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In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 1 STRUCTURAL CHANGE NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART B which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON STRUCTURAL CHANGE

Question 1.
What are the features of Industrialisation? Explain in detail.
Or
What are the prime features of industrial societies today?
Answer:
There are certain features of industrialisation which are given below:
1. Production through machines: Production, in the process of industrialisation, is being done by the machines and not manually. New machines are being invented in this process and these machines help in increasing production. Production in ancient times was being done manually. That’s why industrialisation was not at its developed stage. But production in this process is being done with new machines and is being done on a large scale.

2. Industrialisation is related to the process of production: The relation of industrialisation is with the process of production because production increases in this process. Production in this process is being done with machines.

3. Traditional power is not used in industrialisation: Traditional power is that power which is based upon human force or animal power. Instead of human or animal power, petrol, diesel, coal, electricity or nuclear power is used in industrialisation because this power gives more force to machines as compared to traditional power. Today’s machines are running with this type of power.

4. Production in industrialisation is done on a large scale: This process helps to increase the production. Production in ancient times was being done manually and that’s why it’s the rate was very low. But it is being done with machines in industrialisation and that’s why it is being done on a large scale. Machines are being used to fulfil the needs of the increasing population so that more and more production should take place.

5. Economic development is there in industrialisation: Economic development is a must in this process. Many industries are established in this which not only fulfils the needs of their own countries but they fulfil the needs of other countries as well. That’s why they earn profit for themselves and money for the country. They also pay taxes to the country, which increases the income of the country. This income is used for the development of the country. People get employment in these industries which uplifts their standard of living. It leads to the economic development of the country.

6. Industrialisation leads to breaking of old traditions: This process helps in disorganization of old traditions. For example, joint families in India disintegrate due to this process and nuclear families emerge. In the same way, many changes are also taking place in institutions like the caste system, marriage, etc. So we can say those old traditions are not prevalent due to this process.

7. New classes came into being due to industrialisation: Many new classes came into being due to this process. Rich class, middle class, poor class, capitalist class, labourer class, etc. are some of the examples of these new classes. Some people earn a lot of money due to this and some become poor. Many classes like Trade Unions emerge which are necessary for our society.

Question 2.
What problems are emerging due to industrialisation? Explain them.
Or
What are the consequences of the process of industrialisation? Explain them in detail.
Answer:
1. Economic problems: Many times, industrialisation leads to an economic problem instead of economic development. Production, in this, is done on a large scale, but many times consumption is constant or reduces due to one or another reason. Production continues at the same pace but less consumption leads to blockage of goods. That’s why many times, industry suffers economic depression.

2. Unemployment: Industrialisation also leads to the increasing problem of unemployment. Production in ancient times was done manually with which everyone was employed. But this process leads to new inventions and the advent of new machines. Owners try to reduce manpower and start to take more work from machines. One machine does the work of 10-20 labourers. The labourers become unemployed. In this way, this process leads to unemployment.

3. Destruction of small scale industries: This process also leads to the destruction of small scale and cottage industries. Production through machines is cheaper and is of good quality. But cottage industries are unable to produce things of good quality because they are made manually. In this way, things produced by industries take the place of things of the cottage industry in the market. It leads to non-consumption of things of cottage industry and economic depression over the cottage industry. In this way, industrialisation leads to the destruction of cottage industries.

4. Disorganization of Joint families: The process of industrialisation becomes one of the reasons for the disorganization of joint families. Industries are being established in cities because of which people from rural areas leave their joint families and move towards the cities. Gradually their family also move towards cities. With this, they form their own nuclear family. In this way, the joint family, which was one of the important features of Indian society, disorganizes and its reason is industrialisation.

5. Weakening of Caste System: If we look at the ancient Indian society then we see that the caste system was very strong, but now it has been weakened to a great extent. The main reason behind its weakness is industrialisation, as one of the features of the caste system that there were restrictions of social interaction between different castes. But these restrictions have been broken by industrialisation. People use to work with each other in factories and hardly care about the fact that with which caste other people belong.

Question 3.
What are the effects of industrialisation on society?
Answer:
The industrialization has some good and bad effects on society which are given below:
1. Division of labour: During ancient times, production was completed only in the family. Everyone was aware of every type of work related to production and they used to produce things while cooperating with each other. But due to industrialisation, production work is done on machines because of which the concept of division of labour came in front of us. Things are produced in stages and every stage has different types of work. Now every one performs different work. For example, one runs machine to make cloth, one does work of colouring and so on. All these works are related to the division of labour and specialisation. In this way, labour has been divided. Everyone does any specific work and specialisation of every work takes place. It is all because of industrialisation.

2. Development of means of transport: Means of transport have also been developed due to industrialisation. We need raw material in factories for production. To bring raw material from far off places, means of transport like trains and trucks were developed. Except these, we need means of transport to take produced things from factories to markets and they were developed very slowly. In this way, the means of transport were developed due to industrialisation.

3. Increase in production of factories: Production from houses has gone in the hands of factories, due to industrialisation, where production takes place with machines. Production with hands takes a lot of time but production with machines takes place very quickly. Yet consumption has also been increased due to growth in population but new inventions also took place with this and production was also increased. In this way, the increase in production also took place due to industrialisation.

4. Increase in the size of cities: Size of the cities were also increased due to industrialisation. Industries have been established in cities because of which rural people migrated to urban areas. It was not possible for them to go back to villages daily and that’s why they have brought their rural family to cities. Increase in population led to the construction of more houses which resulted in an increase in the size of cities. Gradually the concept of urbanization emerged.

5. Capitalism: Capitalism also came into being due to industrialisation. When production was taking place in the houses then there was no need for more capital because production was very less. But industrialisation gave birth to the factory system. A lot of capital is required to make any factory to buy raw material, to sell the finished product in the market, to give salary to labourers and for so many other things. Rich people, with a large amount of money, established large factories and with the help of their capital, started to earn more and more money.

With this many other classes like businessmen, owners, labourers, middlemen, etc. came into being and business increased. They started to send their produce to other countries which resulted in making more money. This wealth has resulted in the occupation of other countries and imperialism came into being. It has led to the exploitation of other countries. In this way, capitalism came into being and many other problems took place.

6. Elimination of cottage industries: Industrialisation led to the elimination of cottage industries from the villages. Production through machines is cheaper and is of good quality. But production in cottage industries is being done with hands which is not as good as the production of machines. In this way, things produced in the factories started to be sold in the market at cheaper rates. Then people stopped buying things of the cottage industry. In this way, the cottage industry faced economic depression and it came to a stage of the lockout. In this way, industrialisation led to the elimination of the cottage industry.

