical education. The books of great philosophers such as Confucius and Zhuangzi are full of such accounts. These stories helped the master to guide his student in the right direction. They also tell of the general feeling of the people towards art. There is another well-known story about a painter who did not draw the eye of a dragon that he had painted because he feared that it would fly out of the painting.

In fifteenth century there was a story about an accomplished blacksmith called Quinten Metsys. He fell in love with a painter’s daughter. The painter would not accept a son-in-law who was a blacksmith. So Quinten crept into the painter’s studio and painted a fly on his latest painting. It looked so real that the master tried to squash it away. He then realised what had happened. So he immediately took Quinten as his trainee. Quinten married his beloved and later become one of the most famous painters of his times. These two stories show that each form of art was trying to achieve: a perfect, impression of similarity in Europe and the spirit of inner life in Asia.

In the Chinese story, the Emperor appreciates the outer appearance in the painting but the artist shows him the true meaning of his work. The Emperor rules over the land but the artist knows the soul. The European painter would want people to look at a particular landscape just as he saw it while the Chinese painter does not choose a single viewpoint. One can enter a Chinese landscape from any point and travel in it. The artist makes a path for your eyes to travel up and down, and then back again, in a leisurely movement. This is even more true in the case of the horizontal scroll, in which the action of slowly opening the painting, then rolling it up to move on to the other, adds an element of time which is not found in any other form of painting. It also requires the active involvement of the onlooker, as his participation is physical as well as mental. The Chinese painter wants us to enter his mind. The landscape is a spiritual and abstract universe.

This idea is expressed as shanshui, which means ‘mountain water’. It is used together to symbolize the word ‘landscape’. More than two elements of an image represent two complementary poles, reflecting the Daoist view of the universe.

The mountain is Yang. It is depicted upright as if reaching towards Heaven. It is steady, warm, and dry in the sun. On the other hand the water is Yin that is horizontal and resting on the earth. It is fluid, moist and cool. The basic idea of Daoism is depicting the interaction of Yin and Yang. While Yin is the feminine part of universal energy, Yang is the masculine. The vital third element, the Middle Void, is often ignored. This is where the interaction of Yin and Yang takes place. This can be compared with the yogic practice of pranayama; breathe in, retain, breathe out, the suspension of breath is the Void where meditation occurs. The Middle Void is indispensable. Nothing can happen without it.

This is the reason why in the Chinese landscape there is white, unpainted space. This is also where man finds a basic role. In that space between Heaven and Earth, man becomes the medium of communication between both poles of the Universe. His being there is vital, even if there is only a suggestion of his presence. Francois Cheng underlines man’s importance saying that man is neither lost nor oppressed by the lofty peaks, he is in ‘the eye of the landscape’.

It was the French painter Jean Dubuffet who first doubted the theory of ‘art brut’ in the 1940s. Then only a few were interested in the art of the inexperienced creative thinker. However now the interest in ‘outsider art’ is growing internationally. This type of art is described as the art of those who have received no formal training, but are talented and have an artistic insight. Their works are inspiring unlike many of conventional ones.

About the same time that Dubuffet put forward his concept, in India an unqualified but brilliant artist was creating a masterpiece in the realm of art. It was Nek Chand, who changed a little patch of jungle into the Rock Garden, at Chandigarh. He sculpted with stone and used recycled material. This is India’s biggest contribution to outsider art. The Raw Vision, a UK-based magazine that paved the way in outsider art publications, wrote about Nek Chand, and his Rock Garden sculpture ‘Women by the Waterfall’. The view of ‘art brut’ or ‘raw art’ was of works that were in their unrefined state as regards cultural and artistic influences. Nek Chand used everything from a tin to a sink to a broken down car to create a magnificent work of art.

As an appreciation of his art, the Swiss Commission for UNESCO will be honouring him by putting up an exhibition of his works. The five-month interactive show, ‘Realm of Nek Chand’, beginning October will be held at leading museums in Switzerland, Belgium, France and Italy. According to Nek the greatest reward is seeing people enjoy his creation.

Landscape of The Soul Summary Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Briefly narrate the story of the Emperor and the Chinese artist.
Answer:
A painter Wu Daozi, who lived in the eighth century was asked to paint a landscape by the Tang Emperor Xuanzong, to decorate a palace wall. The artist concealed his work behind a screen, so that only the Emperor would see it. For a long time, the Emperor admired the wonderful scene.

One day the painter showed him a cave at the foot of the mountain, and said that a spirit dwelt there. The painter clapped his hands, and the entrance to the cave opened. He then entered the cave and the entrance closed behind him. Since then nothing is known of the artist or the painting as the painting vanished off the wall.

Question 2.
How did stories such as the one about Wu Daozi play an important role in China’s classical education?
Answer:
Such stories played a significant part in China’s classical education. They helped the master to guide his pupil in the right direction. They were not merely tales, but were deeply illuminating of the essence of art. The books of Confucius and Zhuangzi are full of such stories. They reveal that art was considered the essence of inner life and spirit in Asia.

Question 3.
Why did the artist agree to get his daughter married to the blacksmith?
Answer:
Initially the artist was against the blacksmith, Quinten Metsys, marrying his daughter. However, one day Quinten slyly sneaked into the painter’s studio and painted a fly on his latest panel, that was so realistic that the master tried to swat it away. The artist was so impressed that he admitted Quinten as an apprentice into his studio and let him marry his beloved.

Question 4.
What is the difference between the Chinese and European art?
Answer:
The Chinese and European art are different as the European art is trying to achieve a perfect, illusionistic likeness in Europe, and the Chinese the essence of inner life and spirit in Asia. While the European wants you to look at the landscape through his eyes, the Chinese painter wants you to enter it from any point, then travel in it. He creates a path for your eyes to travel up and down, then back again, in a leisurely movement.

Question 5.
How does shanshui express the Daoist view of the universe?
Answer:
Shanshui means ‘mountainwater.’ It expresses the Daoist view. The mountain is Yang and it stretches vertically towards Heaven. It is stable, warm, and dry in the sun, while the water is Yin. It is horizontal and resting on the earth, fluid, moist and cool. The interaction of Yin, the receiver, feminine aspect of universal energy, and Yang, active and masculine, is the fundamental belief of Daoism.

Question 6.
What is lacking in Shanshui?
Answer:
The third element, the Middle Void where their interaction takes place, is lacking in Shanshui. The Middle Void is indispensable. Hence nothing can happen without it. This is the reason why the white, unpainted space in Chinese landscape is important. This is also where Man finds a fundamental role, in that space between Heaven and Earth, he becomes the medium of communication between both poles of the universe.

Question 7.
How is the pranayama compared to the Middle void?
Answer:
The Middle Void is vital as nothing can happen without it. This is the reason why the white, unpainted space in Chinese landscape is imperative. This is also where Man finds a fundamental role, in the yogic practice of pranayama we breathe in, retain and breathe out. The suspension of breath is the Void where meditation occurs.

Question 8.
How did the theory of ‘brut art’ put forward by Jean Dubuffet get credence?
Answer:
French painter Jean Dubuffet challenged the concept of ‘art brut’ in the 1940s. Before that the art of the untrained visionary was of minor interest. At about the same time ‘an untutored genius was creating paradise’. This was none other than Nek Chand, who cleared a little patch of jungle to make himself a garden sculpted with stone and recycled material known to the world today as the Rock Garden, at Chandigarh.

Discovering Tut: the Saga Continues Summary In English

It was 6 p.m. on January 5, 2005 when the mummy of Tutankhamun moved smoothly and quietly into CT scanner which had been carried to Tut’s resting place. The aim was to probe the persisting medical mysteries of this young ruler who died more than 3,300 years ago. His dead body was embalmed and buried in a royal grave in the Valley of the Kings.

