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In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 7 HUMAN MEMORY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON HUMAN MEMORY

Question 1. What is the meaning of the terms ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’?
Answer: Memory is conceptualized as a process consisting of three independent, though interrelated stages. These are:

1. Encoding:
   • It is the first stage which refers to a process by which information is recorded and registered for the first time so that it becomes usable by our memory system.
   • In encoding, incoming information is received and some meaning is derived.
2. Storage: It is the second stage of memory:
   •  Information which was encoded must also be stored so that it can be put to use later.
   • Storage refers to the process through which information is retained and held over a period of time.
3. Retrieval: It is the third stage of memory.
   •  Information can be used only when one is able to recover it from his/her memory.
   • Retrieval refers to bringing the stored information to his/her awareness so that it can be used for performing various cognitive tasks.

Question 2. How is information processed thrdugh sensory, short-term and long-term memory systems?
Answer: Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory also known as stage model of memory.

• This proposes the existence of three separate but sequentially linked memory systems, the sensory memory, the short-term memory and the long-term memory.
• The sensory memory—contains a fleeting impression of a sensory stimulus (a sight or a sound). It is initial process that preserve brief impression of stimuli. It has a large capacity. It is of very short duration that is less than a second.
• The short-term memory—a limited recollection of recently perceived stimuli (a telephone number or an order of drinks). It holds small amount of information for a brief periocfof time i.e. less than 30 seconds. It is primarily encoded acoustically.
• The long-term memory—a more or less permanent store of memories for later retrieval (e.g. our telephone numbers). In this stage informations are encoded semantically and storage capacity is unlimited.
• Each of these memory system is seen as differing in the way they process information, how much information they can hold and for how long they can hold that information.
  The model can be expressed in the following diagram:
  

Question 3. How are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals?
Answer:  Maintenance rehearsals:

• It is an important control process of STM.
• It is used to retain the information for as much time as required.
• As the name suggests these kinds of rehearsals simply maintain information through repetition and when such repetitions discontinue the information is lost.
• It is carried through silent or vocal repetition.

Elaborative rehearsals:

• From the STM information enters the long term memory through elaborative rehearsals.
• This rehearsal attempts to connect the “to be retained information” to the already existing information in long term memory.
  e.g. the task of remembering the meaning of the work “humanity” will be easier if the meaning of concepts such as “compassion”, “truth” and “benevolence” are already in place.
• In elaborate rehearsals, one attempts to analyse the information in terms of various information it arouses.
• Assignment of meaning and associations are formed. –
•  It involves organization of the incoming information in as many ways as possible e.g. we can expand the information in some kind of logical framework, link it to similar memories or else create a mental image.

Question 4. Differentiate between declarative and procedural memories.
Answer: Difference between declarative and procedural memories are following:
Declarative Memory

• All information pertaining to facts, names, date, such as rikshaw has three wheels or that India became independent on August 15,1947 or a frog is an amphibian or you and your friend share the same name are part of this.
• Facts retained in this memory are related to amenable to verbal descriptions.

Procedural Memory

•  It refers to memories relating to procedures of accomplishing various tasks, i.e. skill learning e.g. how to make tea, play basketball or drive a car. .
• Contents of this memory can not be described easily.

Question 5. Discuss the hierarchical organisation in long-term memory?
Answer:

• Allan Collins and Ross Quillian suggested that knowledge in long-term memory is organized in terms of concepts, categories and images and are organised hierarchically and assumes a network structure. Elements of this structure are called nodes.
• Nodes are concepts While connections between nodes are labelled relationships, which indicate category membership or concept attributes.
• According to this view, we can store all knowledge at a certain level that ‘applies to all the members of a category without having to repeat that information at the lower levels in the hierarchy’.
• This ensures a high degree of cognitive economy, which means maximum and efficient use of the capacity of long-term memory with minimum effort.
• Images: An image is a concrete form of representation which directly conveys the perceptual attributes of an object.
• All concrete objects generate images and the knowledge related to them is encoded both verbally as well as visually. This is known as dual coding hypothesis, originally proposed by Paivio. Such information can be recalled with greater ease.
• According to this hypothesis, concrete nouns and information related to concrete objects are images.
• Information related to abstract concepts assume a verbal and a descriptive code. For example, if you are asked to describe a bird, the first thing that happens is that an image of a bird is generated and based on this image, you describe a bird. But, on the other hand, the meanings of concepts like ‘truth’ or ‘honesty’ will not have such accompanying images.

Question 6. Why does forgetting take place?
Answer:  Each one of us has experienced forgetting and its consequences almost routinely. There | . are some reasons because of which we forget:

1.  It is because the information we commit to our long term memory is somehow lost.
2.  It is because we did not memorise it well enough.
3.  It is because we did not encode the information correctly or it is because during storage, it got distorted or misplaced.

There are theories which have been developed to explain forgetting:

1. Theory of forgetting developed by Hermann Ebbinghaus:
   According to him the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first nine hours,particularly during the first hour. After that, the rate slows down and not much is forgotten even after many days.
2.  Forgetting due to Trace decay:
   (a)Trace theory (also called disuse theory) is the earliest theory of forgetting.
   (b)The assumption here is that memory leads to modification in the central nervous system, which is akin to physical changes in the brain called “memory traces”. When these memory traces are not used for a long time, they simply fade away and become unavailable.
   Drawbacks:
   • If forgetting takes place because memory traces decay due to disuse, then people who go to sleep after memorizing should forget more compared to those who remain awake.
   • Those who remain awake after memorizing show greater forgetting than those , who sleep.
3. Forgetting due to interference:
   • The interference theory suggests that forgetting is due to interferences between various informations that the memory store contains.
   • Interference comes about at a time of retrieval when these various sets of associations compete with each other for retrieval.
     There are two kinds of interferences that may result in forgetting.
     (a) Proactive (forward moving): Proactive means what you have learnt earlier interferes with the recall of your subsequent learning. In other words, in proactive interference past learning interferes with the recall of later learning, e.g. If you know English and you find it difficult to learn French it is because of proactive interference.
     (b) Retroactive (backward moving): Retroactive refers to difficulty in recalling
     what you have learnt earlier because of learning a new material. In retroactive interference the later learning interferes with the recall of past learning.e.g. If you cannot recall English equivalents of French words that you are currently memorizing then it is because of retroactive interference.
     
4. Forgetting due to retrieval failure:
   • Forgetting can also occur because at the time of recall, either the retrieval cues are absent or they are inappropriate.
   • Retrieval cues are aids which help us in recovering information stored in the memory.
   • This view was advanced by “Tulving and his associates” who carried out several experiments to show that recall of content become poor either due to absence or inappropriateness of retrieval cues that are available /employed at the time of recall.
   • Without getting any cues one may recall a couple of them only but if the learner get cues like category names then the recall improves significantly.
     Category names may act as retrieval cues.

Question 7. How is retrieval related forgetting different from forgetting due to interference?
Answer:  According to Tulving retrieval cues are adds which help us in recovering information stored in the memory.

• Tulving said that contents of memory may become inaccessible either due to absence or inappropriatance of retrieval cues that are available at the time of recall.
• According to interference theory of forgetting we forget due to interference between various informations the memory store contains.
• According to this theory learning and memorizing involve forming of associations between items and these associations remain in the memory.

Question 8. What evidence do we have to say that ‘memory is a constructive process’?
Answer: “Bartlett” saw memory as a constructive and not a reproductive process.

1. He used the method of “serial reproduction” in which the participants of his experiments recalled the memory materials reportedly at varying time intervals.
   • While engaging in this method of learning material, his participants committed a wide variety of errors which Bartlett considered useful in understanding the process of memory construction.
2. Using meaningful materials such as texts, folk tales, fables etc.
   • He attempted to understand the manner in which content of any specific memory gets affects by a person’s knowledge, goals, motivation, preferences and various other psychological process.
3.  Schemas play an important role in the process of memorization. Schemas refer to an organization of past experiences and knowledge which influence the way in which incoming information is interpreted, stored and later retrieved.
   • Memory, therefore becomes encoded and is stored in terms of a person’s understanding and within his/her previous knowledge and expectations.

Question 9. Define Mnemonics? Suggest a plan to improve your own memory.
Answer:  All of us desire to possess an excellent dependable memory system. There are a number of strategies for improving memory called “mnemonics” (pronounced ni – mo-nicks) to help you improve your memory.
Some of these mnemonics involve use of images whereas others emphasise self- induced organization of learned information.
Mnemonics using Images: Mnemonics using images require that you create vivid and interacting images of and around the material you wish to remember. The two prominent mnemonic devices, which make use of images are following:

1. The Keyword Method: In this method, an English word that sounds similar to the word of a foreign language is identified. This English word will function as a keyword, e.g. If you want to remember the Spanish word for duck which is “pato” you may choose “pot” as the keyword and then evoke images of keyword and the target word (Spanish word) and imagine them as interacting. You might imagine a duck in a pot full of water.
   This method of learning words of a foreign language is much superior compared to any kind of rote memorization.
2. The Method of Loci:
   • This method is particularly helpful in remembering items in serial order.
   • It requires that you first visualize objects/places that you know well in a specific sequence, imagine the objects you want to remember and associate them one by one to the physical locations.
   • Suppose you want to remember bread, eggs, tomatoes and soap on your way to the market, you may visualize a loaf of bread and eggs placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on a table and soap in the bathroom. When you enter the market all you need to do is to take a mental walk along the route from your kitchen to the bathroom recalling all the items of your shopping list in a sequence.
3. Mnemonics using organization: Organization refers to imposing certain order on the material you want to remember. Mnemonics of this kind are helpful because the framework you create while organization makes the retrieval task fairly easy.
   (a)Chunking: In chunking, several smaller units are combined to form large chunks. For creating chunks, it is important to discover some organization principles, which can link smaller units. This method is very much used to improve short term memory.
   (b)First letter technique: For this method you need to pick up the first letter of each word you want to remember and arrange them to form another word or a sentence, e.g. colours of a rainbow are remembered in this way (VIBGYOR— that stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red).
   Drawbacks of mnemonics:
   (a)Mnemonics strategies for memory enhancement are too simplistic.
   (b)It underestimates complexities of memory tasks and difficulties people experience while memorizing.

More comprehensive approaches to memory improvement:
(a)Engage in Deep Level processing:

• “CRAIK and LOCKHART” have demonstrated that processing information in terms of meaning that they convey leads to better memory as compared to attending to their surface features.
• Deep processing would involve asking as many questions, related to the information as possible, considering its meaning and examining its relationships to the facts you already know.
• In this way, the information will become a part of your existing knowledge framework and the chances that it will be remembered are increased.

(b)Minimise interference: Maximum interference is caused when vary similar materials are learned in a sequence.

• To avoid this, Arrange your study in such a way that you do not learn similar subjects one after the other.
• Instead pick, up some other subject unrelated to the previous one. Give yourself rest periods while studying to minimize interference.

(c)Give yourself enough Retrieval cues: Cues will be easier to remember compared to the entire content and make link to the parts of the study material to these cues. Then this content will facilitate the retrieval process.
“THOMAS and ROBINSON” have developed another strategy to help students in remembering, more which they called the method of “PQRST”. It stands for Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation and the test.