Question 4.
Explain some problems which are being faced by urban people.
Answer:
1. Problem of places of living: One of the major problems of urban areas is the problem of the place of living. Rural people are moving continuously towards urban areas because of which urban population is increasing rapidly. The population is increasing rapidly but places of living remain the same. That’s why either jungle are cleared to make places of living or many people start to five in one single room. Except this new slum areas are emerging and living there is another problem in itself.

2. Health problem: Urban people also have to face a health problem. Pollution due to the emission of smoke from large industries, pollution of vehicles, noise pollution, slums, etc. is some of the reasons which create a lot of health problem. Everyone comes under the trap of diseases. In the same way noise, the problem of sanitation, non-hygienic water, etc. also affects the health of the people. When people move towards cities then their health is in good shape but within a few years, their health also starts to be affected by the polluted environment of urban areas.

3. Growth of population: Urban population keeps on growing which creates a lot of problems for the people. Population increases due to difference of birth and death rate and it also increases due to the emigration of rural people towards the urban areas. It leads to the growth of population at a rapid pace. Growth in population has led to many other problems like the problem of the place of living, lack of civic facilities, etc.

4. Problem of crimes: Crimes prevails more in urban areas than in rural areas. Crimes in rural areas are generally related to small quarrels or are related to land. But they are of different nature in urban areas. Many types of crimes prevail in urban areas like theft, dacoity, rape, murder, white-collar crimes, etc. People have formal relations among them. Even neighbours hardly know anything about their neighbours. That’s why crimes take place quietly. Planned crimes exist in urban areas. In this way, people have to face the problem of crimes in urban areas.

Question 5.
Which features of modernisation can be seen in India? Explain them in detail.
Answer:
1. Industrialisation: There were very few industries before independence in India. But these industries increased very quickly after independence because industries got favourable conditions after 1947. Yet industrialisation is not a feature of modernisation but still, it is necessary for modernisation, because more industries will bring more money, economic development and employment for the people. Today, > the Indian industries are expanding very rapidly. India’s place in the world is 10th from the industrial point of view. In this way, the first necessary condition of modernity is an industry, which is increasing rapidly in our country

2. Secularism: When India was divided into the kingdoms, different kings used to promote one religion and the other religions were generally hated by them. This situation changed after the interference of the British. They hardly gave importance to any religion because their main motive was to earn money. After independence, the Indian government and the Constitution adopted the policy of Secularism so that none of the religions of the country could be given more importance and all the religions of the country should get equal importance. This is one of the conditions of modernity that a country should be secular and this policy has been adopted in India. So we can say that our country fulfils the next condition of modernity i.e. secularism.

3. Urbanisation: Next feature of Modernisation is urbanisation or increasing the Urban area and this thing can be applied in our country. In 1901, 90% of our population was rural but it decreased very rapidly after independence. According to the census of 1991, 25% of people lived in urban areas and according to the census of 2011, 32% of people lived in cities. It means that the rural population is moving very quickly towards urban areas and urban areas are developing rapidly.

4. Education: It has been said that a country is a modem whose literacy rate is 4 higher because education is directly related to modernity. If we look at western countries, they are considered as modern but we should look at their literacy rate as well. Literacy rate of Japan is 100%, the U.K. 99%, Russia 99.2% and the U.S.A. 98%. Except for this, the literacy rate of European countries is also very high because they spend a lot of money on education. These countries spend around 19-20% on the education of their total budget but our country spends only 3-3.5%. But this percentage is increasing slowly gradually.

5. Westernization: If we look carefully, then westernisation is generally considered as modernisation. Britishers ruled over India for around 200 years and they started the process of westernisation. They implemented western education in India, started industries on western lines, started trains and means of communication. They also changed the administrative system and started to run administration on western lines. A revolution came in India in the fields of transport, communication, education, etc. and this revolution is still underway. Our country has also developed a means of transport, communication, education, etc. on western lines. So after looking at this we can say that India is moving towards modernity.

Question 6.
What is meant by social change? Give some of its definitions.
Answer:
The word ‘Change’ is a value-free word. It never tells us about good or bad about any rule. In a general sense, change is that difference which is there in the present state and earlier state of anything. Like anyone has money today but was poor yesterday. His position has been changed due to money. Comparison is necessary for change because if we want to clarify any change then it can be clarified only by comparison. In this way, social change is related to society. When any change comes in the society or social relationship, then it is known as social change.

Definitions
Many sociologists have given the definitions of social change which are given below:
1. According to Gillin and Gillin, “Social change as variations from the modes of life, whether due to alteration in geographical conditions in cultural equipment, the composition of the population or ideologies, and whether brought by diffusion or invention within the group.”

2. According to Kingsley Davis, “By social change, I meant only such alterations as occur in social organization that is structure and function of society.”

So on the basis of a given description, we can say that social change is collective and is also related to cultural change. When any change comes in human behaviour then we can say that social change is underway. In short, we can say that social change is those differences which exist in ways of life of humans. Whatever we are looking in society these days, that is changed from earlier times. For example, the institutions of family and religion in modern times, have been changed as compared to earlier times.

Question 7.
Explain briefly the characteristics of social change.
Answer:
1. Social change is universal: Social change is that change which occurs in every society. No society is completely static because change is a law of nature. It doesn’t matter which society it is, whether it is ancient or modem, it exists in every culture and society. Demographic change in society, change because of inventions, change in values and ideals, etc. always exists in society. It is right that the speed of social change is different in a different society, but change is always universal. Social change is a universal phenomenon which occurs in all societies and in all ages. The time when human society started, changes have taken place and will remain forever. Every stage of a human society gone through changes, yet the speed of change in them might be different. Change is the law of nature and no one can be prevented from this.

2. Definite prediction is not possible in social change: Any type of definite prediction is impossible in social change. It is so because social relationships are not definite. They keep on changing. For example, if we predict that caste system, untouchability or dowry system etc. will come to an end in the coming ages and maybe we’ll not be able to find the complete end of these evils in the society. That’s why if we will predict definitely then it can be proved wrong. We cannot imagine definitely about the behaviour of a person. That’s why a prediction is impossible in social change. Social change is a community change. It doesn’t mean that there is no rule of social change or we cannot imagine about it.