Howard Carter, a British archaeologist discovered Tut’s tomb in 1922 after years of futile search. Its contents remain the richest royal collection ever found. They include extremely attractive artifacts in gold as well as everyday things like board games, a bronze razor, linen undergarments, cases of food and wine.

Carter first recorded the Pharaoh’s funeral treasures. Then he began investigating his three nested coffins. The first one had a shroud covered with garlands of willow and olive trees, wild celery, lotus petals and cornflowers. These proved that he was buried in March or April. Carter ran into trouble when he reached the mummy. The ritual resins had hardened. These had cemented Tut to the bottom of his solid gold coffin. The solidified material was removed with the help of chisels. Then the mummy was cut free. Carter’s men removed the mummy’s head and severed nearly every major joint. Once they had finished, they reassembled the remains on a layer of sand in a wooden box with padding that concealed the damage. The team of scientists found it resting there. Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities observed that the mummy was in very bad condition because of what Carter had done in the 1920s.

Archaeology has changed a lot during the last few decades. Now it pays less attention to treasure and more to the fascinating details of life and puzzling mysteries of death. It uses more sophisticated tools including medical technology. In 1968 an Anatomy Professor X-rayed the mummy. He revealed a startling fact. The breast-bone and front ribs are missing. Now CT scanning was employed to answer two questions: (i) how did he die? and (ii) how old was he at the time of his death?

On the night of the scan, workmen carried Tut from the tomb in his box. They climbed a ramp and a flight of stairs into the swirling sand outside. Then they rose on a hydraulic lift into a trailer. This trailer held the scanner. Initially, there was some problem because of sand in a cooler fan. Then the technicians scanned the mummy head to toe. 1700 digital X-ray images in cross section were created. Tut’s head was scanned in 0.62 millimetre slices to register its complicated structures. Tut’s entire body was sirnilarly recorded. Then a team of specialists in radiology, forensics and anatomy began to probe the secrets.

A technician displayed astonishing images of Tut on a computer screen. A gray head took shape from a scattering of pixels. The technician spanned and tilted it in every direction, Neck vertebrae appeared quite clearly. Other images revealed a hand, several views of the ribcage, and a narrow cross section of the skull. Zahi Hawass smiled. He felt relieved to see that nothing had gone seriously wrong.

Discovering Tut: the Saga Continues Summary In Hindi

5 जनवरी 2005 को सन्ध्या के 6 बजे थे जब तूतनखामून की ममी CT scanner में खिसकती हुई गई। इस CT scanner को उसके विश्राम स्थल पर लाया गया था। उद्देश्य था कि इस युवा शासक के विषय में सारी चिकित्सा रहस्यों को ढूंढना। जो 3300 वर्ष पहले मरा था। उसके शव पर औषधियों का लेप करके उसे राजाओं की घाटी नामक राजसी कब्रिस्तान में दफनाया गया था।

हावर्ड कार्टर नामक एक ब्रिटिश पुरातत्ववेत्ता ने कई वर्षों की निष्फल तलाश के उपरान्त 1922 में तूत की कब्र खोज ली। इसमें संग्रहित सामग्री सर्वाधिक समृद्ध राजसी भण्डार है जो अब तक पाया गया। इनमें स्वर्ण की अत्यधिक आकर्षक मानव निर्मित वस्तुएँ तथा दैनिक प्रयोग की वस्तुएँ जैसे खेलने का बोर्ड, काँसे का उस्तरा, अन्दर के वस्त्र, भोजन एवं मद्य (शराब) की पेटियाँ हैं।

कार्टर ने पहले तो मिस्र के राजा के शव के साथ के खजाने की सूची बनाई। फिर उसने तीन शव-पेटियों का निरीक्षण करना आरम्भ किया। पहली वाली में एक मोटा वस्त्र था जो सरपत तथा जैतून के पत्तों, जंगली सेलेरी, कमल की पंखड़ियों तथा अन्न के साथ उगने वाले पौधों से बनी मालाओं से ढ़का हुआ था। इनसे सिद्ध होता था उसको मार्च या अप्रैल में दफनाया गया था। कार्टर तब कष्ट में फँसा जब वह मृत शरीर की ममी पर पहुँचा। अनुष्ठान में प्रयुक्त गोंद कठोर हो गया था। इसने तूत को ठोस सोने की शव पेटी के पेंदे में पक्का चिपका दिया था। छेनियों की सहायता से इसे ठोस बने हुए पदार्थ को हटाया गया। फिर ममी को इस से काट कर मुक्त किया गया। कार्टर के व्यक्तियों ने ममी का सिर काटा तथा लगभग प्रत्येक बड़े जोड़ को पृथक किया। जब उनका काम पूरा हो गया तो उन्होंने इन अवशेषों को नर्म पदार्थ लगे हुए एक लकड़ी के सन्दूक में रेत के ऊपर रख दिया जिनसे क्षति ढक गई। वैज्ञानिकों के दल ने इसे वहाँ लेटे पाया। जाही हवास जों मिस्र की पुरातत्व की सर्वोच्च सभा के महासचिव थे, ने कहा कि 1920 के दशक में कार्टर ने जो किया उसके कारण ममी बहुत खराब दशा में थी।

पिछले कुछ दशकों में पुरातत्व शास्त्र में काफी परिवर्तन आए हैं। अब यह धन को कम तथा जीवन की आकर्षक बातों तथा मृत्यु के पेचीदा रहस्यों पर अधिक ध्यान देता है। यह चिकित्सा तकनीक सहित अधिक परिष्कृत औज़ार प्रयोग करता है। 1968 ई में शरीर रचना के एक प्रोफेसर ने ममी का एक्स-रे चित्र लिया। उसने एक चौंकाने वाला तथ्य उजागर किया। छाती की हड्डी तथा सामने की पसलियाँ गायब है। अब दो प्रश्नों का उत्तर पाने के लिए कम्प्यूटर तकनीक द्वारा जांच के लिए चित्र निकाले गये : (i) वह कैसे मरा? तथा (ii) अपनी मृत्यु के समय वह कितने वर्ष का था।

जाँच की रात, श्रमिक तूत को उसकी कब्र से सन्दूक में ले गए। वह एक ढलान तथा सीढ़ियों तथा बाहर लहरदार रेत पर चढ़े। फिर वे पानी द्वारा चलने वाली लिफ्ट पर चढ़कर एक गाड़ी में पहुँचे। इस गाड़ी में जाँच की मशीन थी। आरम्भ में कूलर के पंखे में रेत आने के कारण कुछ समस्या हुई। फिर कुशल कर्मचारियों ने ममी के सिर से अँगूठे तक तीन आयामों के चित्र लिये। 1700 digital प्रणाली की X-ray छवियाँ लम्बे बल समकोण के कटाव में ली गई। तूत के सिर की जाँच 0.62 मिलीमीटर के टुकड़ों में की गई ताकि इसके पेचीदा बनावट का विवरण सही दर्ज किया जा सके। इसी प्रकार तूत के पूरे शरीर का विवरण लिखा गया। फिर विकिरण विशेषज्ञ, अपराध शास्त्र के वैज्ञानिक तथा शरीर रचना विशेषज्ञ गुप्त रहस्यों को ढूंढने लगे।

एक कुशल तकनीकी कारीगर ने कम्प्यूटर के पर्दे पर तूते की आश्चर्यजनक छवियों को दर्शाया (दिखाया) । बिखरे हुए चमकदार बिन्दुओं को एकत्र करने से भूरे बालों वाले एक सिर का आकार बनता गया। तकनीकी कारीगर ने इसे प्रत्येक दिशा में घुमाया तथा टेढ़ा किया। गर्दन रीढ़ की हड्डी के टुकड़े बिल्कुल स्पष्ट उभरे। अन्य आकृतियों में एक हाथ, पसलियों के कई कोणों से दृश्य तथा खोपड़ी की तंग लम्बाकार छवि थी। ज़ाही हवास मुस्कराया। उसने यह देख कर चैन की सांस ली कि कुछ भी गम्भीर रूप से नहीं बिगड़ा था।

We’re Not Afraid to Die… if We Can All Be Together Summary In English

In July 1976, the narrator, a 37 year-old businessman, his wife Mary, six year old son, Jonathan and seven year old daughter, Suzanne set sail from Plymouth, England. They wished to go round the world on a long sea journey as Captain James Cook had done 200 years earlier. They started in 23 metre, 30 ton wooden-hulled boat named Wavewalker.