• “Preview” refers to giving a cursory look at the chapter and familiarizing oneself with its contents.
• “Question” means raising questions and seeking answers from the lesion.
• “Read”—Now start Reading and look for answers of questions you have raised.
• “Self-recitation”—After reading try to rewrite what you have read.
• Test-At the end test how much you have been able to understand.

Question 10.Give two points of difference between Episodic and Semantic memory.

Answer:

Episodic Memory	Semantic Memory
Episodic memory contains biographical details of our lives.	Semantic memory, is the memory of general awareness and knowledge.
Memories relating to our personal life experiences constitute the episodic memory and it is for this reason that its contents are generally emotional in nature.	All concepts, ideas and rules of logic are stored in semantic memory.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 9 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

1. Explain the concept of motivation.
Answer
The term motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ referring to movement of activity. Thus it pushes an individual (organism) into activity.• It can be used to explain drives, needs, goals and incentives. Any behaviour is goal driven, demand persistent and often preferred or is in favour of one goal over the other.• It is individuals internal force which energises and directs the behaviour.
2. What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs?
Answer
Hunger:• The stimuli of hunger include stomach contractions, which signify that the stomach is empty.• A low concentration of glucose in the blood• A low level of protein and the amount of fats stored in the body.• The liver also responds to the lack of bodily fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain.• The aroma, taste or appearance of food may also result in a desire to eat.• They all in combination act with external factors (such as taste, colour by observing other’s eating, and the smell of food, etc.) to the help one understands that she/he is hungry.
Thirst:• When we are deprived of water for a period of several hours, the mouth and throat become dry, which leads to dehydration of body tissues.• Drinking water is necessary to wet a dry mouth.• The processes within the body itself control thirst and drinking of water.• Water must get into the tissues sufficiently to remove the dryness of mouth and throat.• Motivation to drink water is mainly triggered by the conditions of the body.• Loss of water from cells and reduction of blood volume.• When Water is lost by bodily fluids, water leaves the interior of the cells. The anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve impulses in case of cell dehydration. These nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst and drinking.
Ist View:• The mechanism which explains the intake of water is responsible for stopping the intake of water.
IInd View:• The role of stimuli resulting from the intake of water in the stomach have something to do with stopping of drinking water.• The precise physiological mechanisms underlying the thirst drive are yet to be understood.
3. How do the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power influence the behaviour of adolescents ? Explain with examples.
Answer
Needs for achievement:• It energies and directs behaviour as well as influences the perception of situations.• During the formative years of social development, children acquire achievement motivation. They learn it from their parents, other role models, and socio-cultural influences.• We are social being. We maintain some form of relationship with others. Nobody likes to remain alone all the time. Formation of group is an important feature of human life. It involves motivation for social contact.• Need for affiliation seeking other human beings and wanting to be close to them both physically and psychologically is called affiliation. It involves motivation for social contact.• It is aroused when individuals feel threatened or helpless and also when they are happy.• People high on this need are motivated to seek the company of others and to maintain friendly relationships with other people.• Need for power is an ability of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour and emotions of another person. The various goals of power motivation are to influence, control, persuade, lead and charm others.
4. What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain with suitable examples.
Answer
Abraham Maslow, a humanist psychologist proposed a hierarchy of needs in which human needs are arranged in a sequence from primitive to human. They are interrelated in the sense that when one need is fulfilled, the next one takes on the mind. At the lowest level are the physiological needs followed by the other higher level needs as given below:

• Physiological needs:These are needs which are basic for survival. They include such as hunger, thirst.
• Safety needs: The need to be free from any possible threat-both real and imaginary. It is of both physical and psychological nature.• Belongingness: Needs to belong, to affiliate, to love and to be loved by others. One can’t live alone and needs other’s company.• Esteem needs: Individual strives for the need for self-esteem to develop a sense of self worth once his belongingness needs are fulfilled.• Self-actualisation: It means to attain the fullest developments of one’s potential. Such people are self-aware, socially responsible, creative, spontaneous, open to novelty and change, has a sense of humour and capacity for deep interpersonal relationships.
5. Does physiological arousal precede or follow an emotional experience? Explain.
Answer
William James and Carl Lange argued that the perception about bodily changes, like rapid breathing, a pounding heart and running legs following an event, – brings forth emotional arousal. This theory of emotion holds that body’s reaction to a stimulus produces emotional reaction. The theory suggests that environmental stimuli elicit physiological responses from viscera (the internal organs like heart and lungs), which in turn, are associated with muscle movement.
James-Lange theory argues that your perception about your bodily changes, like rapid breathing, a pounding heart, and running legs, following an event, brings forth emotional arousal.The theory can be expressed in the following hierarchy:

According to this theory, felt emotion and the bodily reaction in emotion are independent of each other; both get triggered simultaneously. This theory of emotion holds that bodily changes and the experience of emotion occurs simultaneously. Theory claims that the entire process of emotion is governed by thalamus. Thalamus conveys the information simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and to the skeletal muscles and sympathetic nervous system. The cerebral cortex then determines the nature of the perceived stimulus. By referring to the past experiences. This determines the subjective experience of emotion. Simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system and the muscles provide physiological arousal and prepare the individual to take action.Following diagram shows the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion:

As proposed by the theory we first perceive potential emotion-producing situation which leads to activity in the lower brain region such as the hypothalamus which in turn sends output in two directions:(a)To internal body organs, external muscles to produce bodily expressions(b)To cerebral cortex where the pattern of discharge from the lower brain areas is perceived as felt emotion.
6. Is it important to consciously interpret and label emotions in order to explain them? Discuss giving Suitable examples.
Answer
• Schacter-Singer theory: In 1970, the American psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, while adopting an eclectic approach to both the earlier theories of emotion, introduced a new theory named Cognitive theory of emotion.
• They suggested that our physical arousal together with our perception and judgement of situation (cognition) jointly determine which emotions we feel.
• In other words, our emotional arousal depends on both physiological changes and the cognitive or mental on both physiological changes and the cognitive or mental interpretation of those changes. One cannot work without the other.
• The necessary detection and explanation for an emotional state always rests with the interpretation of situation. Since this interpretation is purely a subject of cognitive functioning, the cognitive factors are said to be the potent determiners of our emotional states.
• The views expressed by Schachter and Singer was also supported by Magda Arnold by stating that cognitive processes control how we interpret our feelings and how we act on them. She used the term Cognitive Appraisal for the identification and interpretation of emotion provoking stimuli.
• A third element, in understanding the relationship between physical reactions and emotional experience aroused on account of the perception of an emotion provoking stimulus.
• Cognitive theory helped us to learn that the emotional experience and physiological changes through which we pass are determined by the way we interpret a situation through the cognitive element of our behaviour in the form of our previous knowledge and our interpretation of the present situation directly affect our emotional experience

7. How does culture influence the expression of emotions?
Answer
• Emotional expression involves posture, facial expression, actions, words and even silence.• Cultural similarities in the facial expression of emotions such as anger, fear, disgust, sadness, happiness etc. have been observed. It must however, be noted that facial expression can, in some cases, be also misleading.
• The display rules that regulate emotional expression and emotional vocabulary do vary across cultures.
• It has been found that children would cry when distressed, shake their heads when defiant and smile when happy.
• Despite similarities in expressions of certain basic emotions, cultures do vary in why and how they express emotions.

8. Why is it important to manage negative emotion? Suggest ways to manage negative emotions.
Answer
• It is important to control negative emotions in order to ensure an effective social functioning. Positive emotions should be enhanced. We can reduce/manage negative emotions in the following manner.
• Negative emotions like fear, anxiety, disgust are such emotions if allowed to prevail for a long time, they are likely to have adverse effects on our well¬being. Anxious individuals find it difficult to concentrate. They are not able to take decisions. Depression impairs individuals ability to think rationally, feel realistically and work effectively.
• Following tips prove useful to manage negative emotion effectively The following tips prove useful for achieving the desire balance of emotion:
1. Enhance self-awareness: Try to get insight into your own emotions and this makes you understand them in a better way. Knowing about your capabilities and limitation helps.
2. Appraise the situation objectively: An evaluation of situation and gaining insight into it determines the level and direction of emotion.
3. Self monitoring: A periodic evaluation of past accomplishments, emotional and physical states and other positive experiences enhance faith in yourself and leads to contentment.
4. Self-modeling: Analyzing past performances and the positive aspects attached to it provides with inspiration and motivation to perform better next time.
5. Perceptual reorganization and cognitive rest-ructuring: Changing old patterns and following new positive ones. Restructure your thoughts to enhance positively and eliminate negative thoughts.
6. Be creative: Take up some hobby or develop and interest in something creative and innovative. Create fun for yourself by pursuing such activity of interest.
7. Develop and nurture good relationship: One who shares good interpersonal relationship with others never feel alone and disheartened.
8. Empathy: Looking at other’s situation as it was your own. Understanding others well help you in understanding your own self in a better way. It adds meaning to your life.
9. Participation in community services: this can prove to be very effective in creating a balance of emotion in your life.

9. Explain the concept of motivation.
Answer: The term motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ referring to movement of activity. Thus it pushes an individual (organism) into activity.

• It can be used to explain drives, needs, goals and incentives… Any behaviour is goal driven, demand persistent and often preferred or is in favour of one goal over the other.
• It is individuals internal force which energises and directs the behaviour.

10. What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs?
Answer: Hunger:

• The stimuli of hunger include stomach contractions, which signify that the stomach is empty.
• A low concentration of glucose in the blood
• A low level of protein and the amount of fats stored in the body.
• The liver also responds to the lack of bodily fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain.
• The aroma, taste or appearance of food may also result in a desire to eat.
• They all in combination act with external factors (such as taste, colour by observing other’s eating, and the smell of food, etc.) to the help one understands that she/he is hungry.

Thirst: When we are deprived of water for a period of several hours, the mouth and throat become dry, which leads to dehydration of body tissues.

• Drinking water is necessary to wet a dry mouth.
• The processes within the body itself control thirst and drinking of water.
• Water must get into the tissues sufficiently to remove the dryness of mouth and throat.
• Motivation to drink water is mainly triggered by the conditions of the body.
• Loss of water from cells and reduction of blood volume.
• When Water is lost by bodily fluids, water leaves the interior of the cells. The anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve impulses in case of cell dehydration. These nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst and drinking.

Ist View:

• The mechanism which explains the intake of water is responsible for stopping the
  intake of water.

IInd View:

• The role of stimuli resulting from the intake of water in the stomach have something to do with stopping of drinking water.
• The precise physiological mechanisms underlying the thirst drive are yet to be understood.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 8 THINKING NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON THINKING

Question 1. Explain the nature of thinking.
Answer: Thinking is a complex mental process involved in manipulating and analyzing information, either collected through the senses from the environment, or stored in memory from past experiences.
Such manipulation and analysis occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging and decision-making. It is an internal process that can be inferred from overt behavior.
Main features:

1. Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities.
2. It involves manipulation and analysis of information received from the ! environment.
3. Thinking is mostly goal directed and one desires to reach the goal by planning. Two building blocks of thinking?