3. Speed of social change is not uniform: Yet social change is universal but its speed is different in different societies. It comes very quickly in some societies and in some societies, its speed is very slow. For example, if we compare ancient and modem societies then we can see that speed of change is very fast in modern societies as compared to ancient societies. Even this speed is very fast in big cities and very slow in smaller cities. The reasons for the difference in speed is that the factors, which bring social change, are different in different societies. We can notice the change by comparing the two societies.

4. Change is the law of nature: Existence of social change is the law of nature. Change comes even against our wish. We cannot control natural forces which often brings change. Man is dynamic by nature. Change in society either comes because of natural forces or because of planned ways of humans to fulfil their needs. We always want new things and try to achieve them. So the dynamic nature of the person is also responsible for social change. For example, if we are forced to eat the same vegetable daily then we will be bored after one or two days. We love to eat new things daily for our taste. In this way, the way in which need arises for anything in that same way change comes in society. In this way, we can see that change is the wish of every person.

Question 8.
What are the social consequenc.es of Industrialisation? Explain in detail.
Answer:
After 1947, the increase in industrialisation has greatly affected the life of Indian people and its description is given below:
1. Change in community feelings: The process of industrialisation has greatly affected both rural and urban communities. But we can see great community feeling in rural areas as compared to urban areas. The urban population has increased due to industrialisation and that’s why the community feeling has loosened its impact in urban areas.

2. Decline in Social Control: As the population increases due to industrialisation then the power of social and caste organisations has declined. Due to the decline of this power of social organisations, community feeling has decreased and social control has also declined.

3. Development of the process of urbanisation: The main reason behind the development of the process of urbanisation is the process of industrialisation. Cities started to develop due to progress in industries. Wherever industries are established, people move to that place, from rural areas, in search of employment and start to live there. Gradually, that area takes the form of a city.

4. Development of means of transport and communication: Means of transport and communication in India were developed rapidly due to the development of large scale industries. Means of transport like rails, buses, roads, means of the naval system were developed and it has become easy for people to conduct business with far off places or to move from one place to another. The mechanisation of industries also increased the production of industries.

5. Decline in the importance of religion: Importance of religion, in the Indian society, also declined due to the process of industrialisation. People go to urban areas from rural areas to find work in industries and start to live in urban areas. Materialism is of great importance in urban areas because of which even rural people start to move away from the impact of religion upon their lives. In this way, the importance of religion has declined.

6. Change in family system: Due to the development of industries and urban areas, rural people started to find employment in urban areas. Even they had to leave their ancestral houses and property to earn bread and butter in urban areas. It has resulted in the disorganization of the joint family in rural areas. Nuclear families have started to take the place of joint families. Functions of the family were taken away by other institutions of society. Head of the family lost its hold and control over the family. Modem families are becoming smaller due to family planning.

7. Division of Labour: In rural cottage industry, all the members of the family did every type of work. But when machines started to produce things, then the whole process of production was divided into small parts. As a result, the division of labour started to develop. One person only performs one small work of the whole process in the process of division of labour. For example, any car is made up of thousands of parts and every part is made by a different person or persons. A person only gets that work in which he is specialized. In this way, the division of labour and specialisation is developed due to the development of industries.

Question 9.
What is Modernisation? Give its definitions.
Answer:
The process of modernisation came with the development of modern societies. The process of modernisation started in India after the advent of the British. It means that when people came in contact with the people of western culture, then many changes took place. Modernisation is the main feature of our modem society.

According to M.N. Srinivas, “Difference exists in the processes of modernisation and westernisation. Concept of westernisation is morally a more neutral concept than the concept of modernisation. We cannot come to know about the good or bad features of any culture in it. But modernisation is not a value-free concept because modernisation is always considered as good and better.” That’s why Srinivas has given more importance to westernisation than modernisation. He has not given the difference in them but according to him, the results of modernisation are always good and better. So from the views of Srinivas, it is clear that the process of modernisation is always progressive. Different sociologists have expressed different views about it which are given below-

1. According to Marrion J. Levy, “My definition of modernisation hinges on the use of inanimate (non-living) tools to multiply the effect of effort. I conceive each of these two elements as the basis of continue. A society will be considered more or less modernise to the extent that its members use inanimate sources of power and or use tools to multiply the effects of these efforts. Neither of these elements is either totally absent from or exclusively present in any society.”

2. According to Weener, “There are many aspects of modernisation-

1. Political Modernisation: In this, important institutions, political parties, parliaments, right to vote, development of secret vote which are capable of reaching any participant decision, etc. are included.
2. Cultural Modernisation: Which produces likeness with ideologies and secularisation.
3. Economic Modernisation: It is different from industrialisation.

3. According to Dr Yogender Singh, “Modernisation includes rational attitude, universalistic viewpoint, sympathy, scientific world view, humanity, technological advancement etc.”
So we can say that the process of modernisation is that process in which change takes place in the old system and new and better system takes place of the old system. This process exists in any society but its degree is different in different societies.

Question 10.
Explain briefly the different characteristics of modernisation.
Answer:
1. It leads to the development of urbanisation and industrialisation. Industrialisation also exists with urbanisation. Wherever big industries were established, cities were also developed there. With this process, the population of villages started to move towards cities. Means of communication and transport brought about many changes in urban society, like changes in institutions like family, religion and caste, etc. This led to a change in urbanisation. That is why we believe that urbanisation and modernisation are interrelated. Wherever cities are developed modernisation exists. Hence, we can see more progress in urban society as-compared to the rural community.

2. This process develops the education: With the process of modernisation, the educational sector developed very quickly. A lot of development has taken place in technical education. In ancient times, only higher castes were given religious education. But with the progress of society, the need was felt of technical institutions and hence technical institutions were opened. Except this, the importance of occupational education was increased because every person started to get work according to his/her ability. The process of specialisation was also increased. A person who receives technical education got a job or function. In this way, the process of modernisation has brought about many changes in the educational sector.

3. It increases international relations: Cooperation is increased in different countries with the process of modernisation. Every country receives security with the advents of U.N.O. To produce a peaceful atmosphere in the world, mutual relations in different countries were necessary. The U.N.O. has tried to protect human rights. It has also given its view to resolving the personal problems of any country. Its main aim is to maintain peace in the world. If a conflict starts between two countries then the U.N.O. tries to resolve their dispute. In this way, the process of modernisation has developed an atmosphere of love and cooperation at the international level,

4. This process develops and increases the process of social differentiation: With the process of modernisation, our society becomes complex and the process of differentiation has increased. With the material development of society, social differentiation has increased. By this process, we have come to know about that process with which the society is divided into different parts. This process never allows the feeling of hardness to come in humans and groups. In this way, when society moves from a simple situation to a complex situation, then differentiation definitely exists in a society. Without this process, we can’t divide the functions in society.