The first part of their planned three-year, 105,000 kilometre journey passed pleasantly. They sailed down the west coast of Africa to Cape Town. They took on two crewmen-Larry Vigil, an American and Herb Seigler, a Swiss to help them cross the rough southern Indian Ocean.

On their second day out of Cape Town, they faced extremely strong winds, which blew continuously for next few weeks. Waves rose up to 15 metres. On December 25, they were 3500 kilometres east of Cape Town. Though the weather was very bad, they enjoyed Christmas and New Year’s Day.

The weather changed for the worse. On January 2, there were mighty waves. They were sailing at eight knots. They slowed down the boat by dropping the small sail and fastened mooring rope in a loop across the hind part of the boat. Then they attached lifelines, put on water proof clothes and life jackets and waited for the storm. The first sign of the imminent disaster came as portentous silence. The wind dropped and the sky immediately grew dark. Then came a growing roar and a very huge wave. A tremendous explosion shook the deck. The narrator’s head struck on the wheel and he flew over the side of the boat into water. He was sinking below the waves. He accepted his coming death.

Suddenly his head appeared out of water. A few metres away Wavewalker was about to turn over in water. Then a wave threw her upright. Succeeding waves threw the narrator around the deck like a rag doll. His left ribs cracked. His mouth was filled with blood and broken teeth. He, somehow, found the wheel and lined up the stern for the next wave. There was water .everywhere on the ship, but he could not leave his place in order to investigate the situation. Suddenly his wife, Mary, opened the door in the deck and shouted that they were sinking as the decks were broken.

The narrator asked her to take the wheel. Then he moved quickly to the door. Larry and Herb were pumping water out of the ship. The wooden beams had broken. The whole starboard side had bulged inwards. Clothes, crockery, charts, tins and toys moved around noisily in water. He crawled into the children’s cabin. Sue had got a big bump on her head. He had no time to attend to her.

He found a hammer, screws and canvas and started repair work. He managed to stretch canvas and secure water proof hatch covers across the gaping holes. Most of the water was now being deflected over the side. Then the hand pumps started to block up with debris. The electric pump had a short circuit. Water level rose up dangerously. He found that their two spare hand pumps had been pulled away by currents along with the forestay sail, the jib, the dinghies and the main anchor. He searched another electric pump, connected it to an outpipe and water was pumped out throughout night. They got no replies from their Mayday calls. Sue’s head had swollen alarmingly. She had two enormous black eyes and a deep cut on her arm.

On the morning of January 3, the pumps had reduced the amount of water on board. Each of them took rest for two hours turn by turn. They had survived for 15 hours since the wave hit the Wavewalker, but she was not strong enough to take them to Australia. He checked the charts. He calculated that there were two small islands a few hundred kilometres to the east. He hoped to reach Le Amsterdam, a French scientific base. On January 4, after 36 hours of continuous pumping, they reached the last few centimetres of water. Now they had to keep pace with the water still coming in. Mary found some corned beef and cracker biscuits.

They ate their first meal in almost two days. Their relief was short lived. At 4 pm black clouds began building up. Within an hour, the wind was back to 40 knots. The seas were getting higher. Throughout the night, the weather became worse. By dawn on January 5, their situation was extremely dangerous. The narrator went in to comfort the children. Jon asked if they were going to die. The narrator tried to assure him that they could make it. Then Jon said. “We aren’t afraid of dying if we can all be together.” The narrator could find no words to respond. He determined to fight the sea. To protect the weak starboards side, he decided to stop the ship with the undamaged port-hull facing the on coming waves. He used an improvised sea anchor of heavy nylon rope and two 22 litre plastic barrels of paraffin. More water rushed in through the broken planks in the evening.

On the morning of January 6, the wind became less severe. The narrator got a reading on the sextant. He made quick calculations. She came in and gave him a card she had made. She had drawn caricatures of Mary and the narrator. It also had a message expressing love and thanks. At 2 p.m., after checking calculations, the narrator asked Larry to steer a course of 185 degrees. He could then expect to see an island at about 5 p.m. Then he went below, climbed on his bunk and dozed off. He woke up at 6 p.m. Jon entered and asked if he could embrace his Daddy. She was right behind him. They called him the best daddy in the whole world and the best captain. They informed him that they had found the island.

The narrator rushed on deck. He saw the outline of the island of Ile Amsterdam. That night they anchored offshore. The next morning all 28 inhabitants of the island cheered them and helped them ashore. After reaching the land, the narrator thought of Larry and Herbie. They had been cheerful under direst stress, Mary had stayed at the wheel for those crucial hours. Then he thought of his seven year old girl, who did not want them to worry about her head injury and of the six-year old boy who was not afraid to die..

We’re Not Afraid to Die… if We Can All Be Together Summary In Hindi

जुलाई 1976 में 37 वर्षीय व्यापारी, वर्णनकर्ता, उसकी पत्नी मेरी, 6 वर्षीय पुत्र जोनाथन तथा 7 वर्षीया पुत्री सुजैन नाव में इंग्लैंड की प्लाई माउथ, बन्दरगाह से रवाना हुए। संसार के चारों ओर एक लम्बी समुद्री यात्रा के लिये जाना चाहते थे जैसे कि 200 वर्ष पहले जेम्स कुक ने की थी। उन्होंने 23 मीटर लम्बी, 30 टन भारी लकड़ी पेंदे वाली नौका ‘वेववाकर’ में यात्रा आरम्भ की।

उनकी 3 वर्ष की, 105,000 किलोमीटर की नियोजित यात्रा का प्रथम चरण सुहावने ढंग से गुजरा। वे अफ्रीका के पश्चिमी तट में केपटाइन तक नौका में चले गये। वहाँ उन्होंने दो कर्मचारी लिए, अमरीकी लैरी विजिल तथा स्विट्जरलैंड निवासी हर्ब सीगलर-जो कि खराब मौसम वाले दक्षिणी भारतीय समुद्र को पार करने में उनकी सहायता कर सकें।

केप टाउन से निकलने के दूसरे ही दिन उन्हें अत्यधिक तेज पवन का सामना करना पड़ा जो अगले कई सप्ताहों तक लगातार (उसी वेग) से चलती रही। लहरें 15 मीटर ऊपर तक उठ जाती थी। 25 दिसम्बर को वे केपटाउन से 3500 किलोमीटर पूर्व में थे। यद्यपि मौसम बहुत खराब था, फिर भी उन्होंने क्रिसमस तथा नववर्ष के पहले दिन का आनन्द लिया।

मौसम और भी खराब हो गया। 2 जनवरी को अत्यन्त शक्तिशाली लहरें उठीं। वे आठ नॉट की गति से नौका चला रहे थे। उन्होंने छोटी पाल गिराकर तथा निर्धारित स्थान में पोत को रखने के लिए बांधने वाली रस्सियों के छल्ले पीछे के भाग में बांध कर गति धीमी की। फिर उन्होंने जल-रोधी वस्त्र तथा जीवन रक्षक जैकेट पहने तथा तूफान की प्रतीक्षा करने लगे। भावी अमंगलमय विपत्ति के प्रथम चिन्ह अपशकुन भरी चुप्पी से आये। वायु (पवन) थम गई तथा तत्काल अन्धेरा हो गया। फिर एक बढ़ती हुई दहाड़ की आवाज के साथ विशाल लहर आई। एक बहुत बड़े विस्फोट ने डेक को हिला दिया। वर्णनकर्ता का सिर चालन-पहिये से टकराया तथा वह नौका के पहलू से उड़ता हुआ पानी में जा गिरा। वह लहरों के नीचे डूब रहा था। उसने अपनी आगामी मृत्यु को स्वीकार कर लिया।

