Author Archives: Swati

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Which four categories witnessed a decline in land use? Why?
Answer:
The four categories that have registered a decline are barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area under pastures and tree crops and fallow lands. The following explanations can be given for the declining trends:

• As the pressure on land increased, both from the agricultural and non agricultural sectors, the wastelands and culturable wastelands have witnessed decline over time.
• The decline in land under pastures and grazing lands can be explained by pressure from agricultural land. Illegal encroachment due to expansion of cultivation on common pasture lands is largely responsible for this decline.

Q2.What are the varieties of rice in India?
Answer:
Rice is a tropical crop and has about 3,000 varieties that are grown in different agro-climatic regions from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from humid areas in eastern India to dry but irrigated areas of the west. In southern states and West Bengal two to three crops of rice in an agricultural year. In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’. In Himalayas and northwestern parts of the country, it is grown as a kharif crop during southwest Monsoon season.

Q3.What is the importance of pulses in India?
Answer:
Pulses are a very important as part of vegetarian food as a source of protein. Since these are legume crops they help in restoring the natural fertility of soils through the nitrogen fixing bacteria rhizobium in their roots. Since they do not much care, they can be grown in drier parts of the country, where the fine cereals cannot be grown.

Q4.What problems are faced by the fibre crops in India?
Answer:
India lost a big cotton growing area to Pakistan during partition and jute growing area to East Pakistan that is Bangladesh. Also these fibres are facing stiff competition from synthetic fibre as they are cheap, durable and easy to work with.

Q5.Write a note on tea cultivation in India.
Answer:
Tea is a plantation crop used as beverage. Black tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leaves are unfermented. In India, tea plantation started in 1840’s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which still is a major tea growing area in the country. Later, it was introduced in the sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal. It is also grown in Nilgiri and Cardamom hills. India accounts for about 28 per cent of total production in the world. Presently, it ranks third among tea exporting countries in the world after Sri Lanka and China. Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area and contributes more than half of total production of tea in the country. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the other leading producers of tea.

Q6.What is the importance of coarse cereals in India?
Answer:
Coarse cereals like Jowar, Bajra, ragi and maize occupy about 17% of the total cropped area. These crops are sometimes grown as part of mixed cropping and are grown almost all over dry and semi arid parts of India since they do not require much care, fertilizer, etc. So, the areas where rice and wheat are not grown, these are grown by farmers who cannot afford to grow fine cereals. Coarse cereals also have a very high nutritious value. For a developing country like India, they are highly suitable for poor farmers to grow them on inferior quality, drier lands.

Q7.Why does India need irrigation?
Answer:
In India irrigation is needed for the spatio-temporal variation in rainfall. The water intensive crops makes irrigation necessary. Irrigation also makes multiple cropping possible. HYV varieties of crops require assured water supply at the right time to give the maximum production.

Q8.What are the advantages of common property resources?
Answer:

• CPR’s provide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households.
• It provides products like fruits, nuts, fibre, medical plants, etc.
• It provides livelihood of the landless and marginal farmers and other weaker sections. They depend on income from their livestock due to limited access to land.
• CPR’s are also important for women to collect most of the fodder and fuel in rural areas.

Q9.Explain the conditions for the growth of wheat.
Answer:
Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in India after rice.
Conditions:

• It is primarily a crop of temperate zone. It is cultivated in India during winter, i.e. rabi season.
• It requires fertile soil, therefore about 85 per cent of total area under this crop is concentrated in north and central regions of the country, i.e. Indo Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to 2,700 m altitude.
• Being a rabi crop, it is mostly grown under irrigated conditions. But it is a rained crop in Himalayan highlands and parts of Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.

Q10.Explain the conditions for the growth of rice.
Answer:
Rice is a staple food for the overwhelming majority of population in India.
Conditions:

• Though, it is considered to be a crop of tropical humid areas, it has about 3,000 varieties which are grown in different agro-climatic regions.
• These are successfully grown from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from humid areas in eastern India to diy but irrigated areas of Punjab, Haiyana, western U.P. and northern Rajasthan.
• In southern states and West Bengal the climatic conditions allow the cultivation of two or three crops of rice in an agricultural year. But in Himalayas and northwestern parts of the country, it is grown as a kharif crop during southwest Monsoon season.
• West Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh were the leading rice producing states in the country in 2009-10.

Q11.Which crops are included in oil seeds? Give a brief account of their production.
Answer:
Oil seeds include:

• Groundnut
• Rapeseed and mustard
• Soyabean and
• Sunflower

The oil seeds are produced for extracting edible oils. Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are oil seeds growing regions of India. These crops together occupy about 14 per cent of total cropped area in the country.

Q12.Give the desired conditions for the growth of cotton.
Answer:
Desired Conditions:

• Cotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the country.
• Cotton requires clear sly during flowering stage.
• Black soil is most suitable for production of cotton.
• Leading producers of this crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Per hectare output of

cotton is high under irrigated conditions in north western region of the country. Its yield is very low in Maharashtra where it is grown under rained conditions.

Q13.Give the desired conditions for the growth of sugarcane.
Answer:
Desired Conditions:

• Sugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. Under rained conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humid and humid climates.
• It is largely an irrigated crop in India.
• In Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation is largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh. Sugarcane growing area in western India is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• In Southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated tracts of Karnataka.

Q14.What is package technology?
Answer:
New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding varieties (HYVs) were available for cultivation by mid-1960s. India also introduced package technology comprising HYVs, along with chemical fertilisers in irrigated, areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Its basic need was assured supply of soil moisture through irrigation. This strategy of agricultural development paid dividends instantly and increased the foodgrains production at very fast rate. This spurt of agricultural growth came to be known as ‘Green Revolution’ which is a result of package technology.

Q15.Explain the land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records?
Answer:
The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows:

• Forests
• Land put to non-agricultural Uses
• Barren and Wastelands
• Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands
• Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included is Net sown Area)
• Culturable Wasteland
• Current Fallow
• Fallow other than Current Fallow
• Net Area Sown

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Give the land-use categories based on Land revenue records.
Answer:
The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows: (zj Forests: It is important to note that area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as forest. The latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth.

• Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc. are included in this category.
• Barren and Wastelands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.
• Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type land is owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under ‘Common Property Resources’.
• Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included is Net sown Area): The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this categoiy. Much of this land is privately owned.
• Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this categoiy. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.
• Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year. Fallowing is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural processes.
• Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivatedfor more than a year but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it would be categorised as culturable wasteland.
• Net Area Sown: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as net sown area.

Q2.How is land significant/valuable in the livelihood of people?
Answer:
Land resource is more crucial to the livelihood of the people depending on agriculture:

• Agriculture is a purely land based activity unlike secondary and tertiary activities. In other words, contribution of land in agricultural output is more compared to its contribution in the outputs in the other sectors. Thus, lack of access to land is directly correlated with incidence of poverty in rural areas.
• Quality of land has a direct bearing on the productivity of agriculture, which is not true for other activities.
• In rural areas, aside from its value as a productive factor, land ownership has a social value and serves as a security for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies, and also adds to the social status.

Q3.What is the staple crop of our country? How many varieties are there? What is India’s contribution to the world? Where is it grown in India?
Answer:
Rice is the staple crop of the country. Rice is a tropical crop and has about 3,000 varieties that are grown in different agro-climatic regions from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from humid areas in eastern India to dry but irrigated areas of the west. In southern states and West Bengal two to three crops of rice in an agricultural year. In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’.

India contributes 21.6 per cent of rice production in the world and ranked second after China (2008-09). West Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh were the leading rice producing states in the country in 2009-10. The yield level of rice is high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Kerala. The yield of this crop is very low in rainfed areas of M.P., Chhattisgarh and Odisha.

Q4.Show with example the development of agricultural with technology.
Answer:
There has been a significant increase in agricultural output and improvement in technology during the last fifty years.

• Production and yield of many crops such as rice and wheat has increased at an impressive rate. The production of sugarcane, oil seeds and cotton has also increased appreciably. India ranked first in the production of pulses and jute in 2008-09. It is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and vegetables.
• Expansion of irrigation has played a very crucial role in enhancing agricultural output in the country and helped in the introduction of modern agricultural society such as high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and farm machinery. The net irrigated area in the country has increased from 20.85 to 54.66 million ha over the period 1950-51 to 2000-01. Over these 50 years, area irrigated more than once in an agricultural year has increased from 1.71 to 20.46 million ha.
• In various areas of the country modern agricultural technology has spread very fast. Consumption of chemical fertilizers has increased by 15 times since mid-sixties. In 2001-02, per hectare consumption of chemical fertilizers in India was 91 kg which was at par with average consumption in the world (90 kg). Punjab and Haryana uses three to four times of this. Since the high yielding varieties are highly susceptible to pests and diseases, the use of pesticides has increased significantly since 1960’s.

Q5.Write a note on the problems of Indian agriculture.
Answer:

The nature of problems faced by •Indian agriculture varies according to agro-ecological and historical experiences of its different regions. But there are some problems which are common and range from physical constraints to institutional hindrances. Some problems are:

• Dependence on Erratic Monsoon: Irrigation covers only about 33 per cent of the cultivated area in India. The crop production in rest of the cultivated land directly depends on rainfall. Spatio- temporal variations in rainfall causes fluctuations in steady supply of water and makes them vulnerable to both drought and floods.
• Low productivity: The yield of the crops in the country is low in comparison to the international level. Because of the very high pressure on the land resources, the labour productivity in Indian agriculture is also very low in comparison to international level.
• Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness: The inputs of modem agriculture are very expensive for marginal and small farmers for them to invest in agriculture. Crop failures and low returns from agriculture have forced them to fall in the trap of indebtedness.
• Lack of Land Reforms: In India there had been unequal distribution of land over the years. Though land reforms were made after independence, they were not implemented affectively due to lack of strong political will. Lack of implementation of land reforms resulted in unequal distribution of cultivable land.
• Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings: There are a large number of marginal and small farmers in the country. The average size of land holding is shrinking due to law of inheritance. The land holdings are mostly fragmented. Even the states where consolidation of land holdings was carried out once, second consolidation is required. The small size fragmented landholdings are uneconomic.
• Lack of Commercialization: A large number of farmers produce crops for self-consumption. These farmers do not have enough land resources to produce more than their requirement. Most of the small and marginal farmers grow food grains, which are meant for their own family consumption.
• Vast Under-employment: There is a massive under-employment in the agricultural sector in India, particularly in the un-irrigated tracts. The people engaged in agriculture do not have the opportunity to work round the year.
• Degradation of Cultivable Land: Degradation of land resources is a serious problem caused due to faulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural development which leads to depletion of soil fertility.Excessive use of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides has made the soil toxic. Absence of leguminous plants and decrease in duration of fallow land has reducd natural fertilization of soil.

Q6.Define common property resources.
Answer:
Land, according to its ownership can broadly be classified under two broad heads – private land and common property resources (CPR’s). While the former is owned by an individual or a group of individuals, the latter is owned by the state meant for the use of the community, fodder form a degraded area of CPR. CPR’s can be defined as community’s natural resource, where every member has the right of access and usage with specified obligations, without anybody having property rights over them. Community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies and other public space are examples of CPR’s which are used and managed by households.

CPR’s provide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households along with other minor forest products like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinal plants, etc. In rural areas, such land is of particular relevance for the livelihood of the landless and marginal farmers and other weaker sections since many of them depend on income from their livestock due to the fact that they have limited access to land. CPR’s also are important for women as most of the fodder and fuel collection is done by them in rural areas. They have to devote long hours in collecting fuel and fodder from a degraded area of CPR.

Q7.Classify farming based on the ‘source of moisture’.
Answer:
On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated and rainfed (barani). There is difference in the nature of irrigated farming as well based on objective of irrigation, i.e. protective or productive. The objective of protective irrigation is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil moisture deficiency which often means that irrigation acts as a supplementary source of water over and above the rainfall. The strategy of this kind of irrigation is to provide soil moisture to maximum possible area. Productive irrigation is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the cropping season to achieve high productivity. In such irrigation the water input per unit area of cultivated land is higher than protective irrigatioh. Rainfed farming is further classified on the basis of adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season into dryland and wetland farming. In India, the dryland farming is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.

These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops) and practise various measures of soil moisture conservation and rain water harvesting. In wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane and practise aquaculture in the fresh water bodies.

Q8.What are the three economic factors that affect land-use?
OR
Describe the three types of changes that of changes that an economy undergoes which affect its land use pattern.
Answer:
Three factors that affect land-use are as follows:

• The size of the economy: The size of the economy grows over time as a result of increasing population, change in income levels, available technology and associated factors. As a result, the pressure on land will increase with time and marginal lands would come under use.
• The composition of the economy: The composition of the economy would undergo a change over time. In other words, the secondary and the tertiary sectors usually grow much faster than the primary sector,, specifically the agricultural sector. This type of change is common in developing countries like India. This process would result in a gradual shift of land from agricultural uses to non-agricultural uses. Such changes are sharp around large urban areas. The agricultural land is being used for building purposes.
• Continuous pressure on agricultural land: Though the contribution of the agricultural activities reduces over time, the pressure on land for agricultural activities does not decline. The reasons for continued pressure on agricultural land are:
  • In developing countries, the share of population dependent on agriculture usually declines far slowly as compared to the decline in the sector’s share in GDP.
  • The number of people that the agricultural sector has to feed keeps increasing day by day.

Q9.Which three categories have undergone increase in land use pattern? Explain why.
Answer:
Categories that have undergone increase in land use pattern are as follows:

• The rate of increase is the highest in case of area under non-agricultural uses. This is due to the changing structure of Indian economy, which is increasingly depending on the contribution from industrial and services sectors and expansion of related infrastructural facilities. Also, an expansion of area under both urban and rural settlements has added to the increase. Thus, the area under non-agriculturaluses is increasing at the expense of wastelands and agricultural land.
• The increase in the share under forest, as explained before, can be accounted for by increase in the demarcated area under forest rather than an actual increase in the forest cover in the countiy.
• The increase in the current fallow cannot be explained from information pertaining to only two points. The trend of current fallow fluctuates a great deal over years, depending on the variability of rainfall and cropping cycles.
• The increase in net area sown is a recent phenomenon due to use of culturable waste land for agricultural purpose. Before which it was registering a slow decrease. There are indications that most of the decline had occurred due to the increases in area under non-agricultural use.

Q10.Give statistical account of small and fragmented landholdings. Why are small and fragmented landholdings undesirable?
Answer:
There are a large number of marginal and small farmers in the countiy. More than 60 per cent of the ownership holdings have a size smaller than one hectare. Furthermore, about 40 per cent of the farmers have operational holding size smaller than 0.5 hectare. The average size of landholding is shrinking further under increasing population pressure. Furthermore, in India, the landholdings are mostly fragmented. There are some states where consolidation of holding has not been carried out even once. Even the states where it has been carried out once, second consolidation is required as landholdings have fragmented again in the process of division of land among the owners of next generations.

The small size fragmented landholdings are uneconomic. A lot of land gets wasted in fencing and modern farming methods cannot be used for small landholdings.