By this, the way in which this process of modernisation develops, similarly every sector of society i.e. religious, economic, educational, etc. starts to develop. That’s why the process of differentiation attains the pace and speed.

5. It increases social mobility: Social mobility is the main feature of modem societies. Specialisation, division of labour in urban societies, differentiation of occupations, business, industries, facilities of means of communication and transport has brought about a great pace in social mobility. Now every person can become successful with his/her ability and brain. Now they can choose an occupation in which they see more profit. People even change their place of residence due to occupation. In this way, with the process of social mobility, new values were developed instead of traditional values.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 6 THE CHALLENGES OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART A which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON THE CHALLENGES OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Question 1.
Give three features of ascribed identity and community feeling.
Answer:

1. People are very much associated with ascribed identities and community feelings. It provides reality to the world and gives us a sense of identity.
2. Ascribed identity and community feelings are universal. Every individual has a motherland, mother tongue, a family, and loyalty as well.
3. All of us are equally loyal towards our ascribed identities. Yet there are certain differences among ascribed identities of every individual and a sense of loyalty remains there in everyone.

Question 2.
‘India is a secular state.’How?
Answer:
It is true that India is a secular state. It has been declared in the Constitution that India will be a secular state but religion, language, and other factors are not completely discarded from all the public sectors. Actually, these groups are individually sanctioned. From the aspect of international criteria, minority religions are given strong constitutional protections. Constitution has given fundamental rights to everyone (including minorities) to protect and propagate their culture. Everyone is free to adopt any religion of their choice. It has been written in the Constitution that no discrimination shall be made on the basis of any religion. State and government will not have their own religion. In this way, we can say that India is a secular country.

Question 3.
How can secularism be understood in its two forms?
Answer:
Secularism in the Indian context:
(a) India is a State recognizing all religions to be equal.

• It does not favor any one particular religion over the others;
• Opposite of religious chauvinism
• Implies equal respect for all religions

For example – India as a secular State declares public holidays to mark the festivals of all religions.

(b) Secularism in the western context:

• The State has a particular religion
• It refers to the separation of Church and the State
• It means the distancing of religion and political authority.

Question 18.
Explain the politics of assimilation and integration used to establish a national identity. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Answer:
Assimilationist and integrationist strategies try to establish singular national identities through various interventions like:

1. Centralizing all powers to forums where the dominant group constitutes a majority and eliminating the autonomy of local or minority groups.
2. Imposing a unified legal and judicial system based on the dominant group’s traditions and abolishing alternative systems used by other groups.
3. Adopting the dominant group’s language as the only official national language and making its use mandatory in all public institutions.
4. Promotions of the dominant group’s language and culture through national institutions including state-controlled media and educational institutions.
5. Adoption of state symbols celebrating the dominant group’s history, heroes, and culture reflected in such things as choice of national holidays or naming of streets, etc.
6. Seizure of lands forests and fisheries from minority groups and indigenous people and declaring them national resources.

Question 4.
Which elements of Unity were there in ancient India?
Answer:
1. Rural Society. Ancient India was based upon rural society. The lifestyle of the people was also rural. The main occupation of the people was agriculture. Most of the people were engaged in agriculture or in occupations related to agriculture. Jajmani system was in existence. Washermen, cobblers, ironmen provided their services to the people. They were known as Kamins. Big landlords used to give a share to them from their produce. This Jajmani system was prevalent since the ages. This established unity in the rural society.

2. Institutions. Mobility was present in many traditional and cultural institutions of the society. Gurukuls of education as well as many other institutions became the basis of unity in India. These institutions were one of the reasons for unity in ancient India.

3. Language. Brahmi script is known as the mother of all the languages. All of our ancient religious scriptures like Vedas, Puranas, etc., are written in the Sanskrit language. The Sanskrit language is seen with great respect in the whole of India. It is also known as the language of gods because it has been said that different gods used to use this language.

4. Ashrama System. One of the main bases of unity in the Indian Society was some of its institutions like the Ashrama System. Four Ashramas are arranged for our life like Brahmacharya Ashram, Grihastha, Vana Prastha, and Sanyasa Ashrama. This system prevailed all over India because the ultimate aim of every person is to get salvation. That is why everyone used to obey this system.

5. Purusharthas. There are four main aims of life which were known as Purusharthas. These are Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha. During earlier times, only Brahmins were there. But later on, other varnas like Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras came into existence. The most aim of their life was to get salvation. That is why everyone had to spend his life according to these Purusharthas. Everyone had to spend their lives by following the Dharma (duties), earning Artha (money), to continue their lineage (Kama), and ultimately to attain moksha (salvation). Everyone used to obey them. In this way, it was one of the elements of Indian unity.

6. Karmas or One’s Actions. The meaning of Karmas is the work or one’s actions. Karma is of great importance in Indian culture. The next life of the person depends upon one’s Karma of his previous life. If Karma is good then the next birth of that person will be at a good place and vice versa. It is also possible that the good deeds of the person may lead him to salvation from the cycle of birth and death. Karma was also one of the elements of unity in Indian society.

Question 5.
Explain the reasons for Unity in Diversity in Indian Society.
Answer:
1. Geographical Factors. India is a country full of diversities from the geographical point of view. The world’s highest mountain, Himalayas is in Northern India. Rivers like Sindhu, Ganga, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra form the largest plain of India. India has certain places where a lot of rainfalls and has the driest area as well i.e., Thar desert. It has both fertile as well as barren land. Some of its areas are covered with ice throughout the year whereas others are deserts. It has many densely populated states like Uttar Pradesh and has certain places, like Sikkim, where there is very less density of population.

2. Social Factors. In social diversity, we can see different forms of marriage, which is one of the basic institutions of society. Some castes have the custom of fraternal polyandry and some groups like Muslims have the custom of polygamy. Joint family and Nuclear family express social diversity. People, in urban areas hardly know their neighbors even if they lived in one place for years but people in rural areas know everything about everyone in their society.