अचानक उसका सिर पानी से बाहर निकला। कुछ मीटर दूर ‘वेववाकर पानी में उलटने वाली थी। फिर एक लहर ने उसे सीधा कर दिया। आगामी लहरों ने वर्णनकर्ता को चिथड़ों की गुड़िया की भाँति डेक पर फेंक दिया। उसकी बाईं पसलियाँ टूट गईं। उसका मुँह रक्त तथा टूटे हुए दाँतों से भर गया। उसने किसी प्रकार चालक पहिए को पा लिया तथा नौको के पिछले भाग को अगली लहर के लिए सीधा किया। जहाज पर प्रत्येक स्थान पर जल था, किन्तु वह स्थिति की जाँच करने के लिये अपने स्थान को नहीं छोड़ सकता था। अचानक उसकी पत्नी, मेरी, ने डेक का द्वार खोला तथा चिल्लाई कि वे डूब रहे हैं क्योंकि डेक टूट गया था।

वर्णनकर्ता ने उसे पहिया संभालने को कहा। फिर वह शीघ्रता से द्वार की ओर गया। लैरी तथा हर्ब जहाज में से पम्पों द्वारा पानी निकाल रहे थे। लकड़ी के शहतीर टूट गये थे। दाहिनी ओर का पूरा पक्ष भीतर की ओर धंस गया था। वस्त्र, चीनी मिट्टी के बर्तन, चार्ट, टिन तथा खिलौने शोर करते हुए पानी में चारों ओर घूम रहे थे। वह रेंगता हुआ बच्चों के कक्ष में गया। स्यू के सिर पर एक बड़ा सा उभार निकल आया था। उसका उपचार करने का उसके पास समय नहीं था।

उसने एक हथौड़ा, पेंच तथा कन्वास ढूँढा तथा मरम्मत का काम आरम्भ कर दिया। वह किसी तरह छेदों को बंद करने में सफल हो सका। अब अधिकतर पानी पहलू से दिशा बदल कर जा रहा था। फिर कूड़े-कर्कट के कारण हाथ से चलाने वाले पम्पों ने काम करना बन्द कर दिया। बिजली वाले पम्प की तारों में खराबी आ गई। जल-स्तर बड़े खतरनाक ढंग से ऊपर उठने लगा। उसने पाया कि उनके दोनों अतिरिक्त हाथ से चलाने वाले पम्प, आगे लगने वाली पाल, तिकोनी पाल, छोटी नौकाओं तथा मुख्य लंगर के साथ ही लहरों द्वारा बहाई ले जाई गई थी। उसने एक अन्य बिजली वाला पम्प ढूँढा, इसे बाहरी पाइप से जोड़ा और सारी रात पानी बाहर निकाला गया। स्यू का सिर भयानक ढंग से सूज गया था। उसकी आँखें सूज गई थीं तथा उसके बाजू पर गहरा घाव था।

3 जनवरी को प्रातः तक पम्पों ने जहाज के ऊपर जल राशि को कम कर दिया था। उनमें से प्रत्येक ने बारी-बारी दो-दो घण्टे तक विश्राम किया। जब से लहरें ‘वेववाकर’ से टकराई थी, वे 15 घण्टे से जीवित बचे थे, किन्तु वह इतनी सुदृढ़ नहीं थी कि उन्हें आस्ट्रेलिया ले जा सके। उसने चार्टी की जांच की। उसने गणना की कि पूर्व की ओर कुछ सौ किलोमीटर पर दो द्वीप थे। वह ‘इले एमस्टरडम’ नामक फ्रांसीसी वैज्ञानिक आधार पर पहुँचना चाहता था। 35 घण्टे तक लगातार पम्पों से पानी बाहर निकालने के पश्चात् वे 4 जनवरी को अन्तिम कुछ सेंटीमीटर जलराशि तक पहुँचे। अब उन्हें केवल उस पानी के साथ गति बनाये रखनी थी जो अब भी पोत में आ रहा था। मेरी ने नमक लगाकर सुरक्षित रखा हुआ कुछ गौ मांस तथा पतले नमकीन बिस्कुट तलाश किए। लगभग दो दिन में उन्होंने पहली बार भोजन किया। उनका यह सुख कुछ समय तक ही सीमित रहा। साँय 4 बजे काले बादल छाने लगे। एक घंटे के भीतर, पवन ने फिर से 40 नॉट की गति पकड़ ली। समुद्र का जल ऊँचा होने लगा। पूरी रात मौसम और अधिक खराब होता रहा। 5 जनवरी को भोर तक, उनकी स्थिति अत्यधिक खतरनाक हो गई थी। वर्णनकर्ता बच्चों को आराम देने भीतर गया। जॉन ने पूछा कि क्या वे मरने वाले थे। वर्णनकर्ता ने उसे विश्वास दिलाया कि वे बच निकलेंगे। फिर जान ने कहा, “हमें मरने से भय नहीं है यदि हम सब इकट्ठे हों।” उसे उत्तर देने के लिये वर्णनकर्ता को कोई शब्द नहीं मिल सके। उसने समुद्र से लड़ने का निश्चय किया। कमजोर दाहिनी पृष्ट की रक्षा करने के लिये उसने जहाज को रोकने का निर्णय किया ताकि क्षतिरहित पतन की ओर वाली पेंदी आनेवाली लहरों की ओर रहें। उसने भारी नाइलॉन की रस्सी तथा 22 लीटर वाले मिट्टी के तेल के दो प्लास्टिक के ड्रम से कामचलाऊ लंगर बनाया। शाम को टूटे हुए तख्तों में से अधिक पानी भीतर घुस गया।

6 जनवरी को सवेरे, पवन कुछ कम कठोर हुआ। वर्णनकर्ता ने कोण तथा दूरी मापने वाले यन्त्र पर सूचना देखी। उसने शीघ्र गणना की। स्यू भीतर आई तथा उसे एक कार्ड दिया जो उसने बनाया था। उसने मेरी तथा वर्णनकर्ता के हास्य जनक रेखाचित्र बनाए थे। इसमें प्रेम तथा धन्यवाद व्यक्त करता हुआ एक संदेश भी था। 2 बजे अपराह्न में, गणना की जाँच करने के उपरान्त, वर्णनकर्ता ने लैरी को 185 अंश के मार्ग पर चलने को कहा। तब वह 5 बजे अपराह्न तक एक द्वीप देखने की आशा कर सकता था। फिर वह नीचे गया, अपनी शयन पटरी पर चढ़ा तथा लेटते ही ऊँघने लगा। वह 6 बजे शाम को जागा। जान भीतर आया तथा कहने लगा कि क्या वह अपने पिता का आलिंगन कर सकता था। स्यू उसके बिल्कुल पीछे थी। उन्होंने उसे पूरे संसार में सबसे अच्छा पिता तथा कैप्टन कहा। उन्होंने उसे सूचना दी कि उन्होंने द्वीप पा लिया है।

वर्णनकर्ता तेजी से दौड़कर डेक पर आया। उसने इले एम्सटर्डम द्वीप की बाहरी फैलाव की आकृति देखी। उस रात उन्होने तट के पास ही लंगर डाला। अगले प्रातः द्वीप के सभी 28 निवासियों ने प्रसन्नता से उनका जोश बढ़ाया तथा तट पर जाने में सहायता की। भूमि पर पहुँचने के पश्चात् लेखक लैरी तथा हर्बी के विषय में सोचता रहा। वे तनाव के भयंकर समय में भी प्रसन्नचित्त रहे थे। मैरी उन महत्त्वपूर्ण क्षणों में संचालन के पहिये पर डटी रही थी। फिर उसने अपनी 7 वर्ष की बेटी के विषय में सोचा जो नहीं चाहती थी कि वे उसकी सिर की चोट के विषय में चिन्ता करें तथा अपने 6 वर्षीय पुत्र के बारे में सोचा जिसे मरने का भय नहीं था।

The Portrait of a Lady Summary In English

In ‘The Portrait of a Lady’, Khushwant Singh has given an account of his grandmother. He draws a life-like portrait. She was very old. Her face was wrinkled. Her hair was white. It was hard to believe that once she had been young and pretty. His grandfather’s picture hung above the mantelpiece in the drawing room. He wore a big turban. His clothes were loose. He looked at least a hundred years old. It was hard to believe that he had once a wife or children.