Q11.What is the importance of pulses in our diet? What are the main pulses grown in India?
Answer:
Pulses are a very important ingredient of vegetarian food as these are rich sources of proteins. These are legume crops which increase the natural fertility of soils through nitrogen fixation.

• India is a leading producer of pulses and accounts for about one-fifth of the total production of pulses in the world.
• The cultivation of pulses in the country is largely concentrated in the drylands of Deccan and central plateaus and northwestern parts of the countiy.
• Pulses occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
• Being the rainfed crops of drylands, the yields of pulses are low and fluctuate from year to year.
• Gram and tur are the main pulses cultivated in India. Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas. It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated during rabi season in central, western and northwestern parts of the countiy. Tur (Arhar) is the second important pulse crop in the countiy. It is also known as red gram or pigeon pea. It is cultivated over marginal lands and under rainfed conditions in the dry areas of central and southern states of the countiy. This crop occupies only about 2 per cent of total cropped area of India.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Give two characteristics of urban settlement in India. How are cities connected to rural centres?
Answer:
Urban settlements are generally compact and larger in size and they are engaged in variety of non agricultural, economic and administrative functions. Cities are functionally linked to rural areas around them. Exchange of goods and services with food and raw materials is either performed directly or sometimes through market towns and cities.

Q2.Write a note on evolution of towns in India.
Answer:
On the basis of their evolution in different periods, Indian towns may be classified as:

• Ancient towns
• Medieval towns and
• Modern towns.

Ancient Towns: There are number of towns in India having historical background spanning over 2000 years. Most of them developed as religious and cultural centres. Varanasi is one of the important towns among these. Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other examples of ancient towns in the country.

Medieval Towns: About 100 of the existing towns have their roots in the medieval period and they developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms. These are fort towns which came up on the ruins of ancient towns. Important among them are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur.

Modern Towns: The British and other Europeans have developed a number of towns in India. Starting their foothold on coastal locations, they first developed some trading ports such as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. Later they developed principle nodes of Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta). They established administrative centres, hilltowns as summer resorts, and added military areas to them. After independence, a large number of towns were developed as administrative headquarters, example; Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc. and industrial centres such as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri, Barauni. Some old towns also developed as satellite towns around metropolitan cities such as Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurgaon around Delhi.

Q3.What factors are responsible for different types of rural settlements in India?
Answer:
There are many factors and conditions responsible for different types of rural settlements in India. They are:

• Physical features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water,
• Cultural and ethnic factors – social structure, caste and religion.
• Security factors – defence against thefts and robberies.

Q4.Where do we find clustered settlements in India? Explain their features.
Answer:
Clustered settlements are found in fertile alluvial plains and the north-eastern states. People live in compact village for security or defence reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum utilisation of available water resources.
Their features:

•  It is an area of compact or closely built up area of houses
• The general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms and pastures.
• The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognisable pattern or geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc.

Q5.Write a few features of rural settlements.
Answer:
Features of rural settlements:

• Rural settlements are most closely and directly related to land.
• They are dominated by primary activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, etc.
• The settlements size is relatively small and rate of growth and expansion is low.
• Usually rural settlements are located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs where water can be easily obtained.
• People living in rural areas have strong relationship among themselves because they are similar in their culture, social and religious issues.
• The houses in rural areas are similar in their construction pattern which is according to the climatic conditions.

Q6.Write a few features of urban settlements.
Answer: Features of urban settlements:

• Urban settlements have a close relationship with technology and man made things.
• Most of the people are engaged in secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities in these areas.
• The settlement size is large and there is high density of population.
• Urban settlements are located near industrial areas, ports, administrative centers, etc.
• In order to take care of urban areas, Municipality, Cantonment Board or Notified Area Council are formed. Similarly, in Latin American countries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, any administrative centre is considered urban irrespective of its population size.

Q7.Explain the classification of urban settlement on the basis of population size.
Answer:
Census of India classifies urban centres in the six following classes.

All classes	Population size
I	1,00,000 and more
II	50,000-99,999
III	20,000-49,999
IV	10,000-19,999
V	5,000-9,999
VI	Less than 5,000

• Population of more than one lakh people is called a city or class I town.
• Cities accommodating population size between one to five million are mega cities.
• 61% of population living in urban areas lives in class I town.
• Out of 423 cities, 35 urban agglomerations are metros, 6 of them are mega cities with one fifth (21.01%) of population.

Q8.What do you mean by urbanization and levels of urbanization in India?
Answer:
Urbanization refers to development of villages and rural areas into towns with high standard of living and civic amenities. The level of urbanization is measured in terms of percentage of urban population to the total population. The level of urbanization in India in 2001 was 28%.

Q9.What factors are responsible for different types of human settlements?
Answer:
There are various factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in India. These include:

• Physical features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water,
• Cultural and ethnic factors – social structure, caste and religion.
• Security factors – defence against thefts and robberies.

Q10.When did maximum urban growth take place in India? What were its causes?
Answer:
With increasing investment in rural areas, a large number of medium and small towns have developed all over the country. The level of urbanization in India in 2001 was 28 per cent, which is quite low in comparison to developed countries. Total urban population has increased eleven fold during twentieth century. Enlargement of urban centers and emergence of new towns have played a significant role in the growth of urban population and urbanization in the country.

Q11.What do you mean by urban agglomeration?
Answer:
An urban agglomeration may consist of any one of the following three combinations:

• A town and its adjoining urban outgrowths,
• Two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowths, and
• A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a contiguous spread.

Q12.What is the total urban population of India? In which type of towns does this population live?
Answer:
As per 2011 census urban population in India is 377,000,000. 60% of urban population in India lives in class I towns.

Q13.Name different types of towns on the basis of their functions.
Answer:
On the basis of their functions different types of towns are as follows:

• Administrative towns and cities
• Mining towns
• Industrial towns
• Garrisson cantonment towns
• Transport cities
• Educational towns
• Commercial towns
• Religious and cultural towns
• Tourist towns

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Define Human settlement. Briefly describe the rural settlement types in India.
Answer:
Cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings live is called human settlement. It involves grouping of people and apportioning of territory as a resource base. Settlements vary in size and type. Types of settlements are determined by the extent of built up area, inter house distance. There are four types of rural settlements in India:

The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built up area of houses. Here, the general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms, barns and pastures. The closely built-up area and streets form recognizable pattern or geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc. These are found in fertile alluvial plains and in the northeastern states. People live in compact village for security or region of central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum utilisation of available water resources.

Semi-Clustered Settlements: Semi- clustered or fragmented settlements may result from tendency of clustering in a restricted area of dispersed settlement. Sometimes one or more sections of the village society choose or is forced to live a little away from the main cluster or village. Generally, the land-owning and dominant community occupies the central part of the main village.

Hamleted Settlements: Sometimes settlement is divided into several units physically separated from each other bearing a common name motivated by social and ethnic factors. These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in various parts of the country.

Dispersed Settlements: Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills with farms or pasture on the slopes. Extreme dispersion of settlement is caused by fragmented nature of the terrain and land resource base of habitable areas.

Q2.How many classes of town are there in India based on population size? Give the size as well. Which of them has the highest percentage of people?
Answer:
6 classes of towns.
Class I — More than 1 lakh population
Class II — 50,000 – 99999
Class III — 20,000 – 49999
Class IV — 10,000 – 19999
Class V — 5000 – 9999
Class VI — Less than
Class I towns have highest percentage.

Q3.Write a note on functional classification of towns.
Answer:
Some towns and cities specialize in certain functions and they are known for some specific activities, products or services. Indian cities and towns can be broadly classified as follows:

Administrative towns and cities: Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns, such as Chandigarh ,New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur, Chennai, etc.

Industrial towns: Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.

Transport Cities: They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.

Commercial towns: Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.

Mining towns: These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.List the factors which might have caused India’s poor showing/ranking in HDI ranking.
Answer:
India with a population of 1.2 billion is ranked 134th out of 172 countries as per the UNDP HDI report 2011, with a value of 0.547. There are various historical factors which are responsible for India’s poor ranking in HDI like colonialisation, social-cultural factors like Human Right violation, social discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender and caste, social problems like crime, terrorism and lower level of empowerment among marginal members of society has special significance in this regard.

Q2.List three interesting features of India’s literacy as per 2001 census report
Answer:
The three interesting features of India’s literacy as per 2001 census report are:

• Overall literacy in India is approximately 65.4 per cent (2001). While female literacy is 54.16 per cent.
• Total literacy as well as female literacy is higher than the national average in most of the states from south India.
• There are wide regional disparities in literacy rate across the states of India. There is a state like Bihar which has very low (47.53 per cent) literacy and there are states like Kerala and Mizoram which have literacy rates of 90.92 and 88.49 per cent respectively.

Q3.Which factors are responsible for the variation in Human Development among the states of India?
Answer:
There are several socio-political, economic and historical reasons for such a state of affairs. Kerala is able to record the highest value in the HDI largely due to its impressive performance in achieving near hundred per cent literacy. States like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Assam and Uttar Pradesh have very low literacy. States showing higher total literacy rates have less gaps between the male and female literacy rates.

Apart from the educational attainment, the levels of economic development too play significant impacts on HDI. Economically developed states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Punjab and Haryana have higher value of HDI as compared to
states like Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, etc.

Regional distortions and social disparities play an important role in the Indian economy, polity and society. The Government of India has made concerted efforts to institutionalize the balanced development with its main focus on social distributive justice through planned development.

Q4.What are the direct bearings of development on deteriorating human conditions?
Answer:
Developmental activities causes environmental pollution and ecological crises. It leads to air, soil, water and .noise pollution’s and threaten the existence of a society. The poor are subjected to three interrelated processes of declining capabilities; i.e.

• social capabilities – due to displacement and weakening social ties (social capital),
• environmental capabilities – due to pollution and,
• personal capabilities – due to increasing incidence of diseases and accidents.

This, in turn, has adverse effects on their quality of life and human development. So, developmental activities are considered as a main source of social distributive injustice, deterioration in the quality of life, ecological crises and social unrest.

Q5.Mention the important measures of a healthy and long life.
Answer:

• Life free from illness and ailment and living a reasonably long lifespan are indicative of a healthy life.
• Availability of pre and post-natal health care facilities in order to reduce infant mortality and post delivery deaths among mothers.
• Old age health care.
• Adequate nutrition.
• Safety of individuals.

Q6.Mention the major issues which UNDP considered important in achieving Human development.
Answer:

• People’s participation and their security
• Democratization
• Increasing empowerment of people
• Bringing about peace and human development
• Reduction in the military expenditure, ’ demobilization of armed forces, transition from defence to production of basic goods and services and particularly disarmament and reduction in countries.
• Peace and well-being are major global concerns.

Q7.Explain the level of literacy in India.
Answer:
Overall literacy in India is approx. 5.4% while female literacy is 54.16%.

• Total literacy as well as female literacy is higher than the national average in most of the states from South India.
• There are wide regional disparities in literacy rate across the states of India.
• States like Bihar has a very low (47.53%) literacy whereas states like Kerala and Mizoram have literacy rates of 90.92 and 88.49% respectively.
• Percentage of literate in the rural areas and among the marginalized sections of our society such as females, SC’s, ST’s and agricultural labourers is very low.

Q8.Explain thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in context of development.
Answer:
Indian culture and civilization have been very sensitive to the issues of population resource and development for a long time.

• Mahatma Gandhi in recent time advocated for the reinforcement of harmony and balance between the two, that is population resource and development.
• He was quite apprehensive about the on¬going development particularly the way industrialization has institutionalized the loss of morality, spirituality, self¬reliance, non-violence, and mutual cooperation and environment.
• Austerity for individuals, trusteeship of social wealth and non-violence are the key to attain higher goals in the life of an individual as well as that of a nation.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Write a report on the Human Development in India from the point of economic, health & social empowerment.
Answer:
It is believed that “Development is freedom” which is often associated with modernization leisure, comfort and affluence. In the present context computerization, industrialization, efficient transport and communication network, large education system, advanced and modern medical facilities, safety and security of individuals, etc. are considered as the symbols of development.

Indicators of Economic Attainments: A rich resource base and access to these resources by all, particularly the poor, downtrodden and the marginalized is the key to productivity, well-being and human development. Gross National Product (GNP) and its per capita availability are taken as measures to assess the resource base/endowment of any country. Prevalence of poverty, illiteracy, deprivation and injustice in social distribution system and regional disparities belie all the economic achievements in India. Developed states like Maharasthra, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat have high per capita income. The poorer states of U.P., Bihar, Odisha, M.P., Assam have less per capita income. In states like Odisha and Bihar more than 40% population live below poverty line.

Indicators of Healthy Life: A disease free and a relatively long life is indicator of healthy life. Some of the measures of healthy life are availability of pre and post natal healthcare system facilities, old age health care, adequate nutrition and safety of individuals. Over the years the death rate has come down from 25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 8.1 per thousand in 1999. Birth rate has gone down from 40.8 to 26.1 during the same time period. The life expectancy has increased from 37.1 years to 62.3 years for males and 36.2 to 65.3 years for females from 1951 to 1999. India has recorded a declining sex ratio except in the state of Kerala.

Social Empowerment: Freedom in real sense of the term is possible only with the empowerment and participation of the people in the exercise of their capabilities and choices in the society. Access to knowledge about the society and environment are fundamental to freedom. Literacy is the beginning of access to such a world of knowledge and freedom. In India the overall literacy rate is 65.4% (2001) and female literacy is 54.1%, ranging from 47% in Bihar to 91% in Kerala. It has been observed that literacy rate is more in southern states than the national average. Apart from the spatial variation, literacy rate is lower in rural areas and marginalized sections of the society. Though the literacy rate has increased among the marginalized section, yet the gap has increased between them and the rich.

Q2.With example show how population, development and environment are inter related?
Answer:
There is a general notion that if development is achieved then it will solve all the social-cultural and environmental problems of the society. Development, along with it has increased regional disparities, social inequality, displacement of people, discrimination, deprivation, abuse of human rights and human values and has led to environmental degradation.

UNDP in its human development report 1993 laid emphasis on progressive democratization and increasing empowerment of people. It recognized the constructive role of civil society in bringing peace and human development for reduction in military expenditure, demobilization of armed forces and transition from defence to production of basic goods and services.

The neo-Malthusian environmentalists believe that proper balance between population and resources is necessary for happy and peaceful social life. Developmental activities have increased the multiple uses of the limited available resources in order to cater to the growing demand, but since resources are unevenly distributed so there is injustice in social distribution. The richer countries have more access while the resources are shrinking in poorer countries, thereby leading to conflict as well as apparent contradiction between population, resource and development.

Indian culture is concerned about the balance and harmony among the elements of nature. According to Gandhiji austerity for individual, trusteeship of social wealth and non- violence are the key to attain higher goals in the life of an individual as well as that of a nation.