3. Religious Factors. People following different religions such as Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, etc., have been living in India since the ages. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the British came to India and from then onwards Christianity also became an indispensable part of Indian society. There are 3000 castes in Hindus and 94 castes in Muslims. In the same way, Christians are divided into Protestants and Catholics, Buddhists in Hinayana and Mahayana and Jains are divided into Digambars and Shwetambars.

But many times religious riots occur in different parts of the country like at Godhra in Gujarat in 2002. But internal unity still prevails even in the presence of religious diversity. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Sikhism are different religions propagated in India. They follow their respective beliefs, values, and ideals to establish harmony among all religions. The Indians celebrate their festivals like Hob, Diwali, Dussehra, Eid, Gurupurab, Christmas, Good Friday, etc.

4. Caste Factors. Generally, the followers of all religions are divided into many castes and subcastes. Four varnas, which were started in the Vedic age on the basis of action and trait, were changed into thousands of castes due to intra-varna marriage. Three thousand castes exist in today’s India. Every caste has its own beliefs, values, etc. After independence, the Government of India has classified these caste groups into four categories i.e., scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes, and general category. Caste stratification has been reduced due to reservation for backward and lower classes. Caste restrictions have been reduced to a great extent because of education, common means of transport, common workplace, etc.

5. Linguistic Factors. India is a multilingual society where 22 languages were sanctioned by the Indian Constitution. Hindi became the national language and English was sanctioned as the official language. Indian society has been divided on the linguistic basis to such an extent that in 1953 Andhra Pradesh state was formed by separating it from Tamil Nadu due to the Telugu language. In the same way, Punjab and Haryana were also formed. South Indian people are unable to adopt the Hindi language. In spite of this, linguistic unity still exists in India even in the presence of diversity. Most of the Indians speak, understand, write and read the Hindi language. South Indian people generally use the Dravidian language and North Indian people use the Indo-Aryan language. The spread of education has made it possible that all the Indians communicate with each other either in Hindi or English language.

Question 6.
What are the factors of religious diversity in India? Explain.
Answer:
Diversity in religion is of two types:

1. Intra-religious diversity
2. Inter-religious diversity.

1. Intra-Religious Diversity. Many reasons for diversity are there in different religions (Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism) of India. People of Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Shaiv, Shakti, Vaishnav, Vaam-party, followers of Krishna and Hanuman, worshippers of trees, plants, animals, etc., are there in the Hindu religion.

People of higher castes of the Hindu religion are known as sacred people and people of lower castes are known as non-sacred. People of lower castes are restricted to perform religious functions.
Shiyas and Sunnis in Islam and Protestant and Catholic groups exist among Christian. In the same way, Namdharis, Akalis, Nirankaris, etc., exist in the Sikh religion. Hinayana and Mahayana of Buddhism and Shwetambar and Digambar are the main groups of Jainism.

2. Inter-Religious Diversity. Followers of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Parsi religions live in India. This unity in diversity in these religions is based on the following factors:

1. Different gods. Every religion has its own god, for example, Hindus have Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, etc., Muslims have Prophet Muhammad, Christians have Jesus Christ, Ten Gurus among Sikhs, Mahatma Buddha of Buddhism, Parsis have Zoroaster, and so on. So all the religions have different Gods. ‘

2. Religious books. Different religions have different religious books. For example, Vedas, Puranas, Upnishads, Ramayan, Mahabharat, Geeta are religious books of Hindus. Christians have Bible, Muslims have Quran, Shri Guru Granth Sahib of Sikhs and Zend Avesta is the religious book of Parsis.

3. Monotheism and Polytheism. On the basis of the numbers of gods Hindus worship Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Rama, Krishan, Shakti, etc., Sikhs worship ten Gurus. But Christians, Muslims, and Parsis believe in one God. People following Buddhism never comment on the existence of God but followers of Jainism do not believe in the existence of God.

4. Idol Worship. Hindus have given a definite form to all of their gods on the basis of idol worship but Sikhs and Muslims strongly oppose idol worship.

5. Diversity in Religious Beliefs. Hindus believe in reincarnation, Karma and rebirth theory, spiritualism, sins, and fulfillment of religious sacraments. But Muslims hardly believe in reincarnation. In the same way, Sikhs also oppose religious sacraments.

Buddhist believe in reincarnation but Jains hardly believe in the existence of God. They say that the human body should be given hard suffering.

6. Mutually Opposing. Some of the elements of Indian religions oppose other religions or, are opposite to each other’s beliefs, According to Hindu religious beliefs, Brahmins are at the highest strata in all the castes. Hindus worship animals and give water to the sun, worships idols, and believe in reincarnation. Muslims and Christians oppose idol worship. Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains are against the highest status of Brahmins and they even oppose Hindu religious sacraments.

So from here, it is clear that there are a number of disagreements in different religions about their beliefs. One believes in one thing and other beliefs in the other thing.

Question 7.
Why diversity exists in India due to linguistic factors?
Answer:
Language is the best method to keep one’s side or to say anything. It was the first cultural invention and is the main carrier of culture. Language is a means to exchange ideas but it is a very complex system. French and American linguists say that around 2,796 languages are spoken in the world out of which 1,200 languages are spoken by American and Indian tribal people.

The Mandarin language is the first language in respect of speaking. The second most spoken language is English and the third is Hindi. People speak different languages at national, regional, and local levels in India. Around 1,652 languages are spoken in India. Only 22 languages are sanctioned by the Constitution out of all these languages. Out of a total of 826 languages of India, 723 are of Indian origin and 103 are of foreign origin.

Languages Recognised by the Constitution. A list of languages is being given in the 8th schedule of the Indian Constitution. First of all, 14 languages were recognized but after the amendment of the Constitution in 1992, they became 18 in number. Hindi language in Devanagiri script was adopted as the official language on 14 Sept. 1949. Four more languages were recognized in 2003 by making an amendment in the 8th schedule.

Non-constitutionally recognized Major languages. Apart from the recognized languages, thirteen more languages are spoken by more than 5 lakh people. Out of these, the Pahari language of Himachal Pradesh is more important. 673 other Indian languages and 103 non-Indian languages are spoken by a comparatively less few people.

Indian Language Families. All the languages of India can be divided mainly into six language families and these are:

1. Negroid
2. Austria
3. Sino-Tibetan
4. Dravidian
5. Indo-Aryan
6. Other language families

Two main language families are there in India which are given below:
1. Indo-Aryan Language Family. Indo-Aryan languages came to India after the advent of Aryan. It is that language family that has covered the three-fourth part of India. The main languages of this group are Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Assamese, Oriya, Urdu, Sanskrit, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Pahari, Rajasthani, and Bhojpuri. From this, it is clear that out of 22 recognized languages, except for the 4 languages of the south, all are related to the Indo-Aryan language family.