Khushwant Singh’s grandmother was a short lady. She was fat and slightly bent. She couldn’t walk straight. She hobbled about the house. She had to keep one hand on her waist. It was to balance her stoop. In the other she held a rosary. She was always telling the beads. Her lips constantly moved in prayer. She put on white clothes. Her silver locks scattered over her pale face. She looked like snowy mountains in winter. She was a picture of peace and contentment. She was very old. Perhaps she could not have looked older. She looked the same for the last twenty years.

Khushwant Singh and his grandmother were good friends. His parents went to city. They left him with her in the village. She took good care of him. She used to wake him up in the morning. She got him ready for the school. She said her morning prayer in sing-song manner. She hoped that he would learn it by heart. He liked her voice but never bothered to learn it. Then she would fetch his wooden slate. She had already washed it and plastered it with yellow chalk. She would take an earthen inkpot and a reed-pen. She would tie them in a bundle and hand it to him. She would given him a thick stale chapatti with little butter and sugar spread on it. It was his breakfast. She carried several stale chapattis with her for the village dogs.

His grandmother always went to school with him. The school was attached to the temple. The priest taught children the alphabet and the morning prayer. The children sat in two rows in the verandah. They would sing the alphabet or the prayer in a chorus. The grandmother sat inside the temple. She would read holy books. Then they would walk home together. The village dogs would gather at the temple door. They threw chapattis to them. The dogs would growl and fight with each other.

The narrator’s parents sent for them in the city. It was a turning-point in their friendship. They shared the same room. But grandmother no longer went to school with him. The narrator used to go to an English school in a motor bus. There were no dogs in the streets. So grandmother took to feeding the sparrows.

Years rolled by. They saw less of each other. Sometimes she would ask him what the teacher had taught him. She did not believe in the things they taught at the English school. She was unhappy. She did not like English or Science. She felt sad that there was no teaching about God and the scriptures at school. The narrator one day told her that they were being given music lessons. She was disturbed. She thought music quite indecent. For her it was good only for prostitutes and beggars. It was not meant for gentle folk.

The narrator went to university. He was given a room of his own. The common link of friendship was broken. The grandmother accepted her loneliness quietly. She was always busy with her spinning wheel and reciting prayers. She rarely talked to anyone. In the afternoon, she relaxed for a while. Then she would feed the sparrows. She sat in the verandah. She broke the bread into little bits. Then she would throw them to sparrows. Hundreds of sparrows came there. They created a hell of noise. Some came and sat on her legs. Others would sit on her shoulders. Some would sit even on her head. She smiled but never frightened them away. Feeding the sparrows was the happiest half-hour of the day for her.

The narrator decided to go abroad for higher studies. He was to remain away for five years. The grandmother was very old. She could die any moment. The narrator was worried. But the grandmother was not upset. She showed no emotion. She came to the railway station to see him off. Her lips moved in prayer. Her mind was lost in prayer. Her fingers were busy telling the beads of her rosary. She kissed his forehead silently. The narrator thought that it was the last sign of physical contact between them.

The narrator returned home after five years. His grandmother met him at the station. She did not look a day older. She did not speak anything. She held him in her arms. She went on reciting her prayers. In the afternoon she fed the sparrows as usual. In the evening a change came over her. She didn’t pray. She collected the women of the neighbourhood. She got an old drum. She continued thumping the old drum for several hours. She started singing. She sang of the home-coming of warriors. They had to persuade her to stop. She might overstrain herself. It was for the first time that she had forgotten to pray.

The next morning she fell ill. She had a mild fever. She told them that her end was near. She realised that she had forgotten to pray. She didn’t want to talk. It would be waste of time. She ignored their requests. She lay peacefully in bed. She was praying and telling beads. Then her lips stopped moving. The rosary fell down from her lifeless fingers. Her face looked pale but peaceful. She was dead. She was laid on the ground. She was covered with a red shawl. Arrangements for her funeral were being made.

It was evening. The sun was setting. They brought a wooden stretcher. They stopped half-way in the courtyard. Thousands of sparrows sat near her dead body. They did not chirrup. Everyone felt sorry for the birds. The narrator’s mother brought some bread. She broke it into little crumbs. She threw these crumbs to the sparrows. The birds took no notice of them. Then they carried her dead body outside. The sparrows flew away quietly. The crumbs of bread still remained lying there in the courtyard. Evidently, the sparrows had come to mourn the death of the grandmother.

The Portrait of a Lady Summary In Hindi

‘एक महिला का चित्र’ में खुशवन्त सिंह ने अपनी दादी का वर्णन किया है। वह उसका सजीव चित्र प्रस्तुत करता है। वह अत्यन्त वृद्धा थी। उसके चेहरे पर झुर्रियाँ थीं। उसके बाल श्वेत थे। यह विश्वास करना काफी कठिन था कि कभी वह युवा एवं आकर्षक थीं। उसके दादा का चित्र बैठक में चिमनी की कोर्निस के ऊपर टंगा हुआ था। उसने एक बड़ी पगड़ी पहनी हुई थी। उसके वस्त्र ढीले थे। वह कम से कम एक सौ वर्ष का लगता था। यह विश्वास करना कठिन था कि कभी उसकी एक पत्नी अथवा बच्चे भी थे।

खुशवन्त सिंह की दादी छोटे कद की महिला थी। वह मोटी तथा थोड़ी सी झुकी हुई थी। वह सीधी नहीं चल सकती थी। वह घर में इधर-उधर लंगड़ाती सी घूमती-फिरती थी। उसे अपना एक हाथ कमर पर रखना पड़ता था। वह उसे अपने झुके हुए शरीर को सन्तलित करने के लिए था। दसरे (हाथ) में वह एक माला पकडे रहती थी। वह सदा माला के मनके फेरती रहती थी। उसके होंठ लगातार प्रार्थना में हिलते रहते थे। वह सफेद वस्त्र पहनती थी। उसके चांदी जैसे बाल उसके चेरहे पर बिखरे पड़े रहते थे। वह सर्दी के (सफेद) पर्वतों जैसी लगती थी। वह शान्ति एवं संतुष्टि का चित्र प्रतीत होती थी। वह अत्यन्त वृद्धा थी। शायद वह इससे अधिक वृद्धा नहीं दिखाई पड़ सकती थी। पिछले बीस वर्षों से वह वैसी ही दिखाई देती थी।