Q3.“Development is a mix bag of opportunities as well as neglect and deprivation”. Explain.
Answer:
There are a few areas like the metropolitan centers and other developed enclaves that have all the modern facilities available to a small section of its population. At the other extreme of it, there are large rural areas and the slums in the urban areas that do not have basic amenities like potable water, education and health infrastructure available to majority of this population. The situation is more alarming if one looks at the distribution of the development opportunities among different sections of our society.

It is a well established fact that majority of the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, landless agricultural labourers, poor farmers and slums dwellers, etc. are the most marginalized lot. A large segment of female population is the worst sufferers among all. It is also equally true that the relative as well as absolute conditions of the majority of these marginalized sections have worsened with the development happening over the years. Consequently, vast majority of people are compelled to live under abject poverty and subhuman conditions. There is yet another inter-related aspect of development that has direct bearings on the deteriorating human conditions. It pertains to the environmental pollution leading to ecological crisis.

Q4.Describe the level of economic achievements in India.
Answer:
The level of economic achievements in India can be understood from the following:

• Gross National Product (GNP) and per capita availability are taken as measures to access the resource base of any country. GDP was ? 3200 thousand crores and according to per capita income it was ? 20,813.
• Prevalence of poverty, deprivation, malnutrition, illiteracy various types of prejudice and above all social distributive injustices and large scale regional disparities.
• Few developed states like Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Delhi that have per capita income more than ? 4,000 per year and a large number of poorer states like U.P. Bihar, Odisha, M.P., Assam, J&K have recorded per capita income less than ? 2,000.
• The developed states have higher per capita income consumption expenditure as compared to the poorer states.
• These variations are indicative of deep- seated problems of poverty, unemployment and under-employment.
• States like Bihar and Odisha have recorded more than 40 per cent population living below poverty line.
• Employment rate for educated is 25%. Jobless growth and rampant unemploy¬ment are some of the important reasons for higher incidences of poverty in India.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Define migration. What are the bases of enumeration?
Answer:
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another in search of better opportunities with an intention to settle. In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases:

• Place of birth: If the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant);
• Place of residence: If the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence).

Q2.What are the causes of migration?
Answer:
People leave their place of birth and residence for better opportunities in order to settle with or without family. The reason for movement can be categorized into two factors: Push factors and Pull factors. Push factor force the people to leave their place of origin while the pull factors attract people from different places to settle there. Pull factors are dominant in place of destination while push factors are dominant in place of origin.

Q3.Write a note on spatial migration within India.
Answer:
In India there is a wide spatial variation in migration. Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana attract migrants from other states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. Maharashtra occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states, which had the largest number of net out-migrants from the state.

Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Greater Mumbai received the higher number of in migrants. Intra-states migration constituted the largest share in it. These differences are largely due to the size of the state in which these urban agglomeration are located.

Q4.What are the streams of migration? Why is it important?
Answer:
Migration can be permanent, temporary or seasonal. There are generally four streams of migration.

• Rural to rural
• Rural to urban
• Urban to rural
• Urban to urban

Migration is important because it is a spontaneous effort to attain a better balance between resources and population. There are push and pull factors working together behind migration.

Q5.Statistics were collected on migration since first survey but many modifications have been introduced since then. Explain.
Answer:
Actually migration was recorded from the very beginning of the first Census of India conducted in 1881. The data were recorded on the basis of place of birth. However, there have been many modifications since then.

• The first major modification was introduced in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional components viz place of birth, i.e. village or town and duration of residence (if born else where).
• Further in 1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of enumeration were incorporated.
• Information on reasons for migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive Censuses.

Q6.Which urban agglomeration of India has the highest share of migrant population? Why?
Answer:
Greater Mumbai has the highest share of migrant population. It is due to following reasons:

• More employment opportunities.
• Urbanization and industrialization.
• Relatively higher wages.
• Better educational facilities.
• Other civic amenities.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Why do people migrate?
OR
Explain the factors behind migration.
Answer:
People migrate to places different from their origin for a variety of reasons.
Push factors: Those factors which make the place of origin seem less attractive are called push factors. The factors of unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics and social-economic backwardness.

Pull factors: Those factors which make the place of destination seem more attractive than the place of origin are called pull factors. The place of destination provides better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and property and pleasant climate.

The reason for migration of males and females are different. For example, work and employment have remained the main cause for male migration (38 per cent) while it is only three per cent for the females. Contrary to this, about 65 per cent of females move out from their parental houses following their marriage. This is the most important cause in the rural areas of India except in Meghalaya where reverse is the case. In comparison to these marriage migration of the male, is only 2 per cent in the country.

Q2.What are the consequences of migration?
Answer:
Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over space. People tend to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity and better safety. Consequently it can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political and demographic terms.

Economic Consequences: A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants. Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange. Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive very significant amount from their international migrants. The amount of remittance sent by the internal migrants is very meagre as compared to international
migrants, but it plays an important role in the growth of economy of the source area. Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc. Unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India has caused overcrowding.

Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within the country. Demographic Consequences: Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a countiy. Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities. Age and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure leading to serious imbalances in age and sex composition.

Social Consequences: Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girl’s education, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It widens up the mental horizon of the people. But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonimity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.
Environmental Consequences: Over crowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure in the urban areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies. Due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground water, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.

Others: Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly. In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well mental pressure on the women. Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the economy but also increases their vulnerability.

If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of the source region, the loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost. The market for advanced skills has become truly a global market and the most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, the existing underdevelopment in the source region gets reinforced.

Q3.What description is found in Indian diaspora? What are its implications?
Answer:

• First wave: During colonial period, millions of the indentured labourers were sent to Mauritius, Caribbean islands, Fiji and South Africa by British from U.P. and Bihar to work as plantation workers. All such migrations were covered under the time bound contract known as Girmit Act (Indian Migration Act). The living conditions of these labourers were not better than the slaves.
• Second wave: The millions of profess -ionals, artisans, traders and factory workers in search of economic opportunities migrated to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and African countries. It led to steady outflow of India’s skilled and semi-skilled labourers in the wake of oil-boom in West Asia in 1970s. There was also some outflow of entrepreneurs, store owners, professionals and businessmen to Western countries.
• Third wave: It comprises professionals like doctors, engineers, software engineers, management consultant, financial experts, media persons to countries such as the USA Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany. These professionals enjoy distinction of being highly educated and the highest earning and prospering groups.

Implications:

• Brain-drain: The highly qualified and skilled people are moving out of the country leaving unskilled and illiterate stuff for domestic economy. It has created scarcity of qualified manpower.
• Indian diaspora is playing an important role in the development of the countries of destination.

Q4.What are economic consequences of migration?
Answer:
Economic Consequences:

• A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants. Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange.
• In 2002, India received US$ 11 billion as remittances from international migrants.
• Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive very significant amount from their international migrants.
• The amount of remittances sent by the internal migrants is very meagre in comparison to international migrants. But it plays an important role in the growth of economy of the source area. Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc.
• For thousands of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc. remittance works as life blood for their economy.
• Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha to the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution strategy for agricultural development.
• Apart from this, unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India has caused overcrowding. Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within the country.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Give in brief the factors that affect population distribution in India.
Answer:
Physical, socio-economic and historical factors influence population distribution in India. Climate along with terrain and availability of water largely determines the pattern of the population distribution. North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of population than the interior districts of southern and central Indian States, Himalayas, some of the north eastern and the western states. Evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development, pattern of human settlement, development of transport network, industrialization and urbanization also affect population distribution.

Q2.Why does rural/urban distribution of population vary in India?
Answer:
Pattern of distribution of rural population of India reveals that both at intra-State and inter-State levels, the relative degree of urbanization and extent of rural-urban migration regulate the concentration of rural population.

The growth rate of urban population has accelerated due to enhanced economic development and improvement in health and hygienic conditions. In almost all the states and Union Territories, there has been a considerable increase of urban population. Urbanization is low in remote, hilly, tribal and flood prone areas.

Q3.What does the ‘sectoral workforce’ of population in India signify?
Answer:
In India, there is large proportion of primary sector workers compared to secondary and tertiary sectors. But it is important to note that the proportion of workers in agricultural sector in India has shown a decline over the last few decades (58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011). Consequently, the participation rate in secondary and tertiary sectors has registered an increase. This indicates a shift of dependence of workers from farm based occupations to non-farm based ones, indicating a sectoral shift in the economy of the country. Male workers overshadow the female workers in all sectors.

Q4.Some places in India are densely populated while others are sparsely populated. Substantiate.
Answer:
Some places in India are densely populated while others are sparsely populated. It is clear from the following statistics:

• Spatial variations of population densities in the country which ranges from low as 13 persons per sq. km in Arunachal Pradesh to 9,340 persons in the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
• Among the northern Indian states, West Bengal, Bihar & U.P. have high population densities, while Kerala and Tamil Nadu have higher population densities among the peninsular Indian states.
• States like Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand and Odisha have moderate densities.
• The hill states of the Himalayan region and North-eastern states of India have relatively low densities (except Assam).
• The Union Territories (excluded Andaman 8s Nicobar) have very high densities of population.

Q5.What do you mean by population growth? Explain how is it estimated?
Answer:
Population growth refers to the change in the number of people living in a particular area between two points of time. It is calculated as follows:
 Population growth rate = Population in period two – population in period one  Population in period one ×100

Q6.India is a secular country. Substantiate the statement with statistical facts.
Answer:
It is absolutely right that India is a secular country where people following different religions live together with unity.

• Hindus: Range from 70-80 per cent except in the districts of states along Indo- Bangladesh border, Indo-Pak border, Jammu 8s Kashmir, hill states of North¬east 8s in scattered areas of Deccan Plateau 8s Ganga Plain.
• Muslims: They are the largest religious minority that are concentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal, Kerala, UP, Delhi & Lakshadweep. They form majority in Kashmir valley & Lakshadweep.
• Christians: They are concentrated along the Western coast of Goa, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur & Hills of Manipur.
• Sikhs: They are concentrated in small areas of the country particularly in states of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
• Jains and Buddhists: They are the smallest religious groups.
• Other religions include Zoroastrians tribal and other indigenous faiths and beliefs.

Q7.Analyse the linguistic composition of India.
Answer:
India is a land of linguistic diversity. According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903-1928) there were 179 languages and as many as 544 dialects in the country.

• In the context of modern India, there are about 22 scheduled languages and number of non-scheduled languages.
• Among the scheduled languages, the speakers of Hindi have the highest percentage (40.42).
• The smallest language groups are Kashmiri and Sanskrit speakers (0.01 per cent each).

Q8.What are the salient features of population of India?
Answer:
Some of the salient features of population of India are given below:

• India is the second most populous country after China with population of more than 1 billion in 2001 A.D.
• The average growth rate of the population from 1991-2001 has been 19.3%. Cities & towns have registered higher growth of population due to migration from rural areas.
• Population is male dominated and sex ratio is continuously declining.
• At present growth rate, India’s population will be doubled after 36 years.
• About 50% of the population is less than 20 years of age. Such a youth population has its own socio-economic and political problems.
• Majority of population consists of non-workers.

Q9.Name four Indian Linguistic families and give four examples of each family. Ans. Indian languages have been grouped in four families as follows:

• Austric (Nishada): Meghalaya, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh
• Dravidian (Dravida): M.P., Karnataka, Kerala, Bihar
• Sino-Tibetian (Kirata): Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya.
• Indo-European (Aryan): Jammu & Kashmir, U.P., M.P., Goa.

Q10.“Socio-economic factors influence high density of population”. Give reasons with examples.
Answer:
It is absolutely right to say that social-economic factors influence high density of population:

• Evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development.
• Pattern of human settlement.
• Development of transport network.
• Urbanisation and industrialisation before.
• River plains and coastal areas; urban centres/industrial areas.

Q11.Why is there a decline in the number of workers in agricultural sector?
Answer:
There is a decline in the number of workers in agricultural sector due to following reasons:

• Availability of limited farming.
• Lack of employment in rural areas due to mechanization of agriculture.
• Seasonal nature of employment.
• Large scale urbanization and industrialization.
• Attraction and access towards tertiary and quarternaiy occupations.

Q12.“Female participation rate is low in India” Why?
Answer:
Female participation rate is low in India due to following factors:

• Joint family system.
• Low rate of literacy among females.
• Frequent child birth.
• Greater family responsibility.
• Male dominated society.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Describe India’s population growth over the years.
Answer:
The growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by annual birth rate and death rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different trends. There are four distinct phases of growth identified within this period:

Phase-I: The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant or stationary phase of growth of India’s population, since in this period growth rate was very low, even recording a negative growth rate during 1911-1921. Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase low.

Phase II: The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth. An overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate. At the same time better transport and communication system improved distribution system. The crude birth rate remained high in this period leading to higher growth rate than the previous phase.

Phase III: The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India, which was caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population in the country. The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 percent. Increased international migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies and even people from Pakistan contributed to the high growth rate.

Phase IV: In the post 1981 till present, the growth rate of country’s population though remained high, has started slowing down gradually.. A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a population growth. This was, in turn, affected by an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly education of females in the country.
Though the growth rate of population is still high in India, there is wide regional variation from one region to the other.

Q2.Write a note on the adolescent population in India.
Answer:.
An important aspect of population growth in India is the growth of its adolescents. At present the share of adolescents i.e., up to the age group of 10-19 years is about 20.9 per cent (2011), among which male adolescents constitute 52.7 per cent and female adolescents constitute 47.3 per cent. The adolescent population, though, regarded as the youthful population having high potentials, but at the same time they are quite vulnerable if not guided and channelized properly.

There are many challenges for the society as far as these adolescents are concerned, some of which are lower age at marriage, illiteracy – particularly female illiteracy, school dropouts, low intake of nutrients, high rate of maternal mortality of adolescent mothers, high rates of HIV/ AIDS infections, physical and mental disability or retardedness, drug abuse and alcoholism, juvenile delinquency and commitence of crimes, etc.

In view of these, the Government of India has undertaken certain policies to impart proper education to the adolescent groups so that their talents are better channelized and properly utilized. The National Youth Policy of Government of India, launched in 2003, stresses on an all round improvement of the youth and adolescents enabling them to shoulder responsibility towards constructive development of the country. It also aims at reinforcing the qualities of patriotism and responsible citizenship.

The thrust of this policy is youth empowerment in terms of their effective participation in decision making and carrying the responsibility of an able leader. Special emphasis was given in empowering women and girl child to bring parity in the male-female status. Moreover, deliberate efforts were made to look into youth health, sports and recreation creativity and awareness about new innovation in the spheres of science and technology.

Q3.To which families do the major Indian languages belong? Give details of their sub-family and areas.
Answer:
The major Indian languages belong to four main language families – Austric, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Indo-European.


Q4.What is the occupational composition of Indian’s population? Give a detailed report.
Answer:
The occupational composition of India’s population (which actually means engagement of an individual in farming, manufacturing trade, services or any kind of professional activities) shows a large proportion of primary sector workers compared to secondary and tertiary sectors. About 54.6 % of total working population are cultivators and agricultural labourers, whereas only 3.8% of workers are engaged in household industries and 41.6 % are other workers including non-household industries, trade, commerce, construction and repair and other services. As far as the occupation of country’s male and female population is concerned, male workers out-number female workers in all the three sectors.
The number of female workers is relatively high in primary sector, though in recent years there has been some improvement in work participation of women in secondary and tertiary sectors.Q4.