2. Dravid Language Family. Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam are the main Dravid languages.
Position of Major Languages in India. Hindi is the language that is spoken by most of the people in India. It is spoken by around 30% of the people. Then comes Telugu, Bangla, and Marathi. Bhojpuri and Rajasthani are the languages that are spoken by more than 30 million people but are not recognized by our Constitution.

Position of different languages in the Indian States. Hindi is the official language of six states i.e. Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Delhi. Except for Hindi, other states have official languages whose description is given below in the table:

Sr. No.  State	Official Language
1. Assam	Assamese
2. West Bengal	Bengali
3. Gujarat	Gujarati
4. Maharashtra	Marathi
5. Odisha	Oriya
6. Punjab	Punjabi
7. Jammu and Kashmir	Urdu
8. Tamilnadu	Tamil
9. Andhra Pradesh	Telugu
10. Karnataka	Kannada
11. Kerala	Malayalam

Except this, 57% people of Assam speak Assamese, 65% people of Karnataka speak Kannada, 55% people of Jammu and Kashmir speak Kashmiri but its official language is Urdu. English language is the link language but is not an official language. It is not recognized even by the Constitution. ‘

Question 8.
What is the meaning of Secularisation? Explain its different elements.
Answer:
Srinivas defined the term Secularisation in the following way: “The term secularisation implies that what was previously regarded as religious is now ceasing to be such, and it also implies a process of differentiation which results in the various aspects of society, economic, political, legal and moral becoming increasingly discrete in relation to each other.”

Essential Elements of Secularisation

M.N. Srinivas has given three essential elements of secularisation which are given below:
1. Lack of religiousness. The first and the important element of secularisation is the decline in the importance of religion. An increase in secularisation will automatically bring changes in religious beliefs. People started to feel that those religious beliefs or traditions which he believes are unable to fulfill any one of his needs. People started to create an atmosphere of pomp and show while performing religious activities. These days every person keeps a wish that while performing religious activities he/she should give a feast to others to keep them happy. Now humans do not have any internal religious feelings. Even then they are going to religious places only to enjoy the holidays. In this way, religious views started to decline. Now, every person wants to take advantage of every religious activity.

2. Rationality. Through rationality, humans started to examine every type of superstitions, beliefs, etc., on the basis of rationality. According to Srinivas, “In rationality, with other things traditional beliefs and views were changed into modern knowledge.” “In this way, rationality was increased in humans with the development of modern ideals and values.”

3. Process of differentiation. The process of differentiation is also related to the process of secularisation. Every sector of society i.e. social, moral, political, etc., are different from each other. Occupation to the person, in modern society, is not given on the basis of religion but is given on the basis of his ability. Now all the persons are treated equally in front of the law. The impact of religion has decreased in every sector of society. People started to get everything on the basis of their ability, not on the basis of religion.

Question 9.
Which factors greatly affected the process of secularisation?
Answer:
1. Modern Education. Now, anyone can take admission in any educational institution. Through educational institutions, every person gets the chance to achieve social status in society.

With modem education, traditional ideas started to decline. That is why people started to accept new values of society. Rationalism started to develop in society. Now modem education is given to both boys and girls collectively. In earlier times, females were confined to the four walls of the house and had to spend the whole of their life in the house. But with modem education, females have started to get an education and started to get jobs in every sphere. In this way, the discrimination of untouchability came to an end because everyone has started to receive an education.

2. Development in the means of transportation and communication. The British government started to develop means of transport and communication to develop mutual contacts in Indian states. With this development, people started to come in contact with each other. People of higher and lower castes started to travel with each other in buses and rails with which a feeling of sacred-non-sacredness and untouchability has started to decline. With the coming of means of communication and transport mobility in people, it has become easy for everyone to move from one place to another. They come out of their houses for work. With this, the control of the family declined. Humans are getting the social status of their own.

3. Westernisation. With the advent of the British in India, Indian people started to come in contact with a western culture which has encouraged the values like materialism, individualism, etc., Restrictions of the caste system have started to decline. The supremacy of Brahmins declined because the British started treating everyone on equal terms.

Western culture had developed the process of secularisation. In this way, the process of secularism was greatly affected by the factor of westernization.

4. Urbanisation and Industrialisation. The process of secularisation is also greatly affected by the process of urbanization and industrialization. People had to come out of their houses in search of jobs. Domestic production came to an end. The population of cities started to increase. People of every caste started to live in cities and work together in factories. In this way, at this type of place, it was very difficult to go according to the rules of the caste system. Occupation in cities is given not on the basis of caste but on the basis of ability.

5. Governmental Efforts. The Indian Constitution was implemented after Independence. The Indian government made a new legal system. The Constitution tried to remove the discriminations on the basis of religion, color, caste, creed, etc. New laws have been implemented, some of which are as follows:

1. Special Marriage Act—1954
2. Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act—1955
3. Hindu Succession Act—1956
4. Dowry Prohibition Act—1961
5. Widow Remarriage Act—1856.

In this way, many laws were passed to remove the social problems of society. Inter¬caste marriages were given sanctions. Now everyone is treated as equal in front of the law. In this way, the process of secularisation was encouraged by the policies of secularism.

Question 10.
What was the impact of casteism on Indian society? How casteism can be removed from society?
Answer:
Impact of casteism on Indian society:

1. Due to casteism, Indian society was divided into thousands of different castes and sub-castes who had their own different norms and values.
2. Stability has come in Indian society due to casteism and society remains integrated even after several attacks from foreign invaders.
3. Indian society was attacked several times by many invaders during the medieval age. Due to casteism, Indian society and culture not only remained secured but they assimilated foreign cultures in themselves.
4. The caste system imposed several restrictions on all the castes to save itself from outsider’s impact so that the society could be saved from the impact of their cultures.
5. During the modern age, casteism has encouraged hatred ness among various castes. Lower castes are given a number of facilities because of which jealousy comes in higher castes for lower castes.
6. Lower castes are given reservation facilities in every field because of casteism and it has raised their standard of living.
7. Leaders of different castes arose caste sentiments just for their leadership and to get votes. This has increased tension among various castes.