• Thinking is a complex mental process and people think by means of mental images or concepts.
• Mental image refers to an image which is a mental representation of a sensor}’ experience. In this we actually try to form a visual image of the whole situation.
•  A concept is a mental representation of a category. It refers to a class of objects,
  ideas, events that share common properties, e.g. When we encounter new social situation, we try to categorise it on the basis of past experience and take action towards such situations.

Question 2. What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in the thinking process.
Answer: Concepts are mental categories for objects and events, which are similar to each other in one or in more than one way.

• They may be organised in schema. They are mental frameworks which represents our knowledge and assumptions about the world.
• Concepts are building blocks of thinking. They allow us to organize knowledge in systematic ways.
• Concept formation is a basic task of thinking i.e., identifying the stimulus properties that are common to a class of objects or ideas, e.g., in the activity, the participant has to classify the stimuli either on the basis of colour or shape. It is very helpful in the thinking process.

Question  3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in problem solving.
Answer: Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem,
Problem solving involves following mental operations which are as follows :

1. Identify the problem
2. Represent the problem
3. Plan the solution: Set sub-goals
4. Evaluate all solutions (plays)
5. Select one solution and execute it
6.  Evaluate the putcome
7. Rethink and redefine problems and solutions

There are two major obstacles to solving a problem. These are mental set, and lack of motivation.
Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve problems by following already tried mental operations or steps.
Lack of motivation is another obstacles to solving problems. Due to lack of motivation people give up easily when they encounter a problem or failure in implementing the : first step. Therefore, there is a need to persist in their effort to find a solution.

Question 4. How does reasoning help in solving problems?
Answer:  Reasoning is a form of problem solving. It is goal directed activity and involves ‘ inferences.
Reasoning is the process of gathering and analyzing information to a arrive at a conclusion.
Types of reasoning:

1. Inductive Reasoning: Reasoning is based on specific facts and observations. Through this reasoning people analyzing other possible reasons. Scientific reasoning is inductive in nature.
2. Deductive Reasoning: The deductive reasoning begins with general solution and then draws specific solution.
3. Analogy: Analogy helps us in identifying and visualizing the salient attributes of an object.

Question 5. Are judgement and decision-making interrelated processes? Explain.
Answer: Judgement and decision-making are interrelated processes. .

• In decision-making the problem before us is to choose among alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit associated with each alternative. For example, when you have the option to choose between psychology and economics your decision will be based on future prospects.
• Decision making differs from other type or problem solving. In decision-making we already know the various solutions of choices.
• Judgements are not decisions although they make yield information necessary for decision.

Question 6. Why is divergent thinking important in creative thinking process?
Answer:  Divergent thinking^ is important in creative thinking process. It’s abilities facilitate generation of a variety of ideas which may not seem to be related.
Fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration are the abilities of divergent thinking.

1. Fluency : produces many ideas for a given task or a problem. The more ideas a person produces, the higher his fluency ability.
2. Flexibility: indicates variety in thinking. It may be thinking of different uses of an object, or different interpretation of a picture, story or different ways of solving a problem
3. Originality : ability to produce ideas that are rare or unusual by seeing new relationship, combining old ideas with new ones, looking at things from different prospective.
4. Elaboration : ability that enables a person to go into details and workout implications of new ideas.
   • Divergent thinking ability facilitate generations of a variety of ideas which may not seem to be related.
   • Divergent thinking is essential in generating a wide range of ideas. Convergent thinking is important to identify the most useful or appropriate idea.

Question 7. What are the various barriers to creative thinking?
Answer: Barriers to creative thinking can be characterized as habitual, perceptual, motivational, emotional and cultural.

1. The tendency to be overpowered by habits can be detrimental to creative expression as it becomes difficult to think in novel ways.
2. Motivational and emotional barriers show that creativity is more than just a cognitive process. Lack of motivation, fear of failure, fear of rejection, poor self concept and negativism may hamper creative thinking.
3. Cultural barriers are related to excessive adherence to tradition, expectations, conformity, pressures and stereo types. It arises due to the fear of being different, mediocrity, social pressure, over-dependence, personal security and tendency to maintain the things as it is.
   Strategies to overcome the barriers of creative thinking.

There are certain attitudes, dispositions, and skills, which facilitate creative thinking.
Here are some strategies to help you enhance your creative thinking abilities and skills:

• Cultivate the habit of wider reading, exposure to a variety of information, and develop the art of asking questions, pondering over the mysteries of situations and objects.
• Try deliberately to look for multiple angles of a task and situation to increase flexibility in your thinking.
• Obsbom’s Brainstorming technique can be used to increase fluency and flexibility of ideas to open-ended situations. This helps in increasing the fluency of ideas and piling up alternatives. Brainstorming can be practiced by playing brainstorming games with family members and friends keeping its principles in mind.
• Originality can be developed by practicing fluency, flexibility, and habit of associative thinking, exploring linkages, and fusing distinct or remote ideas.
• Indulgence in activities, which require use of imagi-nation and original thinking rather than routine work according to the interest and hobbies.
• Generate a number of possible ideas or solutions, then select the best from among them.
• Think of what solutions someone else may offer for the problems.
• Give your ideas the chance to incubate. Allowing time for incubation between production of ideas and the stage of evaluation of ideas may bring in the ‘Aha!’ experience.
• Sometimes ideas cluster like branches of a tree. It is useful to diagram your thinking so that you can follow each possible branch to its completion.
• Resist the temptation for immediate reward and success and cope with the frustration and failure. Encourage self-evaluation.
  Develop independent thinking in making judgments.
• Visualize cause and consequence and think ahead, predicating things that have never happened, like, suppose the time starts moving backwards, what would happen? If we had no zero?, etc.
• Be self-confident and positive.

Question 8. How can creative thinking be enhanced ?
Answer: Strategies to enhance memory:

1. Originality: Originality can be developed by practicing fluency, flexibility, habit of associative thinking, exploring linkages, and fusing distinct or remote idea.
2. Use of Imagination: Engaging more frequently in activities which require use of imagination and original thinking rather than routine work according to interest and hobbies.
3. Not to accept initial ideas: Never accepting the first ideas or solution. Many ideas die because we reject them thinking that the idea might be a silly idea i.e. we have to first generate a number of possible ideas or solutions, then select the best from among them.
4. Getting feedback: Getting a feedback on the solutions we decide one from others who are less personally involved in the task.
5. Chance to Incubate : Giving ideas the chance to incubate. Allowing time for incubation between production of ideas and the stage of evaluation of ideas, may bring in the ‘Aha!’ experience.
6. Diagram thinking: Sometimes ideas cluster like branches of a tree. It is useful to diagram our thinking so that we can follow each possible branch to its completion.
7. Developing independent thinking: Developing independent thinking in making judgements, figuring out things without any help or resources.
8. Self confident : To be self-confident and positive. Never undermine to your creative potential to experience the joy of your creation.

Question 9. Does thinking take place without language ? Discuss.
Answer:

• Thinking is a silent speech
• It cannot take place without language.
• Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view that language determines the contents of thought. This view is known as linguistic relativity hypothesis. In its strong version, this hypothesis holds what and how individuals can possible think is determined by the language and linguistic categories they use (linguistic determinism).
• Experimental evidence, maintains that it is possible to have the same level or quality of thoughts in all languages depending upon the availability of linguistic categories and structures.
• Some thoughts may be easier in one language compared to another.

Question 10. How is language acquired in human beings?
Answer: To achieve linguistic competence, children must master the four sub-systems or language :

• Phonology – the ability to understand and produce speech sounds
• Semantics – the ability to understand words and the different combinations of words
• Grammar – the ability to understand the rules by which words are arranged into sentences and the rules by which words can indicate tense and gender
• Pragmatics – the ability to understand the rules of effective communication such as turn-taking, initiating and ending conversations and so on.

There are two contrasting views on how language is acquired. Some suggest that language acquisition is primarily biologically determined. This is typical nativity position in nature-nurture debate. Other position is the environmentalist position which views learning as the basis of language acquisition.
Language development for behaviourists like B.F. Skinner follow the learning principles such as association, imitation and reinforcement. They explain it in terms of operant conditioning.
Regional differences in pronunciation and phrasing illustrate how different patterns are reinforced in different areas.

• The nativist view supported by Noam Chomsky argues that human being’s extra ordinary capacity to learn and use language is based on certain innate mechanisms.
• Chomsky suggested that children are born with powerful language acquisition, device, LAD, which represents a knowledge of universal grammar.
• Children throughout the world seem to have a critical period that is form infancy to puberty where learning must occur if it is to occur successfully for learning language.
  Most psychologists accept that both nature and nurture are important in language acquisition.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 2 METHODS OF ENQUIRY IN PSYCHOLOGY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGYwhich will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON METHODS OF ENQUIRY IN PSYCHOLOGY

Question 1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
Answer: There exists diversity in types of researches or studies undertaken by psychologists but they all seem to share some common goals of enquiry, which are as follows-:

1. Description
   • This helps to define the phenomena and distinguish it from other phenomenas.
   • Description is necessary because any event or behaviour may have many aspects.
   • For example, the idea of entertainment varies from reading books to going to pubs, depending on the individual.
   • The recording of event or behaviour is an integral part of description.
2. Prediction
   • Prediction means forecasting of events.
   • It establishes relationship between two variables.
   • For example, one might say exercising leads to weight loss.
   • In psychology all predictions are made within a certain margin of error i.e. they are not pin-pointed or exact.
3. Explanation
   • Explanation involves knowing the cause or the reason behind the behaviour.
   • It also tries to understand the conditions under which a particular behaviour occurs. For example, a child behaves rudely whenever he is disturbed so his disturbances become the cause of his rude behaviour.
4. Control
   • Control means creating change in the phenomenon or behavior.
   • It refers to making behaviour happen, reduction in it or enhancement in it.
   • The changes produced by psychological treatment in terms of therapy are good examples of control.
5. Application
   • Psychological researches are often conducted to solve various problems faced by file society.
   • Psychology helps in solving problem at individual, organizational or community level.
   • For example, therapies are provided to individuals and counseling is also there to help them.
   • At file organizational level, various psychological concepts like work motivation are used to enhance performance. At file community level, counseling is provided to help people engage in various , helpful and eco-friendly behaviours.

Question 2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
Answer:  Scientific research or study is a clearly defined process that goes through a series of steps—

1. Conceptualising a problem
   • The process begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study.
   • Then the research questions or problems for the study are formulated.
   • Problem is based on the review of past researches, observations and personal experiences.
   • Problem indicates the relationship between variables.
     For example, what is the relationship between reward and classroom learning?
   • After formulation of problem, the hypothesis is formed, which is the tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two variables.
     For example, increased amount of reward will lead to betterment in learning.
2. Collecting data
   • Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study.
   • Participants of the study are decided, depending on the nature of study, they could be children, adolescents, college students, teachers, workers, elder people etc.
   • Methods of data collection like observation, experimental, correlational method etc are decided.
   • The next decision is taken about the tools to be used, like interview schedule,. questionnaire, survey etc.
   • Procedure for data collection is decided i.e. how the tools need to be administered to collect data i.e. individual to collect data i.e. individual or group administration.
   • This is followed by actual data collection.
3. Drawing conclusions
   • The next step is to analyse data to understand its meaning.
   • The graphical representation of data is made using, bar diagram, pie chart, histogram, mean, median, mode, standard deviation etc.
   • The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly.
4. Revising research conclusions
   • The research begins with the hypothesis.
   • Then researcher sees whether the conclusions support this hypothesis or not.
   • If conclusions support the hypothesis then it is confirmed.
   • If it is not confirmed researcher revises or states an alternative hypothesis/theory and again tests it and the same process continues.