It is important to note that the proportion of workers in agricultural sector, in India has shown a decline over the last few decades (58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011). Consequently, the participation rate in secondary and tertiary sectors has registered an increase. This indicates a shift of dependence of workers from farm ‘ based occupations to non-farm based ones, indicating a sectoral shift in the economy of the country.

The spatial variation of work participation rate in different sectors in the country is very wide. For instance, the states like Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have very large shares of cultivators. On the other hand states like Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh have higher proportion of agricultural labourers. The highly urbanized areas like Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry have a very large proportion of workers being engaged in other services. This indicates not only availability of limited farming land, but also large scale urbanisation and industrialization requiring more workers in non-farm sectors.


Q5.What are the challenges before adolescents? What steps have been taken by government to overcome these challenges?
Answer:
The challenges before adolescents are
as follows:

• Female illiteracy
• School dropouts
• Low intake of nutrients.
• High rates of HIV/AIDS infections.
• Drug abuse and alcoholism
• Physical and mental disabilities.
• Lack of job opportunities.
• Peer pressure
• High rate of maternal mortality of adosescents mothers
• Lower age at marriage
• Domestic violence.
• Juvenile delinquency and commitance of crimes, etc.

In order to solve all these problems government has launched a National Youth Policy.
Features of National Youth Policy:

• It was launched in 2003. It stresses on all round development of youth and adolescents.
• It enables them to shoulder responsibility for constructive development.
• It also aims at reinforcing the qualities of patriotism and responsible citizenship.
• Special emphasis is given on empowering women and girl child to bring equality and status.
• It also lays stress on involvement of youth in decision making process.
• Under this policy, deliberate efforts were taken to improve health, sports, recreation, creativity, technology and create innovations in all spheres of life.

Q6.Explain the variations in the proportion of working population in India.
Answer:
The variations in the proportion of working population in India are:

• Moderate variation from about 25 per cent in Goa to about 53 per cent in Mizoram.
• Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya have larger percentages of workers. Among the Union Territories Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu have higher participation rate because these states have variations in the levels of economic development.
• About 58.2 per cent of total working population are cultivators and agricultural labourers.
• Only 4.2% of workers are engaged in household industries.
• 37.6 % are other workers including non-household industries, trade, commerce construction and repair and other services as proportion of people in agricultural sector has shown a decline over last few decades i.e., 68.5% to 58.2% consequently participation in tertiary and secondary sectors have increased.

Q7.Differentiate between marginal worker and main worker.
Answer:

Marginal Worker	Main Worker
(i) Engaged in only economically productive work for less than 183 days in 1 year	(i) It is the person who is engaged in any economically productive work for at least 183 days in a year.
(ii) In 2001, it is defined that the worker who had not worked for the major part of the reference period.	(ii) In 2001, it is defined as the worker who had worked for the major part of the reference period.
(iii) In India, 8.7% of workers are marginal workers	(iii) In 2001, the percentage of main workers was 30.2 % of total population.
(iv) Percentage of marginal workers reflects a less developing economy and poverty	(iv) Contribute large share in economically productive work in the country

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Give the census definition of urban settlements in India.
Answer:
The census of India 1991 defines urban settlements as

• All places which have municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee.
• Have a minimum population of 5000.
• At least 75% of male workers are engaged in non agricultural pursuits.
• Density ‘of population of at least 400 person per square kilometre.

Q2.What are the criteria of classifying rural settlement of the world?
Answer:
Rural settlements may be classified on a number of criteria.
On the basis of setting the main types are:

• Plain village
• Plateau village
• Coastal village
• Forest village
• Desert village

On the basis of function:

• Farming village
• Fisherman village
• Lumberjack villages
• Pastoral villages

On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements. These may be a number of geometric forms and shapes such as:

• Linear
• Rectangular
• Circular
• Star like
• T and Y shaped village
• Double village etc.

Q3.Compare the settlements pattern of the world on the basis of shape.
Answer:
Settlements may be classified by their shape, pattern, types. The major types classified by shape are

• Compact or nucleated settlements: These settlements are those in which large nuber of houses are built very close to each other. Communities are closely knit and share common occupations. Such settlements develop along river valleys and fertile plains.
• Dispersed settlements: In this type of settlement, houses are spaced apart from each other and often interspersed with fields. A cultural feature such as a place of worship or market binds the settlement together.

Q4.With example show the significance of location for urban center.
Answer:
Location of urban centers is examined with reference to their functions. Example; The requirements of a holiday resort are quite different from that of a military center, sea port or a mining town. Strategic towns require sites offering natural defence, mining towns require the presence of economically valuable minerals where ports require a harbour etc. Earlier urban settlements were based on the availability of water, fertile land and building material. Today, modern technology plays a significant role in locating urban settlements far away from the source of these materials
eg. piped water can be supplied to a distant settlement away from the source. Today apart from site, situation plays an important role in the expansion of the town.
eg. centers located closer to transport links have experienced rapid development.

Q5.What is a healthy city?
Answer:
As per the suggestions of World Health Organisation, a healthy city must have:

• A clean and safe environment
• Meets the basic needs of all its inhabitants.
• Involves the community in local government.
• Provides easily accessible health service.

Q6.What is meant by urban strategy?
Answer:
The United Nations Development Programme has outlined the following priorities as part of it’s urban strategy.

• Increasing shelter for the poor.
• Provision of basic services such as education, primary health care, clean water and sanitation.
• Improving women’s access to basic services and governmental facilities.
• Upgrading energy use and alternative transport system.
• Reducing air pollution.

Q7.“There is no consensus on what exactly defines a village or a town.” Justify the statement with examples.
Answer:
Settlement is classified into urban and rural, but there is no consensus:

• Population size is small in rural settlements than urban settlements. But it is not universally applied because many villages of India and China have population exceeding that of some towns of Western Europe and the United States.
• People living in villages pursued agriculture or other primary activities, but presently in developed countries, large sections of urban populations prefer to live in villages even though they work in the city.
• Petrol pumps are considered as a rural function in the United States while it is an urban function in India.
• Facilities available in the villages of developed countries may be considered rare in villages of developing and less developed countries.

Q8.How are urban settlements classified around the world?
Or
What are the three common bases of classifying a settlement as urban around the world?
Or
What are the criteria for classification of urban settlements of the world?
Answer:
Urban settlements are classified on the basis of its size of the population, occupational structure and administration.

• Population size: In India, a settlement having population of more than 5000 persons is called urban. In Japan, it is 30,000 persons whereas in Sweden it is 250 persons. The cut off figure depends on the density of population in the country.
• Occupational structure: Besides population size, occupation is also taken as a criterion. In India, if more than 75 per cent of workforce is engaged in non-agricultural activities then the settlement is called as urban. Other countries have their own criteria for e.g. in Italy it is 50 per cent.
• Administrative structure: In India, a settlement is classified as urban if it has a municipality, cantonment board or a notified area. In Brazil, any administrative center is termed as urban irrespective of its population.

Q9.Explain the role of site and situation in determining the location and expansion of towns.
Answer:
Location of urban centers is influenced by their functions. Site refers to the actual piece of ground on which the settlement is built. Situation refers to the location of the settlement in relation to the surrounding areas.

• Strategic towns require sites offering natural defense.
• Mining towns require the presence of economically valuable minerals.
• Industrial towns generally need local energy supplies or raw materials.
• Tourist centers require attractive scenery, or a marine beach, a spring with medicinal water or historical relics.

Q10.State any four important functions of urban centers.
Answer:
The important centers are:

• The earlier functions of towns were related to administration, trade, industry, defence and religion.
• Today, towns perform multiple functions such as, recreational, residential, transport, mining, manufacturing and the activities related to information technology.
• Some towns are known for their functions. For example, Sheffield as an industrial city, London as a port city, Chandigarh as an administrative city.
• Large cities have a rather greater diversity of functions.

Q11.Explain the town planning of Addis Ababa. –
Answer:
The name of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa means “the new flower’. As the name indicates (Addis means New and Ababa means Flower). It is a ‘new’ city.

• Establishment: It was established in 1878.
• Road: The road pattern bears the influence of the local topography. The roads radiate from the government headquarters Piazza, Arat and Amist Kilo roundabouts.
• Markets: Mercato has markets which grew with time and is supposed to be the largest market between Cairo and Johannesburg.
• Infrastructure: A multi-faculty university, a medical college, a number of good schools makes Addis Ababa an educational centre. It is also the terminal station for the Djibouti-Addis Ababa rail route. Bole airport is a relatively new airport.
• Growth: The city has witnessed rapid growth because of its multi- functional nature. It is a large nodal centre located in the centre of Ethiopia.

Q12.What is sub-urbanization? Mention the causes of sub-urbanization.
Answer:
It is a new trend of people moving away from congested urban areas to cleaner areas outside the city in search of a better quality of living. Causes of sub urbanization:

• Congestion in urban areas.
• Deterioration in civic amenities.
• Unhealthy environmental conditions.
• High rate of land.

Q13.What are cultural towns? Do they perform some other functions also? Mention.
Answer:
Places of pilgrimage are considered cultural towns. For example; Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. These urban centres are of great religious importance. Additional functions which the cities perform are health and recreation (Miami and Panaji), industrial (Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur), mining and quarrying (Broken Hill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore and Mughal Sarai).

Q14.Towns and cities of developed and developing countries reflect marked differences in planning and development. How?
Answer:
Towns and cities of developed and developing countries reflect marked differences in planning and development. While most cities in developed countries are planned, most urban settlements of developing countries have evolved historically with irregular shapes. For example, Chandigarh and Canberra are planned cities, while smaller towns in India have evolved historically from walled cities to large urban sprawls.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.List the factors that affect the location of rural settlements of the world.
Answer:
The rural settlements of the world are influenced by the following factors:

Water supply: usually rural settlements are located near water bodies like rivers, lakes for easy access. Since water is essential for survival, so the need for water forces people to settle people on swamps or floodplains. Water bodies provide people water for drinking, cooking, washing and as well as to irrigate farmland, fishing activity and for transportation.

Land: People settle near fertile lands like the rolling meadows in Europe and low lying areas and river valleys and coastal plains of South East Asia for rice cultivation.

Upland: Higher grounds which are not prone to flooding is another factor which influences location of rural settlements.

People generally avoid the low lying river basins and choose to settle on diy points that is terraces and levees. In tropical countries people build their houses on stills to protect themselves from flood, insects and animal pests.

Building material: The availability of building materials that is wood, stone near settlement is another advantage. Early villages were build in forest clearings where wood was easily available. In African Savanna, the building material was mud bricks and Eskimos in polar areas use ice blocks to construct igloos.

Defense: In order to avoid political instability, hostility of neighboring groups, villages were build on defensive hills and islands. Example; In Nigeria inselbergs act as good defensive site. In India forts are build on high grounds.

Planned Settlements: These are build by governments where they provide shelter, water and other infrastructures. Example; The scheme of villagisation in Ethiopia, and canal colonies in Indira Gandhi canal command area.

Q2.Classify the rural settlements of the world on the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements.
Or
Explain different types of rural settlement patterns on the basis of the shapes of the settlements.
Answer:
Rural settlements of the world can be classified on the basis of forms or shapes of settlements as

• Linear: In such settlements, houses are located along a road, railway line, river, canal edge or a valley or along a levee.
• Rectangular pattern: Such pattern of rural settlements are found in plain areas or wide inter montane valleys. The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles.
• Circular pattern: These develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes a village is planned in such a way that the central part remains open and is used for keeping the animals to protect them from wild animals.
• Star like pattern: Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the houses build along the roads.
• T-shaped, Y-shaped, cross-shaped or cruciform settlement: T-shaped settlements develop at tri-junctions of road, while Y-shaped settlements emerge at the place where two roads converge on the third one and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform settlements develop on the cross roads and houses extend in all four direction.
• Double village: These village extend on both sides of river where there is a bridge or a ferry.

Q3.List the problem of rural settlement of the world in the developing countries.
Answer:
Rural settlements in developing countries are large in number and lack basic infrastructural facilities. Some of them are as under:

• Inadequate supply of water specially in the mountainous and arid areas walk long distances to fetch drinking water.
• Countries of South Asia face drought and flood very often which leads to water borne diseases like jaundice, cholera and aridity leads to crop failure due to lack of irrigation.
• Absence of toilet and garbage disposal * facilities cause health related problems.
• The houses made up of mud, wood, thatch get damaged easily during heavy rains and floods and lack ventilation. They include animal shed and storing area as well.
• Unmetalled roads during rainy season cut off the settlement and pose serious difficulties.
• The villages generally lack adequate health and educational infrastructure for their population, especially in areas of dispersed settlements.

Q4.Classify urban settlements of the world on basis of size and the services available and functions rendered.
Answer:
Depending on the basis of the size and the services available functions rendered, urban centres of the world are classified as town, city, million city, conurbation and megalopolis.

Town: The concept of town is understood with reference to village. Population size is not the only criteria. In the towns specific functions like manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade and professional services exist.

City: A city is regarded as a leading town and are much larger than the other regional towns and have a greater number of economic functions. Cities generally have transport terminals, financial institutions and regional administrative offices.

Million Cities: When the population of a city crosses the one million mark , it is designated as a million city. The number of million cities in the world has been increasing. London first reached the million mark followed by Paris and New York.

Conurbation: The term was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and apply to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns and cities. Example; Greater London, Manchester, Tokyo, Chicago, etc.

Megalopolis: It is a Greek word meaning great city, was popularized by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies super metropolitan region extending as union of conurbations. The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the North to south of Washington in South in USA is an example. Mega city or megalopolis is a general term for cities together their suburbs with a population of more than 10 million. New York was the first to attain.

Q5.Give the broad functional classification of towns of the world.
Answer:
Inspite of towns performing multiple functions, we refer and classify them according to their dominant function. Example; We think of London as a port city, Chandigarh as an administrative town. Large cities are multi functional and gradually develop new functions over time. Towns and cities are classified into following categories.

• Administrative towns: National capitals which house the administrative offices of central governments such as New Delhi, Canberra, Beijing, etc. are called administrative towns. Provincial towns can also have administrative function. Example; Victoria, Albany.
• Trading and commercial towns: Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipeg and Kansas city; banking and financial centres like Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inland centres like Manchester and St. Louis; and transport nodes such as Lahore, Baghdad and Agra have been important trading centres.
• Cultural towns: Places of pilgrimage such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Varanasi etc. are considered cultural towns. These urban centres are of great religious importance. Additional functions which the cities perform are health and recreation (Miami and Panaji), industrial (Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur), mining and quarrying (Broken hill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore and Mughal Sarai).