Ways to Remove Casteism from the Society:

1. All political parties should stop using casteism during elections to avert tension between various castes.
2. People should get a better education to elect the best leaders who could do something for their welfare and who care about the development of the country.
3. Laws should be properly implemented so that strict punishment could be given to those who encourage casteism.
4. The government should stop caste-based financial aid.
5. The public can also play a major part in it. They themselves can boycott those types of leaders who use casteism for their benefit.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART A which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY

1.What are the main problems of national integration in India?
Ans. The problems of India are linguistic identity, regionalism, demand for separate states and terrorism etc. create hindrances in the way of national integration. Due to these . problems, usually strikes, riots and mutual fights take place, which have posed a severe threat to national unity and integration.

2. Why is sociology a distinct subject in comparison with all other subjects?
Ans. Sociology is a subject with which everyone knows something about society. Other subjects are learnt at home, school or elsewhere through instructions but much of our with growth in years as it appears to be acquired naturally or automatically.

3. What are the basic functions of a society?
Ans. Sociologists and social anthropologists have adopted the term function from biological sciences where it has been used for certain organic processes necessary for the maintenance of the organisms. Basic functions necessary for continuity and survival of any society are :
(i) Recruitment of members (ii) Socialization
(iii) Production and distribution of goods and services and preservation of order.

4.What do you understand by social structure?
Ans. A society consists of(i)Males and females, adults and children, various occupational and religious groups and so on.(ii)The interrelationship between various that of parents and children and between various groups.(iii)Finally, all the parts of the society are put together and system are interrelated and complementary concepts.

5. Why is the social map provided to us in childhood by the deluding socialization essential?
Ans. Social maps are provided by our parent siblings, relatives and neighbour. It may be specific and partial. It provides us only with common sense or unlearnt or perceivable knowledge which may or may not be real.
A proper use and application of reflexivity is essential for drawing other kinds of maps. It is sociological perspective that teaches us the procedure of drawing social maps, wholesome and exclusive.

6. What is community identity? Discuss its characteristics.
Ans. Community that provides us the language and cultural values through which we comprehend the world. It is based on birth and belongings and never on some form of acquired qualification or accomplishment. Birth based identity is called ascriptive because this does not involve any choice on the part of the individual’s concerned. It is actually worthless and discriminating. These ascriptive identities are very hard to shake off because irrespective of our efforts to disown them, others may continue to identify us by those very markers of belonging.
Such ascriptive identity is the most deterrant to self-realisation. Expanding and overlapping circles of community ties i.e. family, kinship, caste, ethnicity, language, region or religion give meaning to our world and give us sense of identity, of who we are.

7. What is Self-reflexivity?
Ans. Sociology can show us what we look like to others. It can teach us how to look at ourselves from outside, so to speak. It is called “Self-reflexivity’ or sometimes just “Reflexivity’.

8. What steps were taken by colonial rules for the smooth functioning of its rule?
Ans. The steps taken by colonial rules for the smooth functioning of its rule were that they:
(i)Used new mechanical techniques in production.
(ii)Started new market system in trade.
(iii)Developed means of transport and communication.
(iv)Formed bureaucracy based on civil service of all India nature.
(v)Established formal and written law.

9.Which social reformers carried out social reform movements during the British colonialism in India?
Ans. The prominent leaders of the reform movements were Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and others.

10. State main differences between Sociology and other subjects.
Ans. 1.Sociology is a subject in which no one starts from Zero, as everyone already knows about society. However, other subjects are taught at school, at home or elsewhere.
2.Being an integral part of the process of growing up, knowledge about society seems to be got naturally or automatically.
In case of other subjects, no child is expected to already know something.
3.It means we know a lot about the society in which we live and interact.
As far as other subjects are concerned, prior knowledge is almost negligible.
4.However, this prior knowledge or familiarity with society is both an advantage and disadvantage for sociology.
In the absence of prior knowledge there is no question of advantage or disadvantage in case of other subjects.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 2 THE DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART A which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON THE DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

1.Give the main features of population policy of India.
Answer:
India’s population has crossed the mark of 121 crores. It comes next to China. It has been said that if the Indian population will increase with this rate then it will cross China by the year 2020. Indian Government is very much worried about this aspect.

That is why it has made many population policies from time to time. Main features of all these policies are given below:
1. Reduction of Birth Rate. The death rate, from 1947 till today, has been reduced to a great extent. To stop the growth of population, it is necessary that the birth rate should also be reduced. So many direct and indirect methods are used while keeping in mind this thing. Indirect methods are reducing poverty, the spread of education among females and increasing literacy rate and direct method is family planning. Determination of age of marriage can also lead to the reduction of birth rate.

2. Wider scope. Scope of the subject of population policy is very wide. It includes methods of population control and other programmes like the health of mothers and infants, etc. This programme is developing within the programme of family planning.

3. Voluntary policy. The population policy adopted by the Indian government is a voluntary policy whose main aim is to control the population with the help of masses. People are told about the advantages of the small family under this programme and they are motivated to reduce the birth rate.

4. Different methods. The main aim of these policies is to reduce the birth rate and different methods are used in it. People are being informed about population control in family planning centres so that no problem should come to them while using these methods.

5. Propaganda. Family planning programme was started at a large scale. People are given related things either free of cost or at very less price. With this, this programme is propagated through Doordarshan, T.V., Radio, magazines, newspapers, books, etc. Doctors and nurses are being given special training so that they can inform the people about these programmes.

6. Organisation and Research. Money related to family planning programme is being given by the central government but this programme is implemented by state governments. People are being told about methods to reduce the birth rate and research related to this programme is still going on.

.
2.Explain the different characteristics of Rural Society.
Answer:
1. Agriculture main occupation: The main occupation of rural society is either agriculture or any of the related work because they are very closely related to nature. Because of their close relationship to nature, their views towards life are very much different. Yet, many other occupations, like carpenter, blacksmith, etc. are there in villages but they also make tools related to agriculture.

2. Simple Life. Life of rural people is very simple: People in ancient rural societies used to do a lot of hard work to fulfil their needs and they were very much away from leisures of life due to this hard work. People engaged their children in agricultural works because they were unaware of the merits of education. They have any mental conflicts and problems. They are always ready to help each other in their problems.

3. Scarcity of population and homogeneity: The population of villages is very less as compared to the urban areas. People live in small groups in villages. There are very fewer occupations in rural areas except for agriculture because of which people like to go to cities to earn money and that is the reason why the population in villages is very less. People have close relations with each other and their views are also the same due to the same occupation.