Question 3. Explain the nature of psychological data.
Answer:  Data is any information related to mental processes, experiences and behaviour, collected by using various tools.
Psychological data are of different types, such as-:

1. Demographic information
   This information includes personal information related to a particular individual. This includes name, age, gender, education, marital status, residence, caste, religion, income etc, which are personally relevant.
2. Physical information
   This includes information pertaining to physical environment i.e. ecological condition.
   It also includes information about economy, housing conditions, facilities at the home, in the school, transportation etc.
3. Physiological data
   This is related to Biological data.
   For example, height, weight, heart rate, level of fatigue, EEG, reaction time, sleep, blood pressure etc is collected.
   Data related to animal’s biological functioning is also collected.
4. Psychological information
   This includes data regarding psychological functioning of individual.
   It involves data about intelligence, personality, attitudes, values, emotions, motivation, psychological dysfunctions, consciousness etc.
   Thus obtained data is divided into various categories, so that it can be analysed using statistical measures.

Question 4. How do experimental and control group differ? Explain with the help of an example.
Answer:

1. Experimental group: The subjects in study who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.
   In an experiment this group is administered the independent variable (the variable that is manipulated to see its effect on any other variable under study).
2. Control Group: control group is a comparison group.
   • The independent variable is not administered on this group.
   • Subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.

The purpose is to see whether any difference occur in two groups as a result of application of independent variable on experimental group.
For example, suppose, an experiment is carried out to study the effect of presence of others on helpful behaviour, one participant was put in a situation requiring help, say, someone drowning in swimming pool, here five other people were also present, another participant was alone in the emergency situation.
In an experiment except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant for both the groups.

Question 5.  A researcher is studying relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.
Answer:

• Variable: It is any stimulus or event which varies or can take on different valves can be measure e.g. weight, height.
• Hypothesis: It is a tentative and testable statement which expresses relation between two or more than two variables, e.g.: those who are rewarded shall require lesser number of trials to learn than those who are not rewarded.
• Independent variable: It is the variable which is systematically manipulated or altered in an experiment. It is the cause.
• Dependent variable: It is the variable that is measured in an experiment. It is the effect.
• As per the question:Hypothesis. Presence of others will enhance the speed of cycling.
  Independent variable. Presence of others Dependent variable. Speed of cycling

Question 6.Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
Answer: Experimental method is aimed at discovering causal relationship between various factors by manipulating the situation under totally controlled conditions.
Characterstics:

• Experimentation involves manipulation of variables to study their effect on other aspects.
• Experiments are carried out in totally controlled condition.
• Subjects or individuals are assigned to experimental and control group, randomly.
• All factors other than manipulated variable that might affect the dependent variable are kept constant.

Advantages:

• Experimental method aims at establishing cause-effect relationship between the variables.
• Replication and verification of obtained result is possible.
• The investigator can manipulate the independent variable according to the
  demands of the situation.
• It can be performed at any time.
• It is very objective—No personal bias exists.

Limitations:

• Experiments are conducted in a very artificial and unrealistic situations-the setting is not natural.
• They lack external validity i.e. generalizability. Since they are not done in natural settings, the results can’t be generalized with confidence.
• It is difficult to control and know all extraneous variables like – motivation, emotion, state etc.
• It is not always possible to study a problem experimentally.
  For example, personality can’t be studied experimentally.

Question 7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
Answer:  Dr. Krishnan would use the method of non-participant observation to observe and record children’s behaviour at play without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. He would sit in a corner and observe the children’s behaviour without them being aware of it. He would note the behaviour of children while playing, how ’ they interact with each other and their reaction towards winning or losing. He would collect all the data in a file and then match the conclusion with the hypothesis.
Merits of non-participant observation:

• The researcher observes the people and their behaviour in naturalistic settings.
• The observer can get first hand information regarding the subject.

Demerits:

• This method is time consuming, labour intensive and subject to personal biases.
•  The researcher may interpret the behaviour based on personal values.

Question 8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?
Answer:  Survey Method is a research method utilizing written questionnaires or personal interviews to obtain data of a given population.
For example: Surveys are used in variety of situations such as

1. They can be used in political regime to know whether people approve or disapprove any particular policy of government, say for example, policy of reservation in higher education or Nuclear deal with America in recent times.
2. They are used during elections also to know who will people vote to.
3. Surveys can also be used to test hypothesis about the relationship among variables. One may try to find out the effect of some event on people’s behaviour.
   For example – Surveys have been conducted after the earthquake at Bhuj in Gujarat to find out the impact of earthquake on people’s lives.
4. In marketing area, before launching a product surveys are often conducted. They are used to assess people’s attitude on various social issues such as family planning and gender equality.

Limitation:

1. The major difficulty is the issue of accuracy and honesty of the responses as the respondents attempt to create favourable impression – faking is possible.
2. Surveyor’s bias also affects the results. He/she may ask the question in such a way as to elicit desired response.
3. Surveys remain at the surface and it does not penetrate into the depth of the problem. They are time-consuming and expensive.
4. These techniques make the respondent conscious. So he/she may mould his/her responses.
5. Survey demand expertise, research knowledge and competence on the part of the researcher. Most of the survey researchers don’t possess these qualities in the required amount. This invalidates the quality of survey.
6. Sample selected might not be the true representative of the population.

Question 9. Differentiate between interview and questionnaire.
Answer:  Interview :

• Interview is a face to face interaction between two people
• They can be structured or unstructured
• Interviews are flexible; questions can be added or altered.
• Interviewer can dig deeper by posing counter question and by noticing non-verbal clues.
• They are subjective in nature.
•  It is not a good tool for those who can’t express themselves verbally
• It requires highly skilled person as interviewer.

Questionnaire :

• It consists of a form containing a series of questions where the respondents themselves fill in the answers.
• Questionnaire is always structured.
• It is not possible to know anything more that what is asked in the question.
• They are highly objective.
• Sometimes someone else can also fill in the questionnaire other than the target person.
• Clarification of questions is sometimes not possible.
• They can be administered to a large number of people at a time.
• Comparatively less skilled person can do the Interpretation.

Question 10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
Answer:  Characteristics of a standardised test:

1. Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on different occasions. If the test is reliable, these showed not be any variation in the scores obtained by the students on the 2 occasions.
   For this we can complete the following:
   (i)Test-retest reliability: it indicates the temporal stability. It is computed by finding out co-efficient of correlation b/w the 2 sets of same people.
   (ii) Split-half reliability: It gives an indication about the degree of intends, consistency of the test. .
2. Validity: For a test to be usable, it must be valid. Validity refers to the question “does the test measure what it claims to measures”. E.g. If a test is for assessment intelligence, it should only be testing intelligence and not aptitude.
3. Norms: A test becomes standardized if norms are developed for the test, norm is the normal average performance of the group. The test is administered on a large number of students. Their average performance standards are based in their age, sex, place of residence, etc. this helps us in compassion of performance of groups and individual students.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 3 THE BASES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGYwhich will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON THE BASES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

Question 1:

How does the evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?

ANSWER:

The evolutionary perspective explains the biological behaviour by demonstrating the behavioural and physiological changes that occur as a result of evolution being necessary for the survival of species. For instance, increase in the capacity for cognitive behaviour like perception, memory and use of language for communication among humans is a result of the evolution. Such type of changes have occurred due to the impact of the surrounding environment and is related to abilities like finding food, avoiding predators and protecting the offspring. This is manifested in humans in the following ways:

• The human brain has evolved from smaller to bigger in size.

• Human beings can walk upright on their two legs.
• Human beings have got a free hand with a workable opposing thumb.

Thus, the evolutionary perspective highlights the importance of the developed body and mind that humans have inherited from their ancestors and provides a biological basis of behaviour.

Question 2:

Describe how neurons transmit information?

ANSWER:

Neurons transmit information with the help of its dendrites, axon, soma and terminal buttons by converting stimuli into electrical impulses. This is done by the following method:

• Dendrites receive the incoming neural impulses, from adjacent neurons or directly from the sense organs, in electrochemical form.
• The nerve impulse is then passed on to the soma that is the main body of the neuron.
• From soma, impulse passes on to the axon.
• The axon transmits the information/impulse along its length to terminal buttons.
• The terminal buttons transmit the information to another neuron, gland and muscle.

Question 3:

Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. What functions do they perform?

ANSWER:

The four lobes of the cerebral cortex are frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe. Their functions are as follows:

• Frontal lobe − It is responsible for cognitive functions such as attention, thinking, memory, reasoning and learning. It also inhibits the autonomic and emotional responses.
• Parietal lobe − It is mainly concerned with cutaneous sensations and their coordination with visual and auditory sensations.
• Temporal lobe − It processes the auditory information.
• It also helps in understanding of speech and written language and memorising symbolic sounds and words.
• Occipital lobe − It interprets visual impulses, memorises visual stimuli and helps in colour visual orientation.

Question 4:

Name the various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them. How does the endocrine system affect our behaviour?

ANSWER:

The various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them are as follows:

Endocrine glands	Hormones
Pituitary gland	Growth hormones
Gonadotropic
Thyroid gland	Thyroxin
Adrenal gland	Corticoids
EpinephrineNorepinephrine
Pancreas	Insulin
Gonads	EstrogensProgesteroneAndrogensTestosterone

The endocrine system controls or regulates our behaviour with the help of chemical substances known as hormones. Hormones enable the individual to react to the stimuli present in the environment. They also enable the growth of individuals, their maturity and help in reproduction. For example, growth hormones help in growth of a child while gonadotropic hormones bring primary and secondary sexual changes. Thyroxin maintains the metabolic rate of the body while estrogens and testosterone help in reproduction. This system works with different parts of the nervous system and also known as neuroendocrine system.

Question 5:

How does the autonomic nervous system help us in dealing with an emergency situation?

ANSWER:

The autonomic nervous system helps us in dealing with an emergency situation with the help of its two divisions namely, Sympathetic division and Parasympathetic division.

1. Sympathetic division

• During an emergency situation the sympathetic division helps in quick and powerful actions.
• It stops the digestion of food and causes the flow of blood from internal organs to the muscles and also increases the breathing rate, oxygen supply, heart rate and blood sugar level.

0. Parasympathetic division

• Parasympathetic division decelerates the sympathetic division after the emergency gets over.
• It brings the heart beat, breathing and blood flow to the normal levels. It also calms down the individual to the normal condition.

Question 6:

Explain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.

ANSWER:

The term culture refers to the shared customs, beliefs, values, norms institutions and other products of a community which are transmitted from one generation to another. It includes all materialistic, abstract and behavioural particulars that exist prior to the individual and consists of features that vary across societies. The important features of culture are as follows:

• It contains values and language that can be expressed.
• It contains a way of life that is followed by individuals who have grown in that context.
• It is a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols.
• It has influence upon human behaviour.

Question 7:

Do you agree with the statement that ‘biology plays an enabling role, while specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors’? Give reasons in support of your answer.