Q6.What is the basic difference between towns and villages?
Answer:

Towns	Villages
In towns the main occupation of the people is related to secondary and tertiary sectors.	In the villages most of the people are engaged in primary occupations such as agriculture, fishing, lumbering, mining, animal husbandry, etc.

Q7.Distinguish between rural and urban settlements
Answer:

Rural settlements	Urban settlements
(i) These types of settlements are chiefly concerned with primary activities such as agriculture, mining, fishing, forestry etc.	(i)   These types of settlements are nodal in character and have secondary and tertiary activities.
(ii) Most of the people of rural settlements are engaged in agricultural activities	(ii)   The chief occupation of the people of urban areas is non-agricultural i.e. industry, trade and services.
(iii) The major function of rural settlement is agriculture and each settlement specializes in various activities.	iii)The major functions of urban areas are trades and commerce, transport and communication, mining and manuf acturing, defence, administration, cultural and recreational activities.
(iv)  Population density is small and the settlement size is small.	(iv) Population density is high and the settlement size is large.

Q8.Differentiate between compact and dispersed settlements.
Answer:

Compact or nucleated settlements	Dispersed settlements
(i) In it, a large number of houses are built very close to each other.(ii) Compact settlements develop along river valley and fertile plains.(iii) Communities are closely knit and share common occupations.	(i) In it, houses are spaced far apart and often interspersed with fields.(ii) They are normally found on hills, plain and high lanes.(iii)Cultural feature such as a place of worship or a market, binds the settlement together.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Why does international trade exist?
Answer:
International trade is based on the principle of comparative advantage, complimentarity and transfer ability of goods and services and in principle, should be mutually beneficial to the trading partners. International trade is the result of specialization in production. It benefits the world economy if different countries practise specialization and division of labour in the production of commodities or provision of services. Each kind of specialization can give rise to trade. It is the basis of world’s economic organisation and is related to foreign policies of nation. It is essential as no country is self sufficient.

Q2.Explain how ‘difference in national resources’ act as basis of international trade.
Answer:
The world’s national resources are unevenly distributed because of differences in their physical make up i.e. geology, relief soil and climate.

• Geological structure: It determines the mineral resource base and topbgraphical differences ensure diversity of crops and animals raised. Lowlands have greater agricultural potential. Mountains attract tourists and promote tourism.
• Mineral resources: They are unevenly distributed the world over. The availability of mineral resources provides the basis for industrial development.
• Climate: It influences the type of flora and fauna that can survive in a given region. It also ensures diversity in the range of various products, e.g. wool production can take place in cold regions, bananas, rubber and cocoa can grow in tropical regions.

Q3.Explain how ‘population factors’ influence the basis of international trade.
Answer:
Population factors: The size, distribution and diversity of people between .countries affect the type and volume of goods traded.

• Cultural factors: Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures which are valued the world over, e.g. China produces the finest porcelains and brocades. Carpets of Iran are famous while North African leather work and Indonesian batik cloth are prized handicrafts.
• Size of population: Densely populated countries have large volume of internal trade but little external trade because most of the agricultural and industrial production is consumed in the local markets. Standard of living of the population determines the demand for better quality imported products because with low standard of living only a few people can afford to buy costly imported goods.

Q4.Write a short note on balance of trade.
Answer:
Balance of trade records the volume of goods and services imported as well as exported by a country to other countries. If the value of imports is more than the value of a country’s exports, the country has negative or unfavourable balance of trade. If the value of exports is more than the value of imports, then the country has a positive or favourable balance of trade. A negative balance would mean that the country spends more on buying goods than it can earn by selling its goods. This would ultimately lead to exhaustion of its financial reserves.

Q5.What is trade? What are the types of international trade?
Answer:
Trade means voluntary exchange of goods and services where for both the parties trade is mutually beneficial. International trade may be categorized into two types:

• Bilateral trade: Bilateral trade is done by two countries with each other. They enter into agreement to trade specified commodities amongst them. For example, country A may agree to trade some raw material with agreement to purchase some other specified item to country B or vice versa.
• Multi-lateral trade: As the term suggests multi-lateral trade is conducted with many trading countries. The same country can trade with a number of other countries. The country may also grant the status of the “Most Favoured Nation” (MFN) on some of the trading partners.

Q6.Define Free trade. What are its effects?
Answer:
The act of opening up economies for trading is known as free trade or trade liberalization. This is done by bringing down trade barriers like tariffs. Trade liberalization allows goods and services from everywhere to compete with domestic products and services. Globalization along with free trade can adversely affect the economies of developing countries by not giving equal playing field by imposing conditions which are unfavorable. With the development of transport and communication systems goods and services can travel faster and farther than ever before. But free trade should not only let rich countries enter the markets, but allow the developed countries to keep their own markets protected Sum foreign products.

Q7.What are regional trade blocs? Why were they formed?
Answer:
Regional Trade Blocs have come up in order to encourage trade between countries with geographical proximity, similarity and complementarities in trading items and to curb restrictions on trade of the developing world. Today, 120 regional trade blocs generate 52 per cent of the world trade. These trading blocs developed as a response to the failure of the global organisations to speed up intra-regional trade. Though, these regional blocs remove trade tariffs within the member nations and encourage free trade, in the future it could get increasingly difficult for free trade to take place between different trading blocs.

Q8.What are the advantages of international trade?
Answer:
Undertaking international trade is mutually beneficial to nations if it leads to regional specialization, higher level of production, better standard of living, worldwide availability of goods and services, equalization of prices and wages and diffusion of knowledge and culture.

Q9.What are the concerns related with international trade?
Answer:
International trade can prove to be detrimental to nations if it leads to dependence on other countries, uneven levels of development, exploitation, and commercial rivalry leading to wars. Global trade affects many aspects of life; it can impact everything from the environment to health and well-being of the people around the world. As countries compete to trade more, production and the use of natural resources spiral up, resources get used up faster than they can be replenished. As a result, marine life is also depleting fast, forests are being cut down and river basins sold off to private drinking water companies. Multinational corporations trading in oil, gas mining, pharmaceuticals and agri-business keep expanding their operations at all costs creating more pollution – their mode of work does not follow the norms of sustainable development. If organisations are geared only towards profit making, and environmental and health concerns are not addressed, then it could lead to serious implications in the future.

Q10.Explain the types of ports on the basis of type of traffic they control.
Answer:
Generally, ports are classified according to the types of traffic which they handle. Types of port according to cargo handled:

• Industrial Ports: These ports specialise in bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil, chemicals and similar materials.
• Commercial Ports: These ports handle general cargo-packaged products and manufactured good. These ports also handle passenger traffic.
• Comprehensive Ports: Such ports handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes. Most of the world’s great ports are classified as comprehensive ports.

Q11.Define ports. Classify them on the basis of location.
Answer:
Ports are collection and distribution centres for commodities for export and import. Cargoes and travellers pass from one part of the world to other through these ports. Types of port on the basis of location:

• Inland Ports: These ports are located away from the sea coast. They are linked to the sea through a river or a canal. Such ports are accessible to flat bottom ships or barges. For example, Manchester is linked with a canal; Memphis is located on the river Mississippi; Rhine has several ports like Mannheim and Duisburg; and Kolkata is located on the river Hoogli, a branch of the river Ganga.
• Out Ports: These are deep water ports built away from the actual ports. These serve the parent ports by receiving those ships which are unable to approach them due to their large size. Classic combination, for example, is Athens and its out port is Piraeus in Greece.

Q12.What are the facilities that are provided by the ports?
Answer:
The chief gateways of the world of international trade are the harbours and ports. Cargoes and travellers pass from one part of the world to another through these ports. The ports provide facilities of docking, loading, unloading and the storage facilities for cargo. In order to provide these facilities, the port authorities make arrangements for maintaining navigable channels, arranging tugs and barges, and providing labour and managerial services. The importance of a port is judged by the size of cargo and the number of ships handled. The quantity of cargo handled by a port is an indicator of the level of development of its hinterland.

Q13.Explain the factors on which the international trade depends. Give example.
Answer:
The basis of international trade are:

• Trade arises because of regional differences in production and productivity.
• It also arises because of great variations in the location and distribution of natural resources.

For example; countries differ in climate, mineral availability and geological structure. Therefore trade arises between them as no one country can produce everything whatever it requires.

Q14.How is the trade of services different from the trade of primary and manufacturing sectors?
Answer:
The trade in the service sector is quite different from trade in the products of primary and manufacturing sectors as:

• The trade in services can be expanded infinitely. .
• It can be consumed by many at the same time.
• It is weightless.
• Once produced it can be easily replicated.
• Thus, service trade is capable of generating more profit than producing goods.

Q15.Explain how the global trade affects many aspects of life.
Answer:
Global trade affects the environment, health and well-being of the people.

• Due to competition between countries to trade more, production and the use of natural resources has increased.
• Resources are used faster than they can renew themselves. As a result, marine life and forests are depleting fast.
• Multinational corporations trading in oil, gas mining, pharmaceuticals and agri¬business are exploiting local resources and creating more pollution.
• Health and well being of people is affected due to pollution and depletion of resources

Q16.What are the impacts of negative Jbalance of trade?
Answer:
Negative balance of trade is detrimental for a nation because:

• It results in fall in the value of domestic currency in terms of foreign currency.
• It indicates poor production of a country.
• It increases the pressure of international loans and hence of payment of not only sum but also of international interest. It increases the say of international agencies like IMF in the functioning of economy.
• It creates inflationary pressure in the domestic economy.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Write a note on history of international trade.
Answer:
In ancient times, transporting goods over long distances was risky, hence trade was restricted to local markets. Only the rich people bought jewellery, costly dresses and this resulted in trade of luxury items. The Silk Route is an early example of long distance trade connecting Rome to China – along the 6,000 km route. The traders transported Chinese silk, Roman wool and precious metals and many other high value commodities from intermediate points in India, Persia and Central Asia.

After the disintegration of the Roman Empire, European commerce grew during twelfth and thirteenth centuries with the development of ocean going warships trade between Europe and Asia grew and the Americas were discovered.

Fifteenth century onwards, the Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured African natives and forcefully transported them to the newly discovered Americas for their labour in the plantations, thus slave trade emerged. Slave trade was a lucrative business for more than two hundred years. ‘
After the Industrial Revolution the demand for raw materials like grains, meat, wool also expanded, but their monetary value declined in relation to the manufactured goods.

The industrialised nations imported primary products as raw materials and exported the value added finished products back to the non-industrialised nations. In the later half of the nineteenth century, regions producing primary goods were no more important, and industrial nations became each other’s principle customers. During the World Wars I and II, countries imposed trade taxes and quantitative restrictions for the first time. During the post war period, organisations like General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (which later became the World Trade Organisation), helped in reducing tariff.

Q2.Give the significance of ‘stage of economic development ‘and ‘extent of foreign investments’ as bases of international trade in detail.
Answer:
Stage of economic development: At different stages of economic development of countries, the nature of items traded undergo changes. In agriculturally important countries, agro products are exchanged for manufactured goods whereas industrialised nations export machinery and finished products and import food grains and other raw materials.

Extent of foreign investment: Foreign investment can boost trade in developing countries which lack in capital required for the development of mining, oil drilling, heavy engineering, lumbering and plantation agriculture. By developing such capital intensive industries in developing countries, the industrial nations ensure import of food stuffs, minerals and create markets for their finished products. This entire cycle steps up the volume of trade between nations.

Q3.List the functions and criticism of World Trade Organisation (WTO).
Answer:
WTO is the only international organisation dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. It sets the rules for the global trading system and resolves disputes between its member nations. WTO also covers trade in services, such as telecommunication and banking, and others issues such as intellectual rights. The WTO has however been criticized and opposed by those who are worried about the effects of free trade and economic globalization. It is argued that free trade does not make ordinary people’s lives more prosperous. It is actually widening the gulf between rich and poor by making rich countries more rich. This is because the influential nations in the WTO focus on their own commercial interests. Moreover, many developed countries have not fully opened their markets to products from developing countries. It is also argued that issues of health, worker’s rights, child labour and environment are ignored.

Q4.What are the types of ports on the basis of specialized functions?
Answer:
Types of port on the basis of specialized functions:

• Oil Ports: These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports and some are refinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port.
• Ports of Call: These are the ports which originally developed as calling points onmain sea routes where ships used to anchor for refueling, watering and taking food items. Later on, they developed into commercial ports. Aden, Honolulu and Singapore are good examples.
• Packet Station: These are also known as ferry ports. These packet stations are exclusively concerned with the transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies covering short distances. These stations occur in pairs located in such a way that they face each other across the water body, e.g. Dover in England and Calais in France across the English Channel.
• Entrepot Ports: These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export. Singapore is an entrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic region.
• Naval Ports: These are ports which have only strategic importance. These ports serve warships and have repair workshops for them. Kochi and Karwar are examples of such ports in India.

Q5.What factors act as a basis of international trade? Discuss.
Answer:
International trade is the result of specialization in production. These are the following factors which act as a basis of international trade.

(i) Difference in national resources: The world’s national resources are unevenly distributed because of differences in their physical make up, i.e. geology, relief soil and climate.

• Geological structure: It determines the mineral resource base and topographical differences ensure diversity of crops and animals raised. Mountains attract tourists and promote tourism.
• Mineral resources: They are unevenly distributed in the world. The availability of mineral resources provides the basis for industrial development.
• Climate; Climate influences the type of flora and fauna that can survive in a given region. It also ensures diversity in the range of various products.

(ii) Population factors: The size, distribution and diversity of people between countries affect the type and volume of goods traded.

• Cultural factors: Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures which are valued the world over.
• Size of population: Densely populated countries have large volume of internal trade.

(iii) Stage of economic development: At different stages of economic development of countries, the nature of items traded undergoes changes.

(iv) Extent of foreign investment: Foreign investment can boost trade in developing countries which lack in capital required for the development of mining, oil drilling, heavy engineering, lumbering and plantation agriculture. The industrial nations ensure import of foodstuffs, minerals and create markets for their finished products.

(v) Transport: In olden times, lack of adequate and efficient means of transport restricted trade to local areas. Only high value items, e.g. gems, silk and spices were traded over long distances.

Q6.Explain different aspects of international trade.
Answer:
International trade has three important aspects. These are volume, sectoral composition and direction of trade.

• Volume of Trade: The actual tonnage of goods traded makes up the volume. However, services traded cannot be measured in tonnage. Therefore, the total value of goods and services traded is considered to be the volume of trade.
• Composition of Trade: It refers to the items of which trade consists of. The nature of goods and services imported and exported by countries have undergone changes during the last centuiy. Trade of primary products was dominant in the beginning of the last centuiy. Later manufactured goods gained prominence. Service sector which includes travel, transportation and other commercial services have been showing an upward trend
• Direction of Trade: It refers to the countries with which a country has trade relations. Like India’s majority of trade was with UK during colonial rule. The developing countries of the present used to export valuable goods and artefacts, etc., which were exported to European countries. During the 19th century there was a reversal in the direction of trade. European countries started exporting manufactured goods for exchange of foodstuffs and raw materials from their colonies. Europe and U.S.A. emerged as major trade partners in the world and were leaders in the trade of manufactured goods. The world trade pattern underwent a sea change during the second half of the twentieth century. Europe lost its colonies while India, China and other developing countries started competing with developed countries.