खुशवन्त सिंह तथा उसकी दादी अच्छे मित्र थे। उसके माता-पिता नगर में चले गये थे। वे उसे गाँव में दादी के पास छोड़ गये। वह उसकी अच्छी देखभाल करती थी। वह उसे सवेरे जगाया करती थी। वह उसे स्कूल के लिए तैयार करती थी। वह अपनी प्रार्थना एक रटे-रटाये गाने के रूप में करती थी। वह आशा करती थी कि वह उसे मौखिक रूप से याद कर लेगा। वह दादी की आवाज पसंद करता था किंतु उसने इसे सीखने की कभी भी परवाह नही की। फिर वह उसकी लकड़ी की तख्ती लाती। इसे उसने पहले ही धोकर पीली चाक-मिट्टी से पोता हुआ था। वह एक मिट्टी की दवात तथा सरकंडे का कलम लेती। वह उन्हें एक बंडल में बांध ती तथा उसे दे देती। वह उसे एक मोटी बासी रोटी के ऊपर थोड़ा-सा मक्खन तथा चीनी बिखेरकर देती। यह उसका नाश्ता था। वह गाँव के कुत्तों के लिए काफी बासी चपातियाँ अपने साथ ले जाती थी। उसकी दादी सदा उसके साथ पाठशाला भी जाती थी। पाठशाला मंदिर से जुड़ी हुई थी। पुजारी बच्चों को वर्णमाला तथा प्रात:कालीन प्रार्थना सिखाता था। बच्चे बरामदे में दो कतारों में बैठते थे। वे एक सामूहिक गान के रूप में ही वर्णमाला अथवा प्रार्थना गाते थे। दादी मंदिर में भीतर बैठती थी। वह धार्मिक पुस्तकें पढ़ा करती थी। फिर वे दोनों एक साथ घर आते थे। गाँव के कुत्ते मंदिर के द्वार पर एकत्रित हो जाते। वे उनको चपातियाँ फेंकते। कुत्ते एक दूसरे पर गुर्राते तथा झगड़ते थे।

वर्णनकर्ता के पिता ने उन्हें नगर में बुला लिया। वह उनकी मित्रता में मोड़ (घुमाव) का एक बिंदु था। वे एक ही कमरे में रहते थे। किंतु दादी अब उसके साथ विद्यालय नहीं जाती थी। वर्णनकर्ता एक मोटर बस में सवार होकर एक अंग्रेजी विद्यालय में पढ़ने जाया करता था। वहाँ (नगर में) गलियों में कुत्ते नहीं थे। अत: दादी ने चिड़ियों को भोजन खिलाना आरंभ कर दिया।

वर्ष बीतते गये। वे एक दूसरे से कम मिलते थे। कभी-कभी वह उससे पूछ लेती थी कि उसके अध्यापक ने उसे क्या पढ़ाया है। वह उन चीजों में विश्वास नहीं करती थी जो वे अंग्रेजी विद्यालय में पढ़ाते थे। वह दु:खी थी। वह अंग्रेजी अथवा विज्ञान को पसंद नहीं करती थी। वह यह सोचकर उदास हो जाती थी कि विद्यालय में ईश्वर तथा धार्मिक ग्रन्थों के विषय में शिक्षा नहीं दी जाती थी। वर्णनकर्ता ने एक दिन उसे बताया था कि संगीत में पाठ दिए जा रहे हैं। वह परेशान हो गयी। वह संगीत को अशोभनीय समझती थी। उसके अनुसार यह केवल वेश्याओं तथा भिखारियों के लिए ही था। वह भद्र पुरुषों के उपयुक्त नहीं था।

वर्णनकर्ता विश्वविद्यालय में गया। उसे अपना निजी कमरा दिया गया। मित्रता का आपसी संबंध टूट गया। दादी ने अपने एकाकीपन को चुपचाप स्वीकार कर लिया। वह सदा चरखा चलाने तथा प्रार्थना गाने में व्यस्त रहती। वह बहुत कम बातें करती थीं। अपराह्न (दोपहर-बाद) में वह थोड़ा सा सुस्ताती थी। तब वह चिड़ियों को भोजन कराती थी। वह बरामदे में बैठती थी। एक रोटी के छोटे-छोटे टुकड़े तोड़ती। फिर वह इन्हें चिड़ियों को फेंक देती। सैंकड़ों चिड़ियाँ वहाँ आ जाती थीं। वे बहुत सा शोर करती थी। कुछ आजी तथा उसकी टांगों पर बैठ जाती। अन्य उसके कन्धों पर बैठ जाती। कुछ तो उसके सिर पर भी बैठ जाती। वह मुस्कुराती किंतु कभी भी उन्हें डराकर नहीं भगाती थी। चिड़ियों को भोजन खिलाना उसके लिए दिन का सबसे प्रसन्नता भरा आधा घण्टा था।

वर्णनकर्ता ने उच्चतर शिक्षा के लिए विदेश जाने का निर्णय किया। उसे पाँच वर्ष तक बाहर रहना था। दादी अत्यन्त वृद्धा थी। वह किसी भी क्षण मर सकती थी। वर्णनकर्ता चितिंत था। किंतु दादी विचलित नहीं हुई। उसने कोई भावुकता नहीं दिखायी। उसे विदा करने वह रेलवे स्टेशन आई। उसके होंठ प्रार्थना में हिलते थे। उनका मन प्रार्थना में लगा हुआ था। उसकी उंगलियाँ माला के मनके फेरने में व्यस्त थी। उसने चुपके से उसके माथे को चूमा। वर्णनकर्ता ने सोचा कि उन दोनों के बीच शारीरिक संबंध के रूप में यह अंतिम चिन्ह था।

वर्णनकर्ता पाँच वर्ष के उपरांत घर लौट आया। उसकी दादी स्टेशन पर उससे मिली। वह एक दिन भी अधिक बूढ़ी नहीं दिखाई देती थी। वह कुछ नहीं बोली। उसने उसे बाहों में भर लिया। वह अपनी प्रार्थनाएँ गाती रही। दोपहर बाद सदा की तरह उसने चिड़ियों को भोजन खिलाया। संध्या समय उसमें एक परिवर्तन आ गया। उसने प्रार्थना नहीं की। उसने पड़ोस की सारी स्त्रियों को एकत्रित किया। वह एक पुराना ढोल ले आई। वह कई घंटों तक इस पुराने ढोल को पीटती रही। उसने गाना आरंभ किया। वह योद्धाओं की वापसी के गीत गाती रही। उन्हें उसे रोकने के लिए मनाना पड़ा। हो सकता है कि वह स्वयं पर अधिक तनाव डाल ले। यह पहला समय था जब वह प्रार्थना करना भूल गयी थी।

अगली प्रात: वह बीमार पड़ गयी। उसे हल्का सा ज्वर आ गया। उसने उन्हें बताया कि उसका अन्त समीप है। उसने अनुभव किया कि वह प्रार्थना करना भूल गयी थी। वह बातें नहीं करना चाहती थी। यह तो समय को व्यर्थ करना होगा। उसने उनकी प्रार्थना अनसुनी कर दी। वह चुपचाप बिस्तर में लेटी रहीं। वह प्रार्थना करती रही तथा मनके फेरती रही। फिर उसके होंठ हिलने बन्द हो गये उसकी निर्जीव उंगलियों से माला गिर गयी थी। उसका चेहरा पीला किन्तु शान्त दिखाई पड़ा। वह मर गयी थी। उसे भूमि पर लिटा दिया गया। उसे लाले कफ़न से ढक दिया गया। उसके दाह संस्कार के प्रबंध किये जाने लगे।

संध्या का समय था। सूर्य अस्त हो रहा था। वे एक लकड़ी की अर्थी ले आये। वे आँगन के बीच में रुक गये। हजारों चिड़ियाँ उसके मृत शरीर के समीप बैठी थीं। उन्होंने चहचहाहट नहीं की। प्रत्येक को चिड़ियों के लिए खेद था। वर्णनकर्ता की माँ कुछ रोटी ले आई। उसने इसे छोटे-छोटे टुकड़ों में तोड़ा। उसने ये टुकड़े चिड़ियों को फेंके। पक्षियों ने इनकी ओर कोई ध्यान नहीं दिया। फिर वे उसके शव को बाहर ले गये। चिड़ियाँ चुपचाप उड़ गईं। रोटी के टुकड़े अब भी आँगन में वहीं पड़े रहे। स्पष्टतया चिड़ियाँ दादी की मृत्यु पर शोक मनाने आई थीं।

Class 11 Biology Revision Notes for Chemical Coordination and integration of Chapter 22

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In animals, control and coordination is performed by neural system and endocrine system jointly. As the nerve fibres do not innervate all cells of the body, the endocrine system is required to coordinate the functions.
Endocrine Glands

• Endocrine glands are ductless glands. They release their secretion directly into blood which is then transported to specific target organs to initiate a particular metabolic change.
• The endocrine glands secrete chemicals called hormones.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are produced in trace amount.