ANSWER:

The statement that biology plays an enabling role while, specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors, is correct. The reasons are as follows:

• Culture decides the norms of behaviour for an individual while biology helps in materialising the behaviour.
• The biological frame of the body enables the individual to create culture. The human brain, endocrine glands, hormones etc. are responsible for humans being intelligent and different from other species.
• Culture ascribes meaning to biological actions and lends them rationality.

Question 8:

Describe the main agents of socialisation.

ANSWER:

The main agents of socialisation are as follows:

1. FAMILY

• The socialisation of a child starts with the help of parents and other members of the family. Parents introduce the child to the society and provide the building blocks of socialisation.
• Parents approve and discourage certain types of behaviour among children.
• Parenting styles are based upon strategies that can be authoritative, authoritarian and democratic or permissive. They exert varying degrees of acceptance and control upon their children.
• The parenting style is also influenced by conditions of life like poverty, illness etc. Grandparents and network of social relationships also socialise children through parental influences.
• This agency has a direct and significant effect upon the child’s behaviour and personality.

0. SCHOOL

• Schools provide children with an organised set up for interaction with teachers and peers.
• Children in schools learn various cognitive skills, social skills, self-control, self-initiative, responsibility, and creativity and also internalise the norms set by the society.
• Schooling therefore, can transform a child’s personality since children learn to become self-reliant.

0. SOCIAL INTERACTION

• Development of self-identity is greatly facilitated by the peer group.
• Children not only learn to assert their own point of view, but also accept and adapt to those of others.
• They also acquire qualities like sharing, trust, mutual understanding, role acceptance and fulfilment.
• The interaction is direct, therefore the socialisation is smooth.

0. MEDIA

• Children learn about many things through television, newspaper, books and cinema. Adolescents and young adults often derive their models from them.
• Children learn to form their own opinions and ideas with interaction to mass media.
• However, this agency may also promote anti-social aspects that have to be avoided by the individuals.

Question 9:

How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation? Explain.

ANSWER:

Enculturation and socialisation can be distinguished in the following ways:

	Enculturation		Socialisation
1.	Enculturation is the learning that takes place without direct, deliberate teaching.	i.	Socialisation is a deliberate process that takes place through agencies like family, school, peer group and mass media.
2.	Enculturation leads to acquisition of ideas, concepts and values in a specific socio-cultural context.	ii.	Socialisation is a general process that helps in development of knowledge, skills and dispositions that enable individuals to function effectively as members of the society.
3.	Enculturation takes place through observation.	iii.	Socialisation takes place through interaction.
4.	The effects of enculturation are visible in the cultural behaviour of the individual.	iv.	The effects of socialisation are to condition the individual towards socially accepted behaviour through rewards and punishment.

Question 10:

What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.

ANSWER:

Acculturation refers to the cultural and psychological changes that result from contact with other cultures. This process can be direct, indirect, voluntary or involuntary.

The smoothness of the process of acculturation depends upon the re-socialisation of the people, this is because

sometimes it is easy for people to learn new norms, values, dispositions and patterns of behaviour. Successful adaptation in such instances leads to a smooth process of acculturation towards the group that is responsible for it. Contrary to this,

individuals also face difficulties while adopting new cultural traits and it results in a state of conflict.

This situation arises mostly when acculturation is involuntary and is painful as it leads to experience of stress and other behavioural difficulties.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 4 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGYwhich will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of the term ‘Development.
Answer:
The meaning of the concept of development is different for different people. One thing is definitely common that development means the diffusion of growth to all sections of the society to raise the standard of life of the people. The development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress well-being, and inspiration for a better life. Through the process of development, society seeks to achieve the vision of the future for the future generation.

The development has also been Understood and used in a narrow sense y understanding it related with limited goals such as increasing the .ate of economic growth or modernizing the society. In fact, the development is not concerned with just achieving the present targets or completing projects like dams and factories i.e. growth of infrastructure but it is more concerned with realizing the broader vision of society. We can say that development is a value ridden concept.

Question 2.
Explain various issues that are involved in the process of development.
Answer:
Since the concept of development is very wide, a number of issues are involved in it which are as under

1. The rights of the people should be taken into account during the course of development.
2. To make development more pervasive, there should be the democratization of the social, economic, and political environment.
3. The benefits of development should reach all sections of society.
4. There should be qualitative improvement in the lives of the people.

Question 3.
Explain socialist, communist, and capitalistic model of development.
Answer:
Every state has its own model of development. Every state is concerned with the welfare of its people and raising the standard of living of its people. Although the number of models has been evolved there have been three main models of development in prevalence. These models are as under

1. Socialistic model
2. Communistic model
3. Capitalist model

1. Socialistic model:- Socialist pattern of development prevailed in developing countries of Asia and Africa to make distribution of resources as per the reeds of the people and to exploit the potentialities of the people to the fullest.

2. Communist model:- Communist model of development initially started in the countries of Eastern Europe and then spread to some other countries. It was based on the principles of Marxism.

3. Capitalist model:- This model of development become popular in the USA. and European countries which are based on the principle of economic pursuits on competition basis and profit basis with the minimum role of the state.

Question 4.
What are the main targets of development?
Answer:
The process of development seeks to achieve positive changes and improvement in the following areas

1. Poverty
2. Unemployment
3. Illiteracy
4. Unexploited resources
5. Regional imbalances
6. Social backwardness.
7. Fatalism
8. Impact of colonialism.

Question 5.
Enumerate certain features of development undertaken in different parts of the world.
Answer:
The process of development has undergone many changes over the years in different countries as it is understood in its meaning. Initially, it was linked with the economic growth and social development with the purpose of modernization of societies. The main features and activities undertaken were as under:

1. Industrialization
2. Commercialization
3. Urbanization
4. Agrarian reforms
5. Use of science and technology
6. Educational development
7. Secularisation
8. Democratization.

In the process of development, the state was given a leading role to play in the above areas.

Question 6.
Explain the mode of development in India.
Answer:
After independence, India got the colonial legacy at the social, economic, and political levels. India adopted a mixed economy for its development. Planning Commission was set to start planned economic development. The first five-year plan was started in 1951-56. So far we have successfully completed the ten five years plan which has helped in transforming the Indian society and economy to an appreciable extent. Today India is on its way to being a modernized society. The process of liberalization, globalization, and privatization has fastened the pace of development. In India, the process of development is going in Libera secular democratic framework. All efforts are being made to take the benefits of development to all sections of the society through their participation at all levels.

Question 7.
What is the impact of development in India?
Answer:
India, through its planned socio-economic development, has achieved tremendous growth in different areas i.e. agriculture, roads, housing, industry, medicine, health, raising employment opportunities, education, and developing infrastructure. Through the doses of modernization, India has been able to transform Indian society in the last sixty years. In fact through the development face of India is changed from an agrarian, traditional and backward, and undeveloped society to a modem, secular, democratic, and developing society.

But still, we have not been able to achieve the goals of development in the real sense and as per the true meaning of development. We are still in grip of inequalities, disparities, and imbalance. Still, we have 26% of people who are yet to reach the level of subsistence needs. Still, we have situations of excess and deprivation. The ultimate objective of development is rational utilization of the resource and to take the fruits of development to the last man. We feel that we are far away from these two goals of development.

Question 8.
What are the main hindrances in achieving the goals of development in developing countries like India?
Answer:
Almost every society is in the process of development and is trying to get the goals of development. But there are certain structural hindrances in the path of development, particularly in developing countries. Some of the hindrances are as under:-

1. Lack of definite and relevant model of development.
2. Lack of political will.
3. Lack of people’s awareness.
4. Traditional social structure.
5. Traditional occupations.
6. Lack of people-oriented approach of bureaucracy.

Question 9.
What do you know about the social cost of development?
Answer:
The process of development involves a lot of desirable and undesirable activities with negative and positive consequences which can be called social costs. These social costs can be understood as under

1. Displacement of persons due to developmental projects like bridges and dams and other such projects.
2. Migration of people in search of better opportunities and better quality of life in which they lose their old identities and due course of time acquire new values and new identities.
3. Pressure on urban civic amenities due to the process of urbanization in the wake of development.
4. Loss of traditional skills acquired in a long time.
5. Loss of culture.
6. Regional and cultural confrontations.
7. Social agitations.
8. Unemployment and uncertainties.

Question 10.
Define development, its objective and suggest the best modes of development.
Answer:
Lucian Pye, a great politician scientist explained the idea of development in his famous book ‘Aspects of Development’ “as a process of rational utilization of the available resources to establish modern society. In the contemporary world, however, the word of development has been used for progress, change, modernization, and growth. In fact” Lucian Pye explained the concept of development in terms of socialization, modernization, democratization, secularisation, and people’s participation.

As far as the objectives are concerned, they are not just material progress in different fields like production, goods, amenities, dams, projects, and the well-being of a few. In fact, its objectives are wide. The ultimate objective of the development is as under:-

1. To make the best use of the resources by identifying them properly.
2. To ensure the fair distribution of fruits of development to all sections of society, particularly up to the underprivileged class.
3. To raise the standard of living of the people.
4. To achieve the common good of the people.

There have been different models of development in different parts of the world with democratic and dictatorial governmental structures In all these models of development, there has been the Top-down approach in decision making which prohibited the local initiative and participation in policymaking and decision-making process. To achieve the desired goals of development, there is a need to adopt such a system or model of development which ensure the people’s participation up to a desirable extent and recognizes their rights and claims.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 5 SENSORY, ATTENTIONAL AND PEROECTUAL PROCESSESSNCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON SENSORY, ATTENTIONAL AND PEROECTUAL PROCESSESS

Question 1:

Explain the functional limitations of sense organs.

ANSWER:

The functional limitations of sense organs of human beings refer to their limited range of stimulation. In order to be noticed, a stimulus has to be of an optimal intensity and magnitude. Thus, the stimulus has to carry a minimum value or weight. For example, our ears cannot hear very faint or loud sounds. Similarly, our eyes cannot see objects in very dim or very bright light.

Question 2:

What is meant by light and dark adaptation? How do they take place?

ANSWER:

Light adaptation is the process of adjusting to bright light after exposure to dim light. This process often takes a minute or two to be completed. Dark adaptation, on the other hand, refers to the process of adjusting to dim light after exposure to bright light. It may take half an hour or longer depending upon the level of exposure.

Light and dark adaptation takes place due to photochemical processes. Light adaptation takes place when the molecules of rhodopsin or visual purple in the rods of the eye get bleached or broken down, as a result of the action of light. Dark adaptation takes place when the light is removed allowing for restorative processes that regenerate the pigment in the rods with the help of vitamin A.

Question 3:

What is colour vision ?

ANSWER:

Colour vision is the ability of the eyes to see and distinguish between colours based upon their varying wavelengths in the visible spectrum of light. The vision of colours depends on the visible spectrum, which includes the range of energy detected by the photoreceptors. Further, the colours are a psychological property of human sensory experience. They are created by the interpretation of the information received by the brain.

Question 4:

How does auditory sensation take place?

ANSWER:

Auditory sensation takes place when sound enters the ear and stimulates the chief organs of hearing. This involves the production of cyclical displacements of molecules in the air. Auditory sensation refers to a subjective hearing of something, and audition is an important sense modality, as it provides spatial information and plays an important role in spoken communication.

Question 5:

Define attention.