Q7.Distinguish between inland port and out port.
Answer:

Inland Ports,	Out Ports
(i) These ports are located away from the sea coast. They are linked to the sea through a river or a canal.	(i) These are deep water ports built away from the actual ports.
(ii) Such ports are accessible to flat bottom ships or barges.	(ii) These serve the parent ports by receiving those ships which are unable to approach them due to their large size.
(iii) For example, Manchester is linked with a canal; Memphis is located on the river Mississippi; Kolkata is located on the river Hoogli.	(iii) Classic combination, for example, is Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.What factors influence the mode of transportation?
Answer:
The significance of a mode depends on the type of goods and services to be transported, costs of transport and the mode available. International movement of goods is handled by ocean freighters. Road transport is cheaper and faster over short distances and for door-to door services. Railways are most suited for large volumes of bulky materials over long distance within a country. High-value, light and perishable goods are best moved by airways. In a well-managed transport system, these various modes complement each other.

Q2.Suggest steps for better urban transport solution.
Answer:
For better urban transport system, the following can be adopted:

• Mass rapid transit (MRT)
• Improved public bus service
• Expressways
• Car pool
• Higher parking fees
• Government measures like odd-even car system to regulate traffic flow.

Q3.Write a short note on Trans Canadian railways?
Answer:
Trans Canadian railway is 7050km long and runs from Halifax in the east to Vancouver to the West, through Montreal, Ottawa and Winnipeg. It was initially constructed as a part of an agreement to make British Columbia on the West coast join federation of states.

It gained economic significance because it connected the Quebec-Montreal industrial region with the wheat belt of the Prairie region, and the coniferous forest region in the north, thus making each of them complimentary to the other. A loop line connects it to the important waterways of the world. It is the economic artery of Canada, and wheat and meat are important exports on this route.

Q4.What are the steps for modernization of waterways?
Answer:
Modem passenger liners (ships) and cargo ships are equipped with radar, wireless and other navigation aids. The development of refrigerated chambers for perishable goods, tankers and specialized ships has also improved cargo transport. The use of containers has made cargo handling at the world’s major ports easier. The sea routes are the cheapest means of transportation for bulky material over long distance as it doesn’t require route construction and maintenance.

Q5.What are the factors on which development of inland waterways depend?
Answer:
Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas have been important waterways since time immemorial. Boats and steamers are used as means of transport for cargo and passengers. The development of inland waterways is dependent on the navigability width and depth of the channel, continuity in the water flow, and transport technology in use. Rivers are the only means of transport in dense forests. Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber and metallic ores can be transported through inland waterways.

Q6.What are the problems faced by inland waterways?
Answer:
Though in the ancient times, rivers were the main highways of inland transportation, but they lost importance because of competition from railways, lack of water due to diversion of water for irrigation and their poor maintenance.

Q7.How are rivers modified to enhance their navigability?
Answer:
Many rivers have been modified to enhance their navigability by dredging, stabilising river banks and building dams and barrages for regulating the flow of water.

Q8.Write a note on Danube waterway.
Answer:
This important inland waterway serves Eastern Europe. The Danube river rises in the Black Forest and flows eastwards through many countries. It is navigable up to Tauma Severin. The chief export items are wheat, maize, timber and machinery.

Q9.Write a note on Volga waterway.
Answer:
Russia has a large number of developed waterways, of which the Volga is one of the most important. It provides a navigable waterway of 11,200 km and drains into the Caspian Sea. The Volga- Moscow Canal connects it with the Moscow region and the Volga-Don Canal with the Black Sea.

Q10.Write a note on railways in Australia.
Answer:
Australia has about 40,000 km of railways, of which 25 per cent are found in New South Wales alone. The Australian Trans continental railway rail¬line runs west-east across the southern part of the continent from Perth on the west coast, to Sydney on the east coast passing through Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and Port Augusta. Another major north- south line connects Adelaide and Alice Spring and to be joined further to the Darwin-Birdum line.

Q11.Write a note on the union and pacific railway.
Answer:
This rail-line connects New York on the Atlantic Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast passing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The most valuable exports on this route are ores, grain, paper, chemicals and machinery.

Q12.What is the Orient express?
Answer:
This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, Budapest and Belgrade. The journey time from London to Istanbul by this Express is now reduced to 96 hours as against 10 days by the sea-route. The chief exports on this rail-route are cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, and machinery.

Q13.Describe some of the important highways of the world.
Answer:
Important highways of the world:

• Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver with St. John’s city.
• Alaskan Highway links Edmonton to Anchorage.
• North American highways link cities of east coasts with that of west coasts.
• Trans-Continental Stuart Highway connects Darwin and Melbourne.
• Pan – American Highway links cities of South America, Central America, and the USA-Canada.
• Golden Quadrilateral in India links metropolitan cities.
• Moscow-Vladiostok Highway serves the east region.
• Highways criss-cross China connecting all major cities.
• Highways join Algiers to Conakry in Africa.

Q14.How many types of railway tracks are there?
Answer:
The railway gauges vary in different ‘ countries and are roughly classified as broad (more than 1.5m), standard (1.44 m), metre gauge (1 m) and smaller gauges. The standard gauge is used in the U.K.

Q15.Explain the importance of trade, transport and communication.
Answer:

• They link the areas of production with areas of consumption.
• They reduce distance between places of natural resources, manufacturing and market.
• They facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and services and people.
• Today’s world economy heavily depends on efficient trade, transport and communication.
• High living standard and quality of life depend on efficient transport, communication and trade.
• It promotes cooperation and unity among scattered peoples.

Q16.Name the longest highway of India. Which other highways are under construction?
Answer:
National Highway No. 7 (NH 7), connecting Varanasi with Kanyakumari, is the longest highway in the country. The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway is underway to connect the six metropolitan cities — New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad.

Q17.What are the important railway routes of African continent?
Answer:
The important routes of the continent are:

• The Beneguela Railway through Angola to Katanga-Zambia Copper Belt
• The Tanzania Railway from the Zambian Copper Belt to Dar-es-Salaam on the coast.
• The Railway through Botswana and Zimbabwe linking the landlocked states to the South African network and
• The Blue Train from Cape Town to Pretoria in the Republic of South Africa.

Q18.Write a short note on inter-continental airways.
Answer:
In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a distinct east-west belt of inter-continental air routes. Dense network exists in Eastern U.S.A., Western Europe and Southeast Asia. The U.S.A. alone accounts for 60 per cent of the airways of the world. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago are the nodal points where air routes converge or diverge to all continents.

Q19.Bring out the significance of highways in Europe.
Answer:
Europe has a large number of vehicles and a well-developed highway network. But highways face a lot of competition from railways and waterways. In Russia, a dense highway network is developed in the industrialized region west of the Urals with Moscow as the hub. The important Moscow-Vladivostok Highway serves the region to the east. Due to the vast geographical area highways in Russia are not as important as railways.

Q20.Why is the North Atlantic sea route significant?
Answer:
This links North-eastern U.S.A. and Northwestern Europe, the two industrially developed regions of the world. The foreign trade over this route is greater than that of the rest of the world combined. One fourth of the world’s foreign trade moves on this route. It is, therefore, the busiest in the world and otherwise, called the Big Trunk Route. Both the coasts have highly advanced ports and harbour facilities.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.What are advantages and disadvantages of road transport?
Answer:
Advantages:

• Most economical for short distance compared to railways.
• Freight transport by road is gaining importance as it offers door to door service.
• Roads are cheaper, easier and simple to construct and maintain than the railways.
• They can be taken through any terrains and negotiate bends unlike railways..
• Since railways cannot be taken to every corner, so roads play an important role in nation’s trade and commerce and for promoting tourism.

Disadvantages:

• Unmetalled roads are not effective and serviceable throughout the year, even the metalled roads become unmotorable during heavy rains and floods.
• Carrying capacity of roadways per vehicle is much lower than the railways.
• The quality of roads in the developing countries is not good as it requires heavy investment for construction and maintenance.
• City roads suffer from chronic traffic congestion. As a result of this most of the cities face the problem of traffic congestion.

Q2.Write a note on North American highways.
Answer:
In North America, highway density is high, about 0.65 km per sq km. Eveiy place is within 20 km distance from a highway. Cities located on the Pacific coast (west) are well-connected with those of the Atlantic Coast (east). Likewise, the cities of Canada in the north are linked with those of Mexico in the south. The Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver in British Columbia (west coast) to St. John’s City in Newfoundland (east coast) and the Alaskan Highway links Edmonton (Canada) to Anchorage (Alaska). The Pan-American Highway, a large portion of which has been constructed, will connect the countries of South America, Central America and U.S.A.-Canada.

Q3.Write a note on highways in Asia.
Answer:
In China, highways criss-cross the country connecting all major cities such as Tsungtso (near Vietnam boundary), Shanghai (central China), Guangzhou (south) and Beijing (north). A new highway links Chengdu with Lhasa in Tibet.

In India, there are many highways linking the major towns and cities. For example, National Highway No. 7 (NH 7), connecting Varanasi with Kanyakumari, is the longest in the country. The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway is underway to connect the six metropolitan cities — New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad. In Asia, highway network is most developed in India and China.

Q4.Write a note on railways in North America.
Answer:
North America has one of the most extensive rail networks accounting for nearly 40 per cent of the world’s total. In contrast to many European countries, the railways are used more for long-distance bulky freight like ores, grains, timber and machinery than for passengers. The most dense rail network is found in the highly industrialized and urbanized region of East Central U.S.A. and adjoining Canada. In Canada, railways are in the public sector and distributed all over the sparsely populated areas. The transcontinental railways carry the bulk of wheat and coal tonnage.

Q5.Give five important points on railways in Europe.
Answer:
Europe has one of the most dense rail networks in the world. There are about 4,40,000 km of railways, most of which is double or multiple-tracked. Belgium has the highest density of 1 km of railway for every 6.5 sq kms area. The industrial regions exhibit some of the highest densities in the world. The important rail heads are London, Paris, Brussels, Milan, Berlin and Warsaw.

Passenger transport is more important than freight in many of these countries. Underground railways are important in London and Paris’. Channel Tunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel Group through England, connects London with Paris. Trans-continental railway lines have now lost their importance to quicker and more flexible transport systems of airways and roadways.

In Russia, railways account for about 90 per cent of the country’s total transport with a very dense network west of the Urals. Moscow is the most important rail head with major lines radiating to different parts of the country’s vast geographical area. Underground railways and commuter trains are also important in Moscow. The Trans-Siberian railways and the Orient express are some of the important railways in the Europe.

Q6.Give the advantages of water transport.
Answer:
90-95% of the international trade is carried out through water transport. The energy cost of water transportation is lower. The oceans offer a smooth highway traversable in all directions with no maintenance costs. Winds and oceans currents help in movement of the oceanic vessels thus reducing the fuel cost of transportation.

Compared to land and air, ocean transport is a cheaper means of haulage (carrying of load) of bulky material over long distances from one continent to another. Modern passenger liners (ships) and cargo ships are equipped with radar, wireless and other navigation aids. The development of refrigerated chambers for perishable goods, tankers and specialised ships has also improved cargo transport. The use of containers has made cargo handling at the world’s major ports easier.

Water transport is the only means of transportation in dense tropical forest where roads and railways cannot be constructed. It is also the main mode of transportation for people living on islands as it is economic.
One of the great advantages of water transportation is that it does not require route construction. The oceans are linked with each other and are negotiable with ships of various sizes. All that is needed is to provide port facilities at the two ends. It is much cheaper because the friction of water is far less than that of land. The energy cost of water transportation is lower. It is highly suitable for bulky and heavy commodities. It is eco friendly as ocean currents and winds help to a large extent in water transportation.

Q7.Write a note on the Mediterranean- Indian ocean sea route.
Answer:
This sea route passes through the heart of the Old World and serves more countries and people than any other route. Port Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo and Singapore are some of the important ports on this route. The construction of Suez canal has greatly reduced the distance and time as compared to the earlier route through the Cape of Good Hope. This trade route connects the highly industrialized Western European region with West Africa, South Africa, South-east Asia and the commercial agriculture and livestock economies of Australia and New Zealand. Before the construction of the Suez Canal this was the route connecting Liverpool and Colombo which was 6,400 km longer than the Suez Canal route. The volume of trade and traffic between both East and West Africa is on the increase due to the development of the rich natural resources such as gold, diamond, copper, tin, groundnut, oil palm, coffee and fruits.

Q8.Why cape of good hope sea route has less traffic?
Answer:
This sea route is another important one across the Atlantic Ocean which connects West European and West African countries with Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South America. The traffic is far less on this route because of the limited development and population in South America and Africa. Only southeastern Brazil and Plata estuary and parts of South Africa have large-scale industries. There is also little traffic on the route between Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town because both South America and Africa have similar products and resources.

Q9.Which canal has shortened the distance between Europe and Asia? Give five points on the canal.
Answer:
Suez canal has shortened the distance between Europe and Asia. This canal had been constructed in 1869 in Egypt between Port Said in the north and Port Suez in the south linking the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.

• It gives Europe a new gateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces direct sea- route distance between Liverpool and Colombo compared to the Cape of Good Hope route.
• It is a sea-level canal without locks which is about 160 km and 11 to 15m deep.
• About 100 ships travel daily and each ship takes 10-12 hours to cross this canal.
• The tolls are so heavy that some find it cheaper to go by the longer Cape Route whenever the consequent delay is not important.
• A railway follows the canal to Suez, and from Ismailia there is a branch line to Cairo.
• A navigable fresh-water canal from the Nile also joins the Suez Canal in Ismailia to supply fresh-water to Port Said and Suez.

Q10.Which canal has shortened the distance between eastern and western coasts of North America? What is its economic significance?
Answer:.
Panama canal has shortened the distance between eastern and western coasts of North America. This canal connects the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west.
Its economic significance are:

• The canal is about 72 km. long and involves a very deep cutting for a length of 12 km.
• It has a six lock system and ships cross the different levels (26 m up and down) through these locks before entering the Gulf of Panama.
• It shortens the distance between New York and San Francisco by 13,000 km by sea.
• Likewise the distance between Western Europe and the West-coast of U.S.A.; and North-eastern and Central U.S.A. and East and South-east Asia is shortened.
• The economic significance of this Canal is relatively less than that of the Suez. However, it is vital to the economies of Latin America.

Q11.Which is the most heavily used inland waterways in the world? Why is it important?
Answer:
Rhine waterway is the most heavily used inland waterways in the world. The Rhine flows through Germany and the Netherlands. It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam, at its mouth in the Netherlands to Basel in Switzerland. Ocean-going vessels can reach up to Cologne. The Ruhr river joins the Rhine from the east. It flows through a rich coalfield and the whole basin has become prosperous manufacturing area. Dusseldorf is the Rhine port for this region. Huge tonnage moves along the stretch south of the Ruhr. This waterway is the world’s most heavily used. Each year more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and 2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargoes. It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands with the North Atlantic Sea Route.