Human Endocrine System
The endocrine glands and hormone producing tissues/cells are located in different parts of the body. Gastrointestinal tract, kidney, liver and heart also produce small quantity of hormones to control and coordinate the function of respective organs.

Hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones. Hormones released by Hypothalamus regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones.
Hypothalamus produces two types of Hormones:

• The hormones released from hypothalamus reaches the anterior pituitary through portal circulatory system and regulate its function.
• The posterior pituitary is under direct control of hypothalamus.

Pituitary Gland is located in sella tursica, a bony cavity. It is attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk.

• Excess secretion of Growth Hormone causes over growth of the body leading to gigantism and low secretion causes stunted growth called dwarfism.
• Prolactin stimulates growth of mammary gland and production of milk.
• TSH stimulates production and release of thyroid hormone.
• LH and FSH stimulate activity of the gonads. In male, LH stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgen hormone from testis. In female, LH induces ovulation of fully mature ovum from ovary.
• Oxytocin helps in contraction of uterus during child birth and milk ejection from mammary glands.
• Vasopressin stimulates absorption of water and electrolyte in kidney.
• MSH acts on the melanocytes and regulates skin pigmentation.

The pineal Gland- located on dorsal side of forebrain and release melatonin hormone that helps to regulate diurnal rhythm of body like sleeps wake cycle and body temperature.
Thyroid Gland- composed of two lobes on either side of trachea connected by isthmus.
Thyroid gland is made of follicles and stromal tissues:

• Iodine is essential for synthesis of thyroid hormones. Deficiency of iodine leads to hypothyroidism (Goitre). During pregnancy, hypothyroidism may cause stunted growth of baby and mental retardation.
• Thyroid hormones regulate the basal metabolic rate. They support the process of red blood cell formation. They control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Thyrocalcitonin hormone regulates blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid Gland– located on the back side of thyroid gland, secretes peptide hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH regulates the calcium ion concentration in the blood. It also helps in reabsorption of calcium from renal tubules and digestive tracts.
Thymus– located on the dorsal side of heart and the aorta. This gland releases peptide hormone thymosins that help in differentiation of T-Lymphocytes for cell-mediated immunity. It also promotes production of antibodies to provide humeral immunity.
Adrenal Gland – located on anterior part of each kidney, composed of two types of tissues central adrenal medulla and outside adrenal cortex. Adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline hormone commonly called as catecholamines. These hormones are also called as emergency hormone. These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, sweating, heart beat, rate of respiration, glycogenolysis.
The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis. Mineralocorticoids regulate water and electrolyte contents of the body.
Pancreas – acts as both endocrine and exocrine gland. Endocrine pancreas consists of “Islets of Langerhans” which contain α-cells and β-cells. The α-cells secrete hormone glucagon and β-cells secrete insulin. Both hormones are involved in maintenance of blood sugar levels.

• Glucagon is a peptide hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in increased blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
• Insulin is a peptide hormone that play major role in regulation of glucose homeostasis. It triggers rapid movement of glucose from blood to hepatocytes and adipocytes resulting in decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).

Testis – perform dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as endocrine glands. Leydig cells or interstitial cells produce androgen mainly testosterone which regulate maturation of primary sex organs and spermatogenesis.
Ovary – produce two groups of steroid hormones called estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is synthesized and secreted by growing ovarian follicles. After ovulation, ruptured ovum called corpus luteum, secretes progesterone. Estrogen produces wide range actions like growth of female secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, and regulation of female sexual behaviour.
Progesterone regulates pregnancy.
Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Tract

• Atrial wall of heart secretes peptide hormone called atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) which decreases blood pressure.
• The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce erythropoietin hormone which stimulate erythropoiesis.
• Gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major peptide hormones:
  1. Gastrin stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
  2. Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate ions.
  3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile juice
  4.Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) inhibits gastric secretion and motility.

Mechanism of Hormone Action

• Hormone produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific protein called hormone receptors located in the target tissue.
• Binding of hormones to receptor leads to the formation of hormone receptor complex. This binding leads to change in target tissue.

On the basis of chemical nature, hormones are grouped as-

1. Peptide, polypeptide and protein hormones- insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormone, hypothalamic hormones.
2. Steroids- cortisol, testosterone, progesterone.
3. Idothyronines- thyroid hormones.
4. Amino acid derivatives- epinephrine.

The hormones that bind with membrane bound receptors normally do not enter the target cells but generate second messenger which in turn regulate cellular metabolism.
The hormones (steroid hormones) which interact with intracellular receptors mostly regulate gene expression or chromosome function by interaction with hormone-receptor complex with the genome. These biochemical actions results in physiological and developmental effects.

Class 11 Biology Revision Notes for Neural Control and Coordination of Chapter 21

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• Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and complement the function of each other.
• Neural system provides an organized network of point to point connection for quick coordination. The endocrine system provides chemical integration through hormones.
• Neural system of animals is composed of specialized cells called neuron, which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli. In hydra neural system is composed of network of neuron. In insects it consists of brain and a number of ganglia. Vertebrates have highly developed neural system.
• Central nervous system (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord. It is the site for information processing and control.

• Peripheral nervous system includes all nerves associated with CNS. There are two types of nerve fibres-

• Afferent fibres- transmit impulses from tissue/organ to CNS.
• Efferent fibres- transmit regulatory impulses from CNS to concerned peripheral organs.
  Somatic neural systems relay impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles. Autonomic neural system transmits impulses from CNS to involuntary system and smooth muscles.

Neuron as Structural and Functional Unit of Neural System
Neuron is made up of three major parts- cell body, dendrite and axon.

• Cell body contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and Nissl’s granules. Short fibres projecting out from cell body is called dendrites. The axon is long fibre having branched structure at the end that terminates into knob like structure called synaptic knob.
• Based on number of axon and dendrites neuron are of three types-
  1. Multipolar– one axon and two or more dendrite found in cerebral cortex.
  2. Bipolar– one axon and one dendrite found in retina of eyes.
  3. Unipolar– cell body with only one axon found in embryonic stage.

• There are two types of axon-
  • Myelinated– fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells to form myelin sheath around the axon. The gap between two myelin sheaths is called nodes of Ranvier. Found in spinal and cranial nerves.
  • Unmyelinated- fibre is enclosed by Schwann cells that do not form myelin sheath around the axon. Found in autonomous and somatic neural system.

Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse

• Ion channels are present in neural membrane which is selectively permeable to different ions. When neuron is not conducting impulse (resting), axonal membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and impermeable to Na+ ions.
• Ionic gradient across the resting membrane is maintained by active transport of ions by sodium-potassium pump. This will develop positive charge outside the axonal membrane and negative charge on inner side.

• The electrical potential difference across the resting membrane is called resting potential.
• When stimulus is applied at site A, the membrane becomes permeable to Na+ ions to make rapid influx of Na+ ions to create outer surface negatively charged and inner membrane positively charged that create Action Potential or nerve impulse.
• The nerve impulse from A moves to B in inner surface and B to A on outer surface. This process is repeated several times to transmit the impulse.
• Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another neuron through synapse.
• There are two types of synapse-

1. Electrical synapse- the membrane of pre and post synaptic neuron is very close to each other and current flow directly from one neuron to another.
2. Chemical synapse- pre and post synaptic neuron is separated by fluid filled space called synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters are involved in transmission of impulses.