ANSWER:

Attention refers to the process through which certain stimuli are selected from a group of others. It requires an allocation of effort. The objects that are at the centre are the focus of attention while objects that are away from the centre are at the fringe.

Question 6:

State the determinants of selective attention. How does selective attention differ from sustained attention?

ANSWER:

The determinants of selective attention are following:

• Motivational factors represent our biological and social needs. Instances of the same are the drivers strictly following all the traffic rules.
• Cognitive factors represent interests, attitude and preparatory set. For instance, an average teenager would be more interested in watching a cricket match than reading a novel.

Selective attention differs from sustained attention as sustained attention is primarily concerned with concentration and refers to the ability to maintain attention on an object for even for long duration. Contrary to this, selective attention is related to the selection of a limited number of stimuli from a larger group of stimuli.

Question 7:

What is the main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the visual field?

ANSWER:

The main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the visual field is that humans perceive different stimuli as an organised “whole”, which carries a definite form. According to them, the form of object lies in its whole that is different from the discrete parts. The Gestalt psychologist also believes that human perceive everything in an organised form because of the orientation of cerebral processes towards a pragnanz.

Question 8:

How does perception of space take place?

ANSWER:

Space is perceived in three dimensions. This is because of the ability to transfer a two-dimensional retinal vision into a three dimensional perception. Spatial attributes of objects like size, shape and direction, and the distance between objects also contribute towards the perception of space. While the images of objects projected on the retina are flat and two dimensional, it is possible to perceive them in three dimensions by transferring the two-dimensional retinal vision into a three-dimensional perception.

Question 9:

What are the monocular cues of depth perception? Explain the role of binocular cues in the perception of depth?

ANSWER:

The monocular cues of depth perception induce depth in objects when viewed through a single eye. They are also known as pictorial cues as they are used by artists to induce depth in two dimensional paintings. Important monocular cues are relative size and height, interposition, linear and aerial perspective, light and shade, texture gradient and motion parallax.

The binocular cues of depth perception are provided by both the eyes in three dimensional spaces. Their role in the perception of depth are as follows

Question 10:

Why do illusions occur?

ANSWER:

Illusions occur because of a result of a mismatch between the physical stimuli and its perception by the individual. The mismatch is caused by incorrect interpretation of information received by sensory organs. Illusions are called primitive organisations as they are generated by an external stimulus situation that generates the same kind of experience in all the individuals. Some illusions are universal in nature as they are found in all individuals. They are also known as universal illusions or permanent illusions because they do not change with experience and practice. Contrary to this, illusions that vary in different individuals are known as personal illusions.

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HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 6 LEARNING NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGYwhich will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON LEARNING

Question 1. What is learning? What are its distinguishing features?
Answer:  The process of learning has certain features:

1. Learning always involves some kinds of experience or practice.
   • Changes due to maturation or growth are not learning.
     e.g.: One learns that if the bell rings in the hostel after sunset, then dinner is ready to be served.
2. Sometimes a single experience can lead to learning.
   e.g.: A child strikes a match stick on the side of a matchbox and gets her/his finger burnt. Such an experience, makes the child learn to be careful in handling the matchbox in future.
   • Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent, it must last for a fairly long time.
3. Learning must be distinguished from the behavioural changes that are neither permanent nor learnt.
   eg. changes in behaviour due to fatigue, habituation and drugs.
4. Learning is a change in behaviour, for better or worse.
5. Learning follows a sequence.

Question 2. How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
Answer:

• Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate stimulus.
• Conditioning is the simplest form of learning.
• Classical conditioning was first explained in Pavlovs experiments in which a dog was kept on a harness with a tube attached to the dogs jaw on one end, a measuring jar on the other end.
• The dogs was kept hungry in the course of experiments, every time the dogs was
  given food a bell was rung before it, slowly the dog become conditioned to believe that the ringing bell meant that food was coming. .
• So, he began salivating at the sound at the bell.
• The dog continued to salivate even when food was not given after the bell.
• Hence, salivation became a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus. Various forms of classical conditioning are:

1. Unconditioned stimulus (US): This stimulus consistently evoked a response or is reliably followed by one or it has potential capacity to evoke a natural response. e.g. food.
2. Conditioned stimulus (CS): It is also known as a neutral stimulus because except for an altering or intentional response, the first few times it is presented, it does not evoke a specific response.
   Any stimuli which lacks natural capacity to evoke natural response but developes this capacity with consistent pairing with US. For example bell.
3. Unconditioned Response (UR): The response that reliably follows the unconditioned stimulus is known as the unconditioned response, e.g. Saliva due to food. (iv) Conditioned Response (CR): When presentation of the originally neutral conditioned stimulus evokes a response.
   This response is what is learned in classical conditioning, e.g. Saliva s a response to the bell.

Determinants of classical conditioning: 

1. Time Relations between stimuli: In classical conditioning the first three are called Forward Conditioning Procedures and the forth one is called Backward Conditioning.
   The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures are as follows:
   • Simultaneous Conditioning: When the CS and US are presented together.
     It is effective to acquire CR but requires greater number of trials.
   • Delayed Conditioning: The onset of CS precedes the onset of US. The CS ends before the end of the US. It is most effective way of acquiring CR.
   • Trace Conditioning: The onset and the end of the CS precedes the onset of US with some time gap between the two. It is effective but requires greater number of trials.
   • Backward conditioning: The US precedes the onset of CS. It is least effective way to acquire CR.
2. Type of unconditioned stimuli: The unconditioned stimuli used in studies of classical conditioning are of two types: Appetitive e.g. eating drinking etc. according to researches it is slower and requires greater number of trials
   • Aversive e.g. Noise, bitter taste etc. classical conditioning is established in one, two or three trials so it is more effective.
3. Intensity of conditioned stimuli: This influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. More intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses, e.g.: The more intense the conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the number of acquisition trials needed for conditioning, ie intense irritating noise is more effective.

Question 3. Define operant conditioning. Discuss the factors that influence the course of operant conditioning.
Answer:  Operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is
learned, maintained or changed through its consequences.
Determinants of operant conditioning :
1. Reinforcers

• A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event which increases the probability of the occurrence of a desired response.
• The type – positive or negative, frequency, quality and schedule or reinforcer are determinants of operant conditioning.

1. Type of reinforcement:
   • Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that have pleasant consequences.
     They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur.
   • Negative reinforcer involve unpleasant and painful stimuli. Responses that lead organisms to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them provide negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement leads to learning of avoidance and escape responses.
2. Frequency/number of reinforcement and other feature :
   • Frequency of trial on which an organism has been reinforced or rewarded.
   • Amount of reinforcement i.e. how much of reinforcing stimulus (food or water) one receives on each trial.
   •  Quality of reinforcement i.e. to the kind of reinforcer. Bread of inferior
     quality as compared with pieces of cake have different reinforcing value.
3. Schedule of reinforcement:
   • This refers to the arrangement of the delivery of reinforcement during trials.
   • When a desired response is reinforcement every time it occurs we call it continuous reinforcement.
   • When according to schedule responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not it is known as partial reinforcement and has been found to produce greater resistance to extinction.
4. Delayed reinforcement:
   • It is found that delay in the delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level of performance.

Question 4. A good role model is very important for a growing up child. Discuss the kind of learning that supports it.
Answer: Observational learning: The acquisition of new forms of behaviour, information or concepts through exposure to others and the consequences they experience is called observational learning. This learning is also called social learning because we human beings learn many simple and complex social skills through observations.The concept of social learning was introduced by BANDURA.
Characteristics of observational learning

• Individualsleam social behaviour of person of status, respect and behave similarly when put in specific social situation e.g. In games, children quite often use.
• For such learning only those persons are observed who are considered to be as role models.
• Social behaviours are learned by observation.
• Personality characteristics, habits are developed through observational learning.

Concept of modeling

• According to social learning much of what human beings learn through direct experience can be learned through watching someone. It is because of modeling.
• Observational learning observers acquire knowledge by observing the model’s behaviour, but performance is influence by model’s behaviour being rewarded or punished. 1
• Children of fearful parents become fearful, children of critical parents become critical and children who observe confident adults tend to become confident themselves.

Influence of modeling

• It can be well understood by studies conducted by BANDURA.
• He showed a 5 minute film to children. The film showed numerous dolls including bobo dolls in a play room. The film had three versions:
  1st group of children see a boy being punished for his aggressive behaviour while playing.
  2nd group of children see boy being rewarded and praised by adult for being aggressive to the doll.
  3rd group of children see nothing, neither the boy being rewarded nor punished for aggressive behaviour displayed.
• It was found that those children who displayed aggressive behaviour being rewarded were most Aggressive, those who had seen aggressive model being punished were least aggressive.

Conclusion
In observational learning, observers require knowledge by observing model’s behaviour but performance is influenced by model’s behaviour being rewarded or punished.

Question 5. Explain the procedures for studying verbal learning.
Answer: Verbal Learning: The process of learning to respond verbally to verbal stimulus, which may include symbols, nonsense syllables and lists of words.
Procedures for studying verbal learning are:

1. Paired—Associated learning:
   • This method is similar to S-S conditioning and S-R learning.
   • When the list of paired-associates is prepared, the first word of the pair is used as the stimulus and the second word as the response.
   • The first members of the pairs (stimulus term) are nonsense syllables (consonant-vowel-consonant), and the second are English nouns (response term).
     e.g.: Stimulus = Response
     Gen = Loot
     Dem= Time
     Div= Lamp
   • The learner is first shown both the stimulus response pairs together and is instructed to remember and recall the response after the presentation of each stimulus term. After that a learning trial begins.
   • Trials continue until the participant gives all the response words without a single error.
2.  Serial learning:
   • First, lists of verbal items, i.e. nonsense syllables, most familiar or least familiar words, interrelated words etc. are prepared.
   • In serial learning the participant is presented the entire list and is required to produce the items in the same serial order as in the list.
   • Learning trials continue until the participant correctly anticipates and recall in the given order.
3. Free Recall:
   • In this method, participants are presented a list of words, each word is shown at a fixed rate of exposure duration.
   • Immediately after the presentation of the list, the participants are required to recall the words in any order they can.

This method is used to study how participants organize words for storage in memory.
Studies also indicate that the items placed in the beginning or end of the lists are easier to recall than those placed in the middle which are more difficult to recall.

Question 6. What is a skill? What are the stages through which skill learning develops?
Answer: A skill is defined as the ability to perform some complex task smoothly and efficiently, e.g.: car driving, writing etc.
Skill consists of a chain of perceptual motor responses or as a sequence of S-R associations, e.g.: Movements of legs, feet and toes etc.
According to Fitts skill learning develops through three stages:

1. Cognitive Phase: In cognitive phase of skill learning, the learner has to understand and memorise the instructions.
   • The learner has to understand how the task has to be performed.
   • In this phase every outside cue instructional demand, and one’s response outcome have to be kept alive in consciousness.
2. Associative Phase:
   • Different sensory inputs or stimuli are to be linked with appropriate responses.
   • As the practice increases, errors decrease, performance improves and time taken is also reduced.
3. Autonomous Phase: two important changes take place in performance.
   • The Attentional demands of the associative phase decreases.
   • Inference created by external factors reduces. Finally, skilled performance attains Automaticity with minimal demands of – conscious effort.