Q12.What are advantages and disadvantages of air transport?
Answer:
Advantages:

• It is the fastest means of transportation.
• Comfortable for long distance travel.
• Suitable for rapid movement of valuable and perishable cargo.
• It is the only means to reach inaccessible area.
• It is also highly effective during emergency like when routes get blocked due to landslides, avalanches, flood etc.. Strategically airways are very significant.

Disadvantages:

• Costly, not within reach of poor people.
• It is also expensive to maintain aircraft as well as the airports.
• It’s operation dependent on the weather conditions.
• Construction of airports is limited by certain physical constrains.

Q13.What are pipelines? Give the advantages and disadvantages of pipeline transportation.
Answer:
Pipelines are used to transport liquids like water, oil, gas for uninterrupted flow.
Advantages:

• It can be taken through any terrain.
• The initial cost is high but the maintenance cost is low.
• It is eco friendly as it requires no fuel.
• It’s operation is not affected by unwanted human intervention.

Disadvantages:

• Solids cannot be transported.
• Any undetected leakage leads to wastage.

Q14.What is cyberspace? Write a note on it.
Answer:
Cyberspace is the world of electronic computerized space. It is encompassed by the Internet such as the World Wide Web (www). In simple words, it is the electronic digital world for communicating or accessing information over computer networks without physical movement of the sender and the receiver. It is also referred to as the Internet. Cyberspace exists everywhere. It may be in an office, sailing boat, flying plane and virtually anywhere. As billions use the Internet each year, cyberspace will expand the contemporary economic and social space of humans through e-mail, e-commerce, e-leaming and e-governance. Internet together with fax, television and radio will be accessible to more and more people cutting across place and time. It is these modem communication systems, more than transportation, that has made the concept of global village a reality.

Q15.Which hemisphere is served more by the air transport? Why there is less development of it in the other hemisphere?
Answer:
Northern hemisphere is served more by the air transport. In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a distinct east-west belt of inter-continental air routes. Dense network exists in Eastern U.S.A., westren Europe and Southeast Asia. U.S.A. alone accounts for 60 per cent of the airways of the world. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago are the nodal points where air routes converge or radiate to all continents. Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and South America lack air services. There are limited air services between 10-35 latitudes in the Southern hemisphere, due to sparser population, limited landmass and economic development.

Q16.Write a note on railways in Asia.
Answer:
In Asia, rail network is the most dense in the thickly populated areas of Japan, China and India. Other countries have relatively few rail routes. West Asia is the least developed in rail facilities because of vast deserts and sparsely populated regions. One of the most important railways of Asia is trans-Siberian Railways, a major rail route of Russia which runs from St. Petersburg in the west to Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast in the east passing through Moscow, Ufa, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Chita and Khabarovsk. It is the most important route in Asia and the longest (9,332 km) double-tracked and electrified trans-continental railway in the world.

It has helped in opening up its Asian region to West European markets. It runs across the Ural Mountains Ob and Yenisei rivers. Chita is an important agro-centre and Irkutsk, a fur centre. There are connecting links to the south, namely, to Odessa (Ukraine), Baku on the Caspian Coast, Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Ulan Bator (Mongolia), and Shenyang (Mukden) and Beijing in China. There is a proposal to build Trans Asiatic railway linking Istanbul with Bangkok via Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Myanmar.

Q17.What is the latest development in the field of communication?
Answer:
Over the years human beings have used different methods long-distance communications of which the telegraph and the telephone were important. Even today, the telephone is the most commonly used mode. In developing countries, the use of cell phones, made possible by satellites, is important for rural connectivity. Today there is a phenomenal pace of development. The first major breakthrough is the use of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced with mounting competition, telephone companies all over the world soon upgraded their copper cable systems to include optic fiber cables.

These allow large quantities of data to be transmitted rapidly, securely, and are virtually error- free. With the digitisation of information in the 1990’s, telecommunication slowly merged with computers to form integrated networks termed as Internet. Internet is the largest electronic network on the planet connecting about 1,000 million. As billions use the Internet each year, cyberspace will expand the contemporary economic and social space of humans through e-mail, e-commerce, e-learning and e-governance. Internet together with fax, television and radio will be accessible to more and more people cutting across place and time. It is these modem communication systems, more than transportation, that has made the concept of global village a reality.

Q18.Air transport has made world a global village. How? Also explain the significance of air transport.
Answer:
Air transport has brought about a connectivity revolution in the world in many ways. It is the fastest mode of transport. It is because of air transport that there is no place in the world which is more than 35 hours away. Significance of air transport can be understood as follows:

(a) Economic Significance:

• Air transport is used only for high value goods and passengers.
• Valuable goods can be moved rapidly.
• It is preferred for long distance travel.
• It is the easiest way to reach inaccessible areas such as mountainous snowfields or inhospitable deserts. In the Himalayan region, the routes are often obstructed due to landslides, avalanches or heavy snowfall. At such times, air travel is the only alternative to reach a place.

(b) Airways also have great strategic importance:

• Airports with wide facilities have to be built.
• The construction of airports and facilities is very costly. Therefore airports are built in places where the traffic is large.
• It requires large arrangements such as hanger, fuelling, landing facilities.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.What are the components of tertiary activity?
Answer:
Tertiary activities includes both production and exchange. Production includes the provision of services that are consumed. The output is indirectly measured in terms of wages and salaries. Exchange involves trade, transport and communication facilities that are used to overcome distance. Tertiary activities involve the commercial output of services rather than the production of tangible goods. Examples include work of a technician, driver, lawyer, administrator, publisher, etc

Q2.With examples, explain retail trading service.
Answer:
This is the business activity concerned with the sale of goods directly to the consumers. Most of the retail trading takes place in fixed establishments or stores solely devoted to selling. Street peddling, handcarts, trucks, door-to-door, mail-order, telephone, automatic vending machines and internet are examples of non-store retail trading.

Q3.How is transport distance measured?
Answer:
Transport is a service or facility by which people, materials and manufactured goods are physically carried,from one location to another. Transport, distance can be measured as: km distance or actual distance of route length; time distance or the time taken to travel on a particular route; and cost distance or the expense of travelling on a route. In selecting the mode of transport, distance, in terms of time or cost, is the determining factor.

Q4.Enlist the factors that affect transport services.
Answer:
Demand for transport is influenced by the size of population. The larger the population size, the greater is the demand for transport. Routes depend on: location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centres and raw materials, pattern of trade between them, nature of the landscape between them, type of climate, and funds available for overcoming obstacles along the length of the route.

Q5.What are the factors that affect tourism?
Answer:
Factors affecting tourism are:
Demand: Since the last century, the demand for holidays has increased rapidly. Improvements in the standard of living and increased leisure time, permit many more people to go on holidays for leisure. Transport: The opening-up of tourist areas has been aided by improvement in transport facilities. Travel is easier by car, with better road systems. More significant in recent years has been the expansion in air transport. For example, air travel allows one to travel anywhere in the world in a few hours of flying time from their homes. The advent of package holidays has reduced the costs.

Q6.What is outsourcing? Why do some countries outsource their work? What is its outcome?
Answer:
Outsourcing or contracting out is giving work to an outside agency to improve efficiency and to reduce cost. Some of the developed countries
outsource their work because of high wages in their own countries compared to the developing countries which offer similar services at a much cheaper rate. So for optimal use of resource and to maximize profit, these companies outsource their work to overseas location (offshoring). Example; Data processing is an IT related service which can be easily carried out in Asian, East European countries where IT skill staff with good English language are available at a much lower wages. Also overhead costs are much lower, making it all the more profitable.

Q7.Define Medical Tourism. Which countries are gaining from Medical Tourism? How does it help?
Answer:
When medical treatment is combined with international tourism activity, it is commonly known as medical tourism. India has emerged as a leading center with world class hospitals in the metro cities. Medical tourism brings huge benefits to the developing countries like India, Thailand. There is also the trend of outsourcing the medical tests and data interpretation, and some centers in India, Switzerland and Australia carry on some medical services like reading of radiology images, to interpreting MRI’s and ultrasound tests. It is advantageous to patients as it provides better quality and specialized care.

Q8.What is meant by digital divide? Why does it vary inter-country and intra country?
Answer:
Opportunities emerging from the Information and Communication Technology based development is unevenly distributed across the globe. There are wide ranging economic, political and social differences among countries. How quickly countries can provide ICT access and benefits to its citizens is the deciding factor. While developed countries in general have surged forward, the developing countries have lagged behind and this is known as the digital divide. Similarly digital divides exist within countries. For example, in a large country like India or Russia, it is inevitable that certain areas like metropolitan centers posses^ better connectivity an access to the digital world versus peripheral rural areas.

Q9.Explain the following terms:
Answer:

• Network: With the development of transport system, different places . are linked together to form a network. They are formed of nodes and links. A developed network has many links, which means that places are well connected.
• Node: A node is the meeting point of two or more routes, point of origin, a point of destination, or any sizeable town along the route.
• Link: Every road that joins two nodes is called a link.

Q10.What are the factors of tourist attractions?
Answer:
Climate: Most people from colder regions expect to have warm, sunny weather for beach holidays. This is one of the main reasons for the importance of tourism in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean lands. The Mediterranean climate offers almost consistently higher temperatures, than in other parts of Europe, long hours of sunshine and low rainfall throughout the peak holiday season. People taking winter holidays have specific climatic requirements, either higher temperatures than their own homelands, or snow cover suitable for skiing.

Landscape: Many people like to spend their holidays in an attractive environment, which often means mountains, lakes, spectacular sea coasts and landscapes not completely altered by man.

History and Art: The history and art of an area have potential attractiveness. People visit ancient or picturesque towns and archaeological sites, and enjoy exploring castles, palaces and churches. Culture and Economy: These attract tourists with a penchant for experiencing ethnic and local custom. Besides, if a region provides for the needs of tourists at a cheap cost, it is likely to become very popular. Home-stay has emerged as a profitable business such as heritage homes in Goa, Madikere and Coorg in Karnataka.

Q11.How tourism has become the single largest tertiary activity?
Answer:
Tourism has become the single largest activity in the total registered jobs and total revenue because:

• It not only serves the purpose of recreation but also it provides employment to many local people. They provide services like transport, accommodation, entertainment and other services.
• Tourism fosters the growth of infra¬structure industries, retail trading and craft industry.
• It also increases national income.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.What are trading centers? Write a note on trading centers of the world?
Answer:
Trading centers are the towns and cities where buying and selling of items take place, which were produced elsewhere. Trading center may be rural and urban. Rural marketing centers cater to nearby settlements, these are semi urban centers of rudimentary type and act as local collecting and distributing centers. Personal and professional services are not well developed here, but they are important to cater to the basic demand of rural people. In rural areas periodic markets are also organized, these markets are held on specified days and move from place to place.

Urban trading centers provide specialized services, along with the ordinary goods and services required by the people. They provide manufactured goods and as well as many specialized markets offer like labour, housing, etc. Specialized service of lawyers, doctors, veterinary services, consultants of different professions are also available. Retail trading also takes place through specialized stores like cooperative stores, departmental stores and chain stores.

Q2.Write a note on Telecommunication services and its importance.
Answer:
Telecommunication is generally distance communication and it’s use is directly linked to the development of modem technology. It has revolutionized communications because of the speed with which messages are sent. The time reduced is from weeks to minutes. Besides, the recent advancements like mobile telephone have made communications direct and instantaneous at any time and from anywhere. The telegraph, morse code and telex have almost become things of the past. Radio and television also help to relay news, pictures, and telephone calls to vast audiences around the world and hence they are termed as mass media. They are vital for advertising and entertainment. Newspapers are able to cover events from all corners of the world. Satellite communication relays information of the earth and from space. The internet has truly revolutionized the global communication system.

Q3.With examples show the importance of tourism in the world today.
Answer:
Tourism is travel undertaken for purposes of recreation rather than business. It has become the world’s single largest tertiaiy activity in total registered jobs (250 million) and total revenue (40 per cent of the total GDP). Besides, many local persons, are employed to provide services like accommodation, meals, transport, entertainment and special shops serving the tourists. Tourism fosters the growth of infrastructure industries, retail trading, and craft industries (souvenirs). In some regions, tourism is seasonal because the vacation period is dependent on favorable weather conditions, but many regions attract visitors all the year round.

The warmer places around the Mediterranean Coast and the West Coast of India are some of the popular tourist destinations in the world. Others include winter sports regions, found mainly in mountainous areas, and various scenic landscapes and national parks, which are scattered. Historic towns also attract tourists, because of the monument, heritage sites and cultural activities. All these regions benefited from tourism through the development of infrastructure industries, retail trading, craft industries in their respective regions.

Q4.Write a note on the Quinary activities & their importance in today’s world.
Answer:
The highest level of decision makers or policy makers perform quinary activities. Quinary activities are services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and existing ideas; data interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies. Often referred to as ‘gold collar’ professions, they represent another subdivision of the tertiary sector representing special and highly paid skills of senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc. Their importance in the structure of advanced economies far outweighs their numbers.

Q5.Explain the similarities and differences between quaternary and quinary activities.
Answer:
In order to understand the similarities between the two, let us first look at their features:
Features of Quaternary Activities:

• These services are advanced and specialized economic activities and are concern mainly with information processing, research and development,
• Offer high income.
• These services are mainly concentrated in fast growing developed countries with specialized knowledge, technical skills, and administrative competence.
• It belongs to service sector that is knowledge oriented and can also be outsourced. They are not tied to resources, affected by the environment, or necessarily localized by market. Features of Quinary Activities:
• Quinary activities are the services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and existing ideas, data and technologies.

Q6.Differentiate the following:
(a) Tertiary Activities and Secondary Activities.
(b) Rural Marketing Centres and Urban Marketing Centres
(c) Retail and Wholesale Trading Services
(d) BPO ahd KPO
(e) Communication and Telecommunication
Answer:
(a) Tertiary Activities and Secondary Activities:

Tertiary Activities	Secondary Activities
(i) They rely more heavily on specialised skills, experience and knowledge of the workers	(i) They rely on the production techniques, machinery and factory processes.
(ii) They involve the commercial output of services.	(ii) They involve the production of tangible goods.
(iii) They are not directly involved in the processing of physical raw materials	(iii) They are directly involved in the processing of physical raw materials

(b) Rural Marketing Centres and Urban Marketing Centres:

Rural Marketing Centres	Urban Marketing Centres
(i) Rural marketing centre provide facility to nearby settlements.	(i) Urban marketing centre provide facility to wide services to large areas.
ii) Rural centres are mos,tly rudimentary type.	(ii) Urban centres offer specialised services.
(iii) Personal and professional services are developed in rural centres.	(iii) They are highly developed in urban centres.
(iv) They act as a local collecting and distributing centres.	(iv) They provide services beyond cities at national or international levels

(c) Retail and Wholesale Trading Services:

Retail Trading	Wholesale Trading
(i) Rural marketing centres provide facility to the nearby settlements	(i) This is the business activity concerned with the bulk selling of goods through merchants and the supply-houses.
(ii) Retailers act as intermediaries between wholesaler and customer	(ii)  Wholesalers act as intermediaries between retail stores and manufacturers.
(iii) It is done through fixed stores- large shops as well as through non-stores-street peddling, door- to-door, mail-order, telephone, automatic vending machines and internet.	(iii) It is always through fixed place
(iv) Retailers generally do not give credit to their customers.	(iv) Wholesalers also give credit to retail stores.