Central Neural System –Brain is the central information processing organ of our body and act as command and control centre. Human brain is protected by skull (cranium) and three layers of cranial meninges- outer dura mater, middle arachnoid and inner pia mater.

Brain can be divided 3 parts- forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
Forebrain– consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus. Cerebrum is divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres which are covered by cerebral cortex (grey matter). Cerebral cortex contains sensory neuron, motor neuron and association area. Association area controls complex functions like intersensory associations, memory and
communication.
Thalamus– cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus. It is a major
coordinating centre for sensory and motor signaling.
Hypothalamus controls the urge for eating, drinking and body temperature. They also release hypothalamic hormones. Limbic system is involved in controlling sexual behavior and expression of emotional reactions.
Midbrain is located between hypothalamus and pons of hindbrain. Dorsal portion consists of four round lobes called corpora quadrigemina. They are involved in relay of impulses back and forth between cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla.
Hind brain consists of pons, medulla oblongata and cerebellum.
Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.
The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions.
Cerebellum controls balance and posture.
Reflex action is a spontaneous autonomic mechanical response to a stimulus without the will of the organism. It is controlled by spinal cord. The afferent neuron receives the signal from sensory organs and transmits the impulse to CNS. The efferent neuron carries the impulse from CNS to effector. Ex- knee-jerk reflex. The path followed by reflex action is called reflex arc.

Human Eye – spherical structure consists of three layers, external layer is sclera whose anterior part is called cornea, middle layer choroid and innermost layer is called retina.
Retina contains three layers of cells – inner ganglion cells, middle bipolar cells and outer photoreceptor cells.
There are two types of photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. The daylight (photopic) vision and colour vision are functions of cones. The twilight (scotopic) vision is the function of the rods.
Mechanism of Vision
The light rays of visible wavelength fall on retina through cornea and lens to generate impulses in rods and cones. Photosensitive pigments opsin and retinal get dissociated due to light to change its shape. Change in shape of opsin cause change of permeability to generate action potential that is transmitted to brain via optic nerve.
Human Ears

Divided into three regions: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
The middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes. The fluid
filled inner ear is called the labyrinth, and the coiled portion of the labyrinth is called cochlea.
The organ of corti contains hair cells that act as auditory receptors and is located on the basilar membrane.
Mechanism of Hearing
External ear receives the sound wave and directs them to ear drum. Vibration of ear drum leads to vibration of ear ossicles. The vibration reaches cochlea that generate wave in lymph. The waves generate ripples in basilar membrane and hair cells in them. As a result, nerve impulses are generated in afferent neuron that passes to brain via auditory nerves.

Class 11 Biology Revision Notes for Locomotion and Movement of Chapter 20

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Locomotion is the voluntary movement of an individual from one place to another. Walking, running, climbing, swimming are the examples of locomotion. All locomotion are movement but all movements are not locomotion.
Types of Movement
Cells of the human body show three main types of movements:

• Macrophages and leucocytes in blood exhibit amoeboid movements. Coordinated movement of cilia in trachea to remove dusts particles and passage of ova through fallopian tube is example of Ciliary movements.
• Movement of limbs, jaw, tongue, etc. need muscular movement. Contractile property of muscles is used in movement in higher organism including human beings.

Muscles are specialized tissues of mesodermal origin. They have property like excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity.
Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified

Skeletal Muscles	Visceral Muscles	Cardiac Muscles
Associated with skeletal system, alternate light and dark bands (striated), voluntary and locomotory and change in body posture function.	Form inner wall of internal visceral organs, non-striated, involuntary muscle, assists in movement of food through digestive tract and gametes.	Muscles of heart, having branching pattern, alternate light and dark bands, involuntary in action.

• Skeletal Muscle is made up of muscles bundles (fascicles), held together by collagenous connective tissue called fascia.

• Each muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre is lined by plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing sarcoplasm. Partially arranged myofibrils are present in muscle bundle having alternate light and dark bands due to presence of protein- actin and myosin
• Light bands contain actin and is called I-band (isotropic band) and dark band contains myosin, called A-band (anisotropic band). Both bands are present parallel to each other in longitudinal fashion.
• In centre of each I-band is elastic fibre called ‘Z’ line. In the middle of A-band is thin fibrous ‘M’ line. The portion of myofibrils between two successive ‘Z’ lines is the functional unit of contraction called a sarcomere.
• At resting stage thin filament overlaps the thick filament. The part of thick filament not overlapped is called ‘H’ zone.

Structure of contractile Protein
Each thin filament (actin) is made of two ‘F’ actins helically wounded to each other. Two filaments of another protein, tropomyosin runs close to it. A complex protein
Troponin is distributed at regular intervals on the tropomyosin.

Each myosin filament is made of many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins. Each meromyosin has globular head with short arm and tails. Globular head has ATP binding sites.
Mechanism of muscle contraction

• The mechanism of muscle contraction is explained by sliding mechanism theory in which thin filament slide over thick filament.
• Muscle contraction start with signal sent by CNS via motor neuron. Neural signal release neurotransmitter ( Acetyl choline) to generate action potential in the sarcolemma.
• This causes the release of Ca ++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• Ca ++ activates actin which binds to the myosin head to form a cross bridge.
• These cross bridges pull the actin filaments causing them to slide over the myosin filaments and thereby causing contraction.
• Ca ++ are then returned to sarcoplasmic reticulum which inactivate the actin. Cross bridges are broken and the muscles relax.

Muscles are classified as:
Red fibres (aerobic muscles-) contain myoglobin that has plenty of mitochondria to use large amount of oxygen stored in them.
White fibres-the muscle fibres containing less number of myoglobin are called white fibres.
Skeletal System
Framework of bones and cartilage forms the skeletal system. In human beings, it consists of 206 bones and some cartilages. The two principle division of skeletal system are:

1. Axial Skeleton (80 bones)- includes skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial system.

• The skull (22 bones) is composed of cranial and facial bones. Cranial (8 bones) forms protective covering for brain (cranium). The facial region consists of 14 skeletal systems that form front part of skull. Hyoid bone (U-shaped) forms the base of buccal cavity.
• The middle ear bone (Malleus, Incus and Stapes) collectively called Ear Ossicles. Skull joins with vertebral column with two occipital condyle.
• Vertebral column consists of 26 serially arranged vertebrae. First vertebra is atlas that combines with occipital condyle. Other includes Cervical-7, thoracic -12, lumbar -5, sacral – 1 coccoygeal -1.
• 12 pairs of ribs connected dorsally to vertebral column and ventrally to sternum. 11th and 12th rib bones are not connected with sternum and are called floating ribs.

Appendicular Skeleton- includes bones of limbs and girdles. Each limb contains 30 bones.
 

Upper Arm	Lower Limb
Humerus, radius and ulna, 8-carpels, 5-metacarpels, 14-phalanges,	Femur, tibia and fibula, 7-tarsals, 5-metatarsals, 14-phalanges, cup shaped patella cover the knee.

Pectoral and Pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the upper and the lower limbs
respectively with the axial skeleton.
Pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a scapula.
Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones – ilium, ischium and pubis.

1. Fibrous joints– do not allow any movements. Present in flat skull bones to form cranium.
2. Cartilaginous joints– bones are held together with the help of cartilage present in vertebrae. Permits limited movements.
3. Synovial joints– fluid filled synovial cavity, provide considerable movements. Ball and socket joint, hinge joints, pivot joints, gliding joints etc.

Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System

• Myasthenia gravis- auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction causing fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal system.
• Muscular Dystrophy- degeneration of skeletal muscles due to genetic disorder.
• Osteoporosis – decreased bone mass in old age leading to chance of fracture due to decreased estrogen.
• Arthritis- inflammation of joints.
• Gout- inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
• Tetany- Rapid spasms in muscle due to low Ca ++ in body fluid