Question 7. How can you distinguish between generalisation and discrimination?
Answer:  Generalisation:

• Pavlov noticed that when a C.S – C.R. bond has been established by conditioning, a stimulus which is similar to the C.S can produce the same response and he called this stimulus Generalisation, or in other words Generalisation occurs due to similarity.
  e.g. If the dog is conditioned to salivate to tone, it will salivate to any type of tone , like electric bell, worship bell, college bell, buzzer and other sounds.
• Stimulus Generalisation in conditioning happens usually more in childhood particularly when the child has not developed the capacity to differentiate between two stimuli.
  For example; During infancy the baby considers every woman to be his mother.

Discrimination:

• Discrimination is the process of learning to make one response to one stimulus and another response – or no response to another stimulus.
  e.g: discrimination can be obtained in classical conditioning by pairing one stimulus (the CS+) with an unconditioned stimulus and never pairing another stimulus (the CS) with the unconditioned stimulus.
• Discrimination is a response due to difference or in other words discriminative response depends on the discrimination capacity or discrimination learning of an organism.

Question 8. How does transfer of learning takes place?
Answer: Transfer of learning refers to the way in which we might transfer skills learned in one situation to a second, related situation. Thus, learning to play tennis may introduce a range of coordination and racket skills that would then transfer to similar games such as squash.

• It refers to the effects of prior learning on new learning.
• Transfer is consider to be positive if the earlier learning facilitates current learning. If new learning is a related then it is consider to be negative transfer.
• Absence of facilitative of retarding effect means zero transfer i.e. earlier learning has no effect on later learning.

Question 9. Why is motivation a prerequisite for learning?
Answer: Motivation is considered a pre-requisite and acts as a main facilitator of learning.

1. It is a mental as well as a physiological state, which arouses an organism to act for fulfilling the current need.
2. Motivation energises an organism to act rigorously for attaining some goal, and such sets persist until the goal is attained and the need is satisfied.
   e.g.: The more motivated you are the more hard work you do for learning.
3.  Motivation for learning arises from two sources:
   • Intrinsic motivation: One may learn many things because he/she enjoys them or it provides the means for attaining some other goal.
   • Extrinsic motivation: Throughout the session one learn to acquire knowledge and skill, which may help to get a good job later.

Question 10. What does the notion of preparedness for learning mean?
Answer: Preparedness is a reference to the fact that organisms are better able to associate certain combination of stimuli, responses and reinforces than others.

• If an animal eats and is then ill, it may develop an aversion to the flavor of the food, but not to visual or auditory stimuli that works present at the same time.
• The members of different species are very different from one another in their capacities and response abilities.
• The kinds of S-S or S-R learning an organism can easily acquire depends on the associative mechanism it is genetically endowed with or prepared for.
• A particular kind of associative learning is easy for apes or human beings but may be extremely difficult for another species.
• It implies that learning very much dependent on those association for which one is genetically prepared at the same time on his/her psychological preparedness to learn a particular task.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 PSYCHOLOGYwhich will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Question 1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour?
Answer:  Behaviour refers to any response of an organism that can be measured. Any covert or overt action/reaction a person does that can be observed in some ways.
A person running to catch train is an example of overt behaviour.
The working of human memory or problem solving might be thought of as behaviour, even though they cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from their product.

Question 2. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline of Psychology?
Answer:  The popular theories of human behaviour are based on common sense and may or may not be true if investigated scientifically.

• Common sense based on hind sight. Psychology as a science looks for patterns of behaviour which can be predicted and not explained after the behaviour occurs.
• Dweck’s study on children (who gave up too easily when faced with difficult problems or failures) is worth mentioning here.
• Commonsense tells us to give them easy problems, first in order to increase their success rate so that their confidence goes up.
• Dweck found that children who had always succeeded because they were given easy problems could not cope up with difficult problems and gave up faster in comparison to those who had experience of both success and failure and were taught to put more effort to deal with difficult problems.Such studies prove that predictions based on empirical studies are reliable and valid.

Question 3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.
Answer:  Psychology as a modem discipline has a short history but a long past. It grew out of ancient philosophy. It emerges as a scientific discipline in the following phases:
1. Structuralism:
It is the oldest school/approach to psychology, and it was proposed by William Wundt. Structuralists were interested in analysis of human mind and its structure.

• They were interested in conscious experience and wanted to study the building blocks of mind.
• They used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.

2. Functionalism:
It is an approach to psychology, developed by an American Psychologist William James.

• They (Functionalists) emphasised on what the mind does and the function of consciousness in adjustment to the environment
• According to them consciousness is an on-going stream of mental process, it can’t be broken down into parts.
• They also used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.

3. Behaviourism:
Proposed by John B. Watson who viewed psychology as the science of behaviour and behaviour could be described objectively in terms of stimuli and responses (S-R).

• This approach proposed that mentalist concepts such as consciousness, image or mind cannot be measured or studied objectively and scientifically.
• Watson emphasised on observable and verifiable response to stimuli.
• He was influenced by Pavlov’s classical conditioning and was interested in the study of learning.

4. Gestalt Psychology:
This approach was a revolt against structuralism, founded in Germany by Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka

• It focused on perceptual organisation (organisation of what we see) and they also demonstrated the laws of perceptual organisation.
• Structuralist wanted to break down perception into elements but Gestalt stated that when we look at the world, our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the components of the perceptions i.e. we give meaning to perception.
• For example, when we look at a table we do not see four wooden legs and trapezoid plain surface above it but we recognise it as a table.

5. Psychoanalysis:
This approach was proposed by Dr. Sigmund Freud.

• He viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires and conflicts of which we are not aware at present.
• He used psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological disorders.

6. Humanism:
It was advocated by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

• They emphasised on the free will of human beings i.e. people are free to do whatever they choose to do. Their actions are not predetermined by any force.
• They said that human beings strive to grow and unfold their inner potential i.e. what they are capable of doing.
• According to them all individuals have innate tendency to self actualise and all human activities are goal directed and worthwhile.

7. Cognitive Perspective/Cortstructivism:
This perspective is a combination of Gestalt approach and structuralist approach.
This approach focuses on cognition i.e. how we know the world through thinking understanding, perceiving, memorising and problem solving etc.

• Jean Piaget and Vygotsky are the pioneers of this approach.
• Cognitive psychologists view the human mind as an information processing system like a computer.
• Mind is considered to receive, process, transform, store and retrieve information.
• Mind is dynamic and human beings actively construct their minds as they interact with the social and physical environment and interaction between adults and children.

Question 4. What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain.
Answer:  Psychology is located at the intersection of many fields of knowledge pertaining to human functioning.

• It contributes to the growth of other disciplines and draws subject-matter from them as well.
• In the study of brain and behaviour psychology shares its knowledge with neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and computer science.
• In studying the meaning, growth and the development of human behaviour in a socio-cultural context, psychology shares its knowledge with anthropology, sociology, social work, political science and economics.

Question 5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical psychologist.
Answer:   (a) Psychologist—A psychologist is someone who possesses the knowledge of psychology and holds recognized degree in the field; they work in diverse areas, like teaching, counselling, community etc. Psychiatrist—They are qualified medical-practitioners who are concerned with psychological well-being of individuals. Clinical Psychologist and psychiatrist are different in the qualification and in roles. Clinical Psychologist cannot administer or prescribe drugs whereas psychiatrists are medical professionals and trained in administering medicine/drugs to treat mental disorders.
(b) Counsellor—A counsellor provides advice to the persons who suffer from motivational and emotional problems, they provide vocational guidance also. Clinical psychologist—A clinical psychologist also helps people with behavioural, mental and emotional problems.

• They are post- graduate in Psychology and are specialised professionals.
• They provide therapy for various mental disorders, anxiety, fear or stress of any type.
• They use interview and administer psychological tests to diagnose the client’s problem.

Question 6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put to practice. 
Answer: 

• Psychology is not only a subject that satisfies curiosities of our mind about human nature, but it is also a subject that offers solutions to a variety of problems. It ranges from personal to family, a community or even national and international dimensions.
• The solution of these problems may involve political, economic and social reforms; however, these problems are a result of unhealthy thinking, negative attitude towards people and self and undesirable patterns of behaviour.
• A psychological analysis of these problems helps both in having a deeper understanding of these problems and also finding effective solutions.
• Psychology enables an individual to understand oneself in a balanced and positive way without being reactionary, in order to deal with everyday challenges and meet with personal expectations.
• Therefore, understanding of psychology enables a person to build stronger relationships at community level and improve individual strength.

Question 7. How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote environment friendly behaviour?
Answer:  Environmental psychology studies the interaction between natural and man-made environment and human behaviour.

• The knowledge of environmental psychology can help us prevent big disasters.
• We can learn to modify our behaviour to prevent any unwanted and painful outcome.
• For example, if we know the hazards of growing population, we can certainly apply some measure to stop population growth.

Question 8. In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of psychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the concerns of the psychologists working in this field.
Answer:  The branch of social psychology is the most suitable for solving problems like crime.
It explores through thought process of people and their influence on other. Social psychologists are concerned with topics like attitude, conformity, obedience to authority, social motivation, inter-group relations, etc.
In answering such questions the knowledge of psychology for Lawer and a criminologist is also very essential. If they have the knowledge of psychology they can understand how well a witness remembers the incident? How well can he/she report such facts when taking the witness stand in the court.

Question 9.Lata Mangeshkar is an accomplished singer in the Indian cinema. Name the need which best represents this case in the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Answer: self-actualisation

Question 10.When we go to a matinee show, on entering the theatre we find it difficult to see things around. However, after spending about 15-20 minutes there, we are able to see almost everything. What is this phenomenon called?

Answer:visual adaptation.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 7 INTRODUCING TO REMOTE SENSING NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION for Class 11 GEOGRAPHY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These   can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter.

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION ON INTRODUCING TO REMOTE SENSING

Question 1.
All images are not photographs but all photographs are images. How?
Answer:
An image refers to pictorial representation, regardless of what regions of energy have been used to detect and record it. A photograph refers specifically to images that have been recorded on photographic film. Therefore, all images are not photographs but all photographs are images.

Question 2.
What is temporal resolution?
Answer:
In satellite remote sensing, the sun-synchronous polar orbit enables the collection of images after a pre-determined periodical interval. This interval is referred to as the temporal resolution or the revisit time of the satellite over the same area of the earth surface.

Question 3.
What is a scanner? How does it work?
Answer:
A scanner is usually made up of a reception system consisting of a mirror and detectors. A scanning sensor constructs the scene by recording a series of scan lines. While doing so, the motor device oscillates the scanning mirror through the angular field of view of the sensor, which determines the length of scan lines and is called swath. It is because of such reasons that the mode of collection of images by scanners is referred bit-by-bit. Each scene is composed of cells that determine the spatial resolution of an image. The oscillation of the scanning mirror across the scene directs the received energy to the detectors, where it is converted into electrical signals. These signals are further converted into numerical values called Digital Number (DN Values) for recording on a magnetic tape.

Question 4.
Explain about different types of sensor resolutions.
Answer:
Remote sensors are characterised by spatial, spectral and radiometric resolutions that enable the extraction of useful information pertaining to different terrain conditions.