(d) BPO ahd KPO:

BPO	KPO
(i) It stands for Business Processing Outsourcing.	(i) It stands for Knowledge Processing Outsourcing.
(ii) It is outsourcing of business activities such as customer care.	(ii) It is information driven Knowledge Outsourcing.
(iii) The BPO industry involves relatively less high skilled workers as compared to KPO.	(iii) The KPO industry involves more high skilled workers.
(I (iv) BPO enables companies to reduce cost and increase efficiency.	(iv) KPO enables companies to create additional business opportunities.
(v) Examples: data processing, accounting services, call centres and customer support.	(v) Examples: research and development (R and D) activities, e-learning, business research, intellectual property (IP), research, legal profession and the banking sector.

(e) Communication and Telecommunication:

Communication	Telecommunication
(i) It refers to the transmitting of messages, facts and ideas either by words-oral or written; or through body or para language.	(i) It refers to communication using electronic technology.
(ii) It can be in two forms—visual or audio. It has not made much progress.	(ii) It has made a great progress due to improvement in technology.
(iii) These were actually carried by hand, boat, animals, road, rail and air. Therefore, all lines of transport are also called lines of communication.	(iii) They are carried through satellites and has reduced time of communication from minutes to seconds and then to instantaneous.
(iv) It includes mail, telephonic conversations and face to face conversation.	(iv) It includes radio, television, newspapers, etc.
(v) It takes more time.	(v) It is less time consuming.
(vi) It is used for personal and business purposes.	(vi) It is used for marketing, public awareness and entertainment.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1.What are footloose industries?
Answer:
Footloose industries can be located in a wide variety of places. They are not dependent on any specific raw material, weight losing or otherwise. They largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere. They produce in small quantity and also employ a small labour force. These are generally not polluting industries. The important factor in their location is accessibility by road network.

Q2.Discuss three sub-sectors of cotton textile industry.
Answer:
Cotton textile industry has three sub¬sectors i.e. handloom, power loom and mill sectors.

• Hand loom sector is labour intensive and provides employment to semi skilled workers. It requires small capital investment. This sector involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics.
• The powerloom sector introduces machines and becomes less labour intensive and the volume of production increases.
• Cotton textile mill sector is highly capital intensive and produces fine clothes in bulk.

Q3.What is an industry? Classify industry based on output.
Answer:
An industry is a geographically located manufacturing unit maintaining books of accounts and, records under a management system. As the term industry is comprehensive, it is also used as synonymous with ‘manufacturing’. When one uses terms like ‘steel industry’ and ‘chemical industry’ one thinks of factories and processes. Based on output there are two types of industries:

• Basic industries: The industry whose products are used to make other goods by using them as raw materials are basic industries. Eg. Iron and steel industry for making machineries for textile industries to make clothes.
• Consumer goods industries: The consumer goods industries produced goods which are consumed by consumers directly. Example, industries producing breads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries, paper for writing, televisions, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic industries.

Q4.Classify industry based on ownership.
Answer:
Based on ownership, industries are classified as:

• Public Sector Industries are owned and managed by government. In India, there were a number of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs). Socialist countries have many state owned industries. Mixed economies have both Public and Private sector enterprises.
• Private Sector Industries are owned by individual investors. These are managed by private organisations. In capitalist countries, industries are generally owned privately.
• Joint Sector Industries are managed by joint stock companies or sometimes the private and public sectors together establish and manage the industries.

Q5.What are the characteristics of traditional large scale industrial region?
Answer:
Traditional large scale industrial regions are based on heavy industry, often located near coal-fields and engaged in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacture or textile production. These industries are now known as smokestack industries. Traditional industrial regions can be recognized by:

• High proportion of employment in manufacturing industry. High-density housing, often of inferior type, and poor services. Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, waste heaps, and so on.
• Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict land areas caused by closure of factories because of a worldwide fall in demand.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Discuss the major trends of modern industrial activities especially in the developed countries of the world.
Answer:
Traditional large scale industries were based on heavy industry, often located near coal-fields and engaged in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacture or textile production. These industries are now known as smokestack industries. With modernization, there has been changes in industrial sector which have led to the decay of some areas, and there are problems of industrial waste and pollution. The future prosperity of these traditional areas has shifted from their traditional activities to high technology, or simply high-tech, which is the latest generation of manufacturing activities. It is best understood as the application of intensive research and development (R and D) efforts leading to the manufacture of products of an advanced scientific and engineering character.

Robotics on the assembly line, computer- aided design (CAD) and manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting and refining processes, and the constant development of new chemical and pharmaceutical products are notable examples of a high-tech industry. Neatly spaced, low, modem, dispersed, office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive assembly structures, factories and storage areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape. The Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle are examples of technopolies. The traditional industrial regions have shifted their focus from traditional large scale industries to assembly plants (footloose industries), new chemical plants, universities, out of town shopping centres etc.

Q2.Give a brief account on the following:
(a) Iron and Steel industry
(b) Cotton Textile Industry
Answer:
(a) The iron and steel industry:
It forms the base of all other industries and, therefore, it is called a basic industry. It is basic because it provides raw material for other industries such as machine tools used for further production. It may also be called a heavy industry because it uses large quantities of bulky raw materials and its products are also heavy. Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and limestone. The molten iron is cooled and moulded to form pig iron which is used for converting into steel by adding strengthening materials like manganese. The large integrated steel industry is traditionally located close to the sources of raw materials – iron ore, coal, manganese and limestone – or at places where these could be easily brought, e.g. near ports. But in mini steel mills access to markets is more important than inputs.

Distribution: This industry is one of the most complex and capital-intensive industries and is concentrated in the advanced countries of North America, Europe and Asia. In U.S.A, most of the production comes from the north
Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake region. The industry has also moved towards the southern state of Alabama. Pittsburg area is now losing ground. It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A. In Europe, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia are the leading producers. In Asia, the important centres include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama in Japan; Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan in China; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Bumpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India centres.

(b) Cotton textile industry:
Cotton textile industry has three sub¬sectors i.e. handloom, powerloom and mill sectors. Handloom sector is labour¬intensive and provides employment to semi-skilled workers. It requires small capital investment. This sector involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics. The powerloom sector introduces machines and becomes less labour intensive and the volume of production increases. Cotton textile mill sector is highly capital intensive and produces fine clothes in bulk. Cotton textile manufacturing requires good quality cotton as raw material. India, China, U.S.A, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt produce more than half of the world’s raw cotton. The U.K, NW European countries and Japan also produce cotton textile made from imported yam. Europe alone accounts for nearly half of the world’s cotton imports.

The industry has to face very stiff competition with synthetic fibres hence it has now shown a declining trend in many countries. With the scientific advancement and technological improvements the structure of industries changes. For example, Germany recorded constant growth in cotton textile industry since Second World War till the seventies but now it has declined. It has shifted to less developed countries where labour costs are low.

Q3.Define manufacturing. List the characteristics of modern large scale manufacturing.
Answer:
Manufacturing literally means “to make by hand’. However, now it includes goods ‘made by machines’. It is essentially a process which involves transforming raw materials into finished goods of higher value for sale in local or distant markets. Modern large scale manufacturing has the following characteristics: Specialization of Skills/Methods of Production: Under the ‘craft’ method factories produce only a few pieces which are made-to-order. So the costs are high. On the other hand, mass production involves production of large quantities of standardized parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.

Mechanization: Mechanization refers to using gadgets which accomplish tasks. Automation (without aid of human thinking during the manufacturing process) is the advanced stage of mechanization. Technological Innovation: Technological innovations through research and development strategy are an important aspect of modern manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combating pollution. Organisational Structure and Stratification: Modern manufacturing is characterized by:

• a complex machine technology
• extreme specialization and division of labour for producing more goods with less effort, and low costs
• vast capital
• large organisations
• executive bureaucracy.

Q4.Describe the factors that affect the location of industries.
Answer:
Major concentrations of modern manufacturing have flourished in a few number of places. These cover less than 10 per cent of the world’s land area. These nations have become the centres of economic and political power. Industries maximise profits by reducing costs. Therefore, industries should be located at points where the production costs are minimum. Some of the factors influencing industrial locations are as under: Access to Market: The existence of a market for manufactured goods is the most important factor in the location of industries. ‘Market’ means people who have a demand for these goods and also have the purchasing power (ability to purchase) to be able to purchase from the sellers at a place. Remote areas inhabited by a few people offer small markets. The developed regions of Europe, North America, Japan and Australia provide large global markets as the purchasing power of the people is very high. The densely populated regions of South and South-east Asia also provide large markets.

Access to Raw Material: Raw material used by industries should be cheap and easy to transport. Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material (ores) are located close to the sources of raw material such as steel, sugar, and cement industries. Perishability is a vital factor for the industry to be located closer to the source of the raw material. Agro-processing and dairy products are processed close to the sources of farm produce or milk supply respectively. Access to Labour Supply: Labour supply is an important factor in the location of industries. Some types of manufacturing still require skilled labour. Increasing mechanization, automation and flexibility of industrial processes have reduced the dependence of industry upon the labours. Access to Sources of Energy: Industries which use more power are located close to the source of the energy supply such as the aluminium industry. Earlier coal was the main source of energy, today hydroelectricity and petroleum are also important sources of energy for many industries.

Access to Transportation and Commu-nication Facilities: Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carry raw materials to the factory and to move finished goods to the market are essential for the development of industries. The cost of transport plays an important role in the location of industrial units. Communication is also an important need for industries for the exchange and management of information. Government Policy: Governments adopt ‘regional policies’ to promote ‘balanced’ economic development and hence set up industries in particular areas.
Access to Agglomeration Economies/ Links between Industries: Many industries benefit from nearness to a leader-industry and other industries. These benefits are termed as agglomeration economies. These factors operate together to determine industrial location.

Q5.Classify industry based on inputs. Ans. On the basis of the raw materials used, the industries are classified as:
(a) agro-based
(b) mineral based
(c) chemical based
(d) forest based and
(e) animal based.
Answer:
(a) Agro based Industries:
Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the farm into finished products for rural and urban markets. Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc. Food and Agro processing includes canning, producing cream, fruit processing and confectionary. While some preserving techniques, such as drying, fermenting and pickling, have been known since ancient times, these had limited applications to cater to the pre-industrial Revolution demands.
(b) Mineral based Industries:
These industries use minerals as a raw material. Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals which contain ferrous (iron), such as iron and steel industries but some use non-ferrous metallic minerals, such as aluminium, copper and jewellery industries. Many industries use non-metallic minerals such as cement and pottery industries.
(c) Chemical based Industries:
Such industries use natural chemical minerals, e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petrochemical industry. Salts, sulphur and potash industries also use natural minerals. Chemical industries are also based on raw materials obtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fibre, plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical based industries.
(d) Forest based raw Material using Industries:
The forests provide many major and minor products which are used as raw material. Timber for furniture industry, wood, bamboo and grass for paper industry, lac for lac industries come from forests.
(e) Animal based Industries:
Leather for leather industry and wool for woollen textiles are obtained from animals. Besides, ivory is also obtained from elephant’s tusks.

Q6.Give the characteristics of hightech industries.
Answer:
High technology, or simply high-tech, is the latest generation of manufacturing activities. It is best understood as the application of intensive research and development (R and D) efforts leading to the manufacture of products of an advanced scientific and engineering character. Professional (white collar) workers make up a large share of the total workforce. These highly skilled specialists greatly outnumber the actual production (blue collar) workers.

Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design (CAD) and manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting and refining processes, and the constant development of new chemical and pharmaceutical products are notable examples of a high-tech industry. Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed, office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive assembly structures, factories and storage areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape. Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups have become part of regional and local development schemes.

High-tech industries which are regionally concentrated, self-sustained and highly specialized are called technopolies. The Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle are examples of technopolies. Bangalore is known as Silicon Valley of India.

Q7.Distinguish between cottage industrie and small scale industries.
Answer:

Cottage Industry	Small Scale Industries
(i) It is the smallest manufacturing unit. Finished products may be for consumption in the same household or, for sale in local (village) markets, or, for barter.	(i) Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from household industries by its production techniques and place of manufacture (a workshop outside the home/cottage of the producer).
(ii) The artisans use local raw materials and simple tools to produce everyday goods in their homes with the help of their family members or part time labour.	(ii) This type of manufacturing uses local raw material, simple power-driven machines and semi-skilled labour.
(iii) Some common everyday products produced in this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from wood lot and forest, shoes, thongs and other articles from leather; pottery and bricks from clays and stones. Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and bronze. Some artefacts and crafts are made out of bamboo, wood obtained locally from theforests.	(iii) It provides employment and raises local purchasing power. Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia and Brazil, etc. have developed labour¬intensive small scale manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population.

Q8.Distinguish between small scale & large scale manufacturing industry.
Answer:

Small Scale Industries	Large Scale Industries
(i) Its manufacturing place (workshop) is outside the home/cottage of the producer.	(i) Large scale industry is totally market oriented industry, involving large scale production and technological advanced methods of production of goods in large factory set up.
(ii) It uses local raw material, simple power-driven machines and skilled labour.	(ii) It involves a large market, various raw materials, enormous energy, specialized workers, advanced technology, assembly-
(iii) Countries like India, China, Indonesia and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive small scale manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population.	(iii) This kind of manufacturing developed in the last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north-eastern U.S.A. and Europe.

Q9.Differentiate between Basic Industry and Consumer Goods industry
Answer:

Basic Industry	Consumer Goods Industry
(i) Industries whose products are used to produce other goods by using them as raw materials are called basic industries.(ii) Iron and steel industry produces steel which is used by other industries as a raw material to produce machines.	(i) Industries which produce goods for direct consumption are known as consumer goods industries.(ii) Tea, bread, soap and television which are used by consumers.

Q10.Differentiate between Private Sector Industry and Public Sector Industry
Answer:

Basic Industry	Consumer Goods Industry
(i) Industries owned and managed by an individual or a corporate body belongs to private sector. Individuals invest their own capital and they manage these industries themselves.(ii) Reliance Industries Limited	(i) When the ownership and management of an industry is in the hand of the state, it is called public sector industry.(ii) Bharat Heavy Electronics Limited

Q11.Differentiate between white collar worker and blue collar worker.
Answer:

White Collar Worker	Blue Collar Worker
(i) Those group of workers which is highly qualified and skilled and does mental work is called white collar worker.(ii) These workers enjoy high standard of living and better social status.	(i) Those group of workers which is not so qualified and skilled and does physical work is called blue collar worker.(ii) They get relatively lesser wages.