1. Spatial Resolution: Spatial resolution of the sensors refers to the capability of the sensor to distinguish two closed spaced object surfaces as two different object surfaces. As a rule, with an increasing resolution the identification of even smaller object surfaces become possible,

2. Spectral Resolution: It refers to the sensing and recording power of the sensor in different bands of EMR (Electromagnetic radiation). Multispectral images are acquired by using a device that disperses the radiation received by the sensor and recording it by deploying detectors sensitive to specific spectral ranges. The principles in obtaining such images is the extension of the dispersion of light in nature resulting in the appearance of the “rainbow”.

3.Radiometric Resolution: It is the capability of the sensor to discriminate between two targets. Higher the radiometric resolution, smaller the radiance differences that can be detected between two targets.

Question 5.
How can we classify the characteristics of an object?
Answer:
We can group the characteristics of the objects into two broad categories, i.e. image characteristics and terrain characteristics.

• Image Characteristics: The image characteristics include tone or colour in which objects appear, their shape, size, pattern, texture and the shadow they cast.
• Terrain Characteristics: Location and the association of different objects with their surrounding objects constitute the terrain characteristics.

Question 6.
Differentiate between:
(i) Photographs and images.
Answer:

Basis	Photograph	Image
Meaning	A photograph refers specifically to images that have been recorded on photographic film.	An image refers to pictorial representation, regardless of what regions of energy have been used to detect and record it.
Scope	All photographs are images. Therefore it is inclusive in images and its scope is narrow.	All images are not photographs. Images can be: digital images and photographic images. Therefore, its scope is wider.

(ii) Whiskbroom Scanners and Pushbroom Scanners.
Answer:
Whiskbroom scanners, also sometimes referred to as spotlight or across track scanners, use a mirror to reflect light onto a single detector. The mirror moves back and forth, to collect measurements from one pixel in the image at a time. It is shown below:

The moving parts make this type of sensor expensive and more likely to wear out.

Pushbroom Scanners:
Pushbroom scanners are also sometimes referred to as along track scanners. It is used a line of detectors arranged perpendicular to the flight direction of the spacecraft. As the spacecraft flies forward, the image is collected one line at a time, with all of the pixels in a line being measured simultaneously. It is shown with the help of following figure. A pushbroom scanner receives a stronger signal than a whiskbroom scanner because it looks at each pixel area for longer. One drawback of pushbroom sensors is that the detectors in the “pushbroom” can have varying sensitivity. If they are not perfectly calibrated, this can result in stripes in the data.

Sensors that use the push broom design include SPOT, IRS, QuickBird, OrbView etc.

(iii) Sun-synchronous (or polar) and geostationary orbits.
Answer:

Basis	Sun-Synchronous	Geostationary Orbits
Location	Satellites in this orbit provide medium to high resolution images of the whole earth which are mostly used for environmental monitoring. They orbit at altitudes of 300 to 1,400 km above earth.	Geostationary orbits are located about 36,000 km above the earth.
Revolution time	With every satellite orbit which takes about 90 min, the earth is rotating a bit further resulting in the fact that the satellite is “watching” different sections of the earth in narrow bands. Days or weeks later, the satellite orbits again above the same section.	At this altitude a satellite needs exactly 24 hours to orbit around the earth, the same time the earth takes to perform a complete revolution around its axis.
Expansion	It is expaided from 81 degree north to 81 degree south latitude.	It is expanded on one third of the globe.
Example	The US LANDSAT series is a well known example of a polar orbiting satellite.	METEOSAT is one example for a geostationary satellite.
Utility	It is important for earth resources	It is important for tele­communication and weather department.

(iv) Photographic and non-photographic sensors.
Answer:

Basis	Photographic sensors	Non-photographic Sensors
Meaning	A photographic sensor (camera) records the images of the objects at an instance of exposure.	A non-photographic sensor obtains the images of the objects in bit-by-bit form. These sensors are known as scanners.
Device	It is done through camera	It is done through scanners
Other name	It is also called Analogue sensors	It is also called digital sensors.

(v) Photographic image and digital image
Answer:

Basis	Photographic Image	Digital Image
Meaning	Photographs are acquired in the optical regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. 0.3 – 0.9 pm.	A digital image consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Each one of the pixels in an image has an intensity value and an address in two­ dimensional image space.
Colour	Four different types of light sensitive film emulsion bases are used to obtain photographs. These are black and white, colour, black and white infrared and colour infrared.	It does not require any film.

Question 7.
How does remote sensing help in the collection of information about the properties of the objects and phenomena of the earth surface?
Answer:
Remote sensing help in the collection of information about the properties of the objects and phenomena of the earth surface:

1. Source of Energy: Sun is the most important source of energy used in remote sensing.

2. Transmission of Energy from the Source to the Surface of the Earth:
The energy that emanates from a source propagates between the source and the object surface in the form of waves of energy at a speed of light (300,000 km per second). Such energy propagation is called Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR).

3. Interaction of Energy with the Earth’s Surface: The propagating energy finally interacts with the objects of the surface of the earth. This leads to absorption, transmission, reflection or emission of energy from the objects.

4. Propagation of Reflected/Emitted Energy through Atmosphere: When energy is reflected from objects of the earth’s surface, it re-enters into the atmosphere.

5. Detection of Reflected/Emitted Energy by the Sensor: The sensors recording the energy that they receive are placed in a near-polar sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 700 – 900 km. These satellites are known as remote sensing satellites (e.g. Indian Remote Sensing Series). As against these satellites, the weather monitoring and telecommunication satellites are placed in a Geostationary position (the satellite is always positioned over its orbit that synchronizes with the direction of the rotation of the earth) and revolves around the earth (coinciding with the direction of the movement of the earth over its axis) at an altitude of nearly 36,000 km (e.g. INSAT series of satellites).

6. Conversion of Energy Received into Photographic/Digital Form of Data: The radiations received by the sensor are electronically converted into a digital image. It comprises digital numbers that are arranged in rows and columns. These numbers may also be converted into an analogue (picture) form of data product. The sensor onboard an earth¬orbiting satellite electronically transmits the collected image data to an Earth Receiving Station located in different parts of the world.

7. Extraction of Information Contents from Data Products: After the image data is received at the earth station, it is processed for elimination of errors caused during image data collection. Once the image is corrected, information extraction is carried out from digital images using digital image processing techniques and from analogue form of data products by applying visual interpretation methods.

8. Conversion of Information into Map/Tabular Forms: The interpreted information is finally delineated and converted into different layers of thematic maps. Besides, quantitative measures are also taken to generate tabular data.

Question 8.
Explain about different types of multispectral scanners.
Answer:
In satellite remote sensing, the Multi-Spectral Scanners (MSS) are used as
sensors. These sensors are designed to obtain images of the objects while sweeping across the field of view.
The Multi-Spectral Scanners are divided into the following types:

1. Whiskbroom Scanners
2. Pushbroom Scanners

1. Whiskbroom Scanners: The whiskbroom scanners are made up of a rotating mirror and a single detector. The mirror is so oriented that when it completes a rotation, the detector sweeps across the field of view between 90° and 120° to obtain images in a large number of narrow spectral bands ranging from visible to middle infrared regions of the spectrum. The total extent of the oscillating sensor is known as the Total Field of View (TFOV) of the scanner. While scanning the entire field, the sensor’s optical head is always placed at a particular dimension called the Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV).

2. Pushbroom Scanners: The pushbroom scanners consist of a number of detectors which are equivalent to the number obtained by dividing the swath of the sensor by the size of the spatial resolution. In pushbroom scanner, all detectors are linearly arrayed and each detector collects the energy reflected by the ground cell (pixel) dimensions of 20 metres at a nadir’s view. For example, the swath of High-Resolution Visible Radiometer – 1 (HRVR – 1) of the French remote sensing satellite SPOT is 60 km and the spatial resolution is 20 metres. If we divide 60 km x 1000 metres/20 metres, we get a number of 3000 detectors that are deployed in SPOT HRV – 1 sensor.

Question 9.
Based upon the mechanism used in detecting and recording, in how many categories can we classify the remotely sensed data products?
Answer:
Based upon the mechanism used in detecting and recording, these may be broadly classified into two types:

1. Photographic Images
2. Digital Images

1. Photographic Images: Photographs are acquired in the optical regions of electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. 0.3-0. 9 pm. Four different types of light sensitive film emulsion bases are used to obtain photographs. These are black and white, colour, black and white infrared and colour infrared. However, in aerial photography black and white film is normally used. Photographs may be enlarged to any extent without loosing information contents or the contrast.

2. Digital Images: A digital image consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Each one of the pixels in an image has an intensity value and an address in two-dimensional image space. A digital number (DN) represents the average intensity value of a pixel. It is dependent upon the electromagnetic energy received by the sensor and the intensity levels used to describe its range. In a digital image, the reproduction of the details pertaining to the images of the objects is affected by the size of the pixel. A smaller size pixel is generally useful in the preservation of the scene details and digital representation. However, zooming of the digital image beyond certain extent produces loss of information and the appearance of pixels only. Using a digital image processing algorithms, the digital numbers representing their intensity level in an image may be displayed.

Question 10.
Explain various elements of visual interpretation.
Answer:
Elements of Visual Interpretation Whether we are conscious of it or not we use the form, size, location of the objects and their relationships with the surrounding objects to identify them in our day-to-day life. These characteristics of objects are termed as elements of visual interpretation.

1. Tone or Colour: All objects receive energy in all regions of spectrum. The interaction of EMR with the object surface leads to the absorption, transmittance and reflection of energy. It is the reflected amount of the energy that is received and recorded by the sensor in tones of grey, or hues of colour in black and white, and colour images respectively. The variations in the tone or the colour depend upon the orientation of incoming radiations, surface properties and the composition of the objects.

2. Texture: The texture refers to the minor variations in tones of grey or hues of colour. These variations are primarily caused by an aggregation of smaller unit features that fail to be discerned individually such as high density and low density residential areas; slums and squatter settlements; garbage and other forms of solid waste; and different types of crops and plants. The textural differences in the images of certain objects vary from smooth to coarse textures.

3. Size: The size of an object as discerned from the resolution or scale of an image is another important characteristic of individual objects. It helps in distinctively identifying the industrial and industrial complexes with residential dwellings.

4. Shape: The general form and configuration or an outline of an individual object provides important clues in the interpretation of remote sensing images. The shape of some of the objects is so distinctive that make them easy to identify. For example, the shape of the Sansad Bhawan is typically distinct from many other built- up features.

5. Shadow: Shadow of an object is a function of the sun’s illumination angle and the height of the object itself. The shape of some of the objects is so typical that they could not be identified without finding out the length of the shadow they cast. For example, the Question utub Minar located in Delhi, minarets of mosques, overhead water tanks, electric or telephone lines, and similar features can only be identified using their shadow.

6. Pattern: The spatial arrangements of many natural and man-made features show repetitive appearance of forms and relationships. The arrangements can easily be identified from the images through the utilisation of the pattern they form. For example, planned residential areas with the same size and layout plan of the dwelling units in an urban area can easily be identified if their pattern is followed.

7. Association: The association refers to the relationship between the objects and their surroundings along with their geographical location. For example, an educational institution always finds its association with its location in or near a residential area as well as the location of a playground within the same premises.