4. Importance of neighbourhood: The neighbourhood is of great importance in rural society. The main occupation of the people is agriculture in which they get enough time at hand. People meet, talk and co-operate with each other. People have very close relations with their neighbours. Neighbours generally are of the same caste because of which their status is also same. People generally respect their neighbours.

5. Control of family: A person is in complete control of the family in rural societies. Generally, patriarchal families are there in the villages and every type of decision of the family is taken by the head of the family. Division of labour in villages is being done on the basis of sex. Males either do farming or move out of the house to earn money and females take care of the house. The joint family system is there in villages and person adopts the traditional occupation of the family. Every member of the family works with others and that is why they have community feeling among them. Family is known as the primary group.

6. Common culture: People of a village are not the outsiders who come to live in the village but are the original inhabitants of that village and that’s why their culture is common. Their culture, rituals, traditions, customs etc. are also common. That’s why they live with each other in a peaceful atmosphere. They have unity among themselves.
3.What are the changes coming in Rural Society? Explain them.
Or
What are transformations that took place in the rural society in post-Independent India?
Answer:
1. Decreasing rural-urban differences: There were a number of differences in rural and urban societies during earlier times. But these differences between both societies are decreasing day by day. It is not so because rural people imitate the styles of urban people but it is so because the relations of rural and urban people are increasing due to the open market economy. They are selling their produce in the cities and are adopting new occupations. Their relations with outsiders are increasing and their way of living, eating, wearing, thinking, etc. are changing according to the urban people. Rural people are getting every type of urban facility due to developed means of transport. The lifestyle of urban areas is improving due to the mobility of occupation and rural-urban differences are decreasing.

2. Decreasing difference in the area: The most important change which came in rural society is that the difference between the village and the city is decreasing. Cities are moving towards villages and villages are coming closer to cities. Means of transport, roads, the spread of education and means of communication have brought villages closer to the urban areas. Now rural people are also moving very quickly towards cities. They work in cities and commute daily.

3. Changes in the structure of agriculture and the marketing of agriculture. With the advent of science and technology and with the opening up of agricultural institutions, the structure of agriculture has been completely changed. With the advent of new machines like tractors, thrashers, etc., increased facilities of irrigation, development of irrigation through rivers and drips, the advent of new seeds and with the development of markets, agriculture has reached the market level from subsistence level. Now, agriculture is not being done to fulfil the needs but is being done to earn the profit. Now, the exchange of things with money has taken place of exchange of things. Agricultural produce is 4 times a year. Production has been increased to a great extent. Now, India exports food grains instead of importing them.

4. Decreasing impact of religion: Religion had a great influence on the mindset of rural people in ancient times. Every activity of agriculture was according to religion and it is not seen today. In earlier times, many trees, animals, etc. were considered as sacred but now this influence has been reduced. Religious beliefs, customs of rural people have been completely changed.

5. Change in the rural social structure: Marx was of the view that social change comes with the change in economic structure. With the commercialisation and mechanisation of agriculture, not only people have become economically better but changes are also coming in old relations. Joint families are disintegrating, changes are coming in the division of labour, social values are deteriorating, mental tension is increasing, changes are coming in the status of women, etc. There are many aspects in which we can see many changes. Time of rituals at the time of birth, marriage, death, etc. is decreasing, Jajmani system no more prevails, the effect of social kinship is decreasing, the importance of the primary group is also decreasing.

6. Increasing impact of science: The land was considered as sacred in rural areas. Agriculture was done while keeping in mind the time of sowing. But now old beliefs are no more. Farmer is not a scientist but is using the new scientific methods and no more believes in age-old customs. Earlier, people were afraid of using chemical manures to their land but now they are using more and more fertilizers and machines so that the production could be increased.
4. What is meant by the Urban Community? What are its definitions? Explain them.
Answer:
Urban areas and people living in urban areas are rapidly increasing. More than 5,000 cities and towns are there in our country. Life of the people of urban areas has been greatly affected due to this increasing population. People of the middle class and higher class have been able to fulfil their needs but it has become very difficult for people of lower classes to fulfil their needs.

In simple words, the city is a formally spread community which is determined on the basis of living standard of the people living in any specific area and on the basis of urban characteristics. Word ‘city* is an English word that has the Latin language ‘civitas’ that means citizenship. In the same way, the English word ‘urban’ which has come out of a Latin word ‘urbs’ which also means city. To understand the exact meaning of the city, it is necessary for us to look at the definitions of this word given by different scholars. These are given below:

Definitions on the basis of population. According to the Census Bureau of America, the city is that place with a population of 25,000 or more. In the same way, Egypt has the limit of 11,000 and France has the limit of 2,000 for any place to be called a city. In India, a community of population more than 5,000 is known as an Urban area where the density of population is 400 or more and where 75% or more than 75% of people are engaged in non-agricultural occupations.

Definitions on the basis of occupations. The area is considered an Urban area where the main occupation of the people is not agriculture.

1. According to Willcox, “The cities included all districts in which the density of population per square mile is more than 1,000 and where there is practically no agriculture.”
2. According to Bergal, “City is an institution whose most of the citizens are engaged in other industries except agriculture.”
3. According to Anand Kumar, “Urban community is a complex community of secondary relation with more population, based primarily on occupational and environmental differences.”
4. According to Lewis Mumford, “City is that centre where more and more power of community and concentration of culture is there.”
5. According to Louis Wirth, “In the city, people with many social differences are living in an area with more concentration of population.”

So on the basis of these definitions, we can say that the urban communities are those which are large in size, where secondary relations are of great importance, where a number of occupations are there and where the features like division of labour, specialization and social mobility exist.

5.Explain the basic argument of the theory of the demographic transition. Why is the transition period associated with a ‘population explosion’?
Ans. Theory of demographic transition suggests that population growth in linked to overall levels of economic development and that every society follows a typical pattern of development related population growth.
There are three basic phases of population growth:
Stage I: Primitive Stage [Underdeveloped countries]
•Low population growth in a society that is underdeveloped and technologically backward.
•In such societies like Africa birth rate is high since people are unaware of the advantages of having small families, they are not educated.
•Death rate is also high since health and medical facilities are not available, therefore population is low.
Stage II: [Developing countries]. The birth rate and death rate rank very high, the net growth rate remains low.
Birth rate is high as in this society people live in a patriarchal society in which men decide how many children must be bom and male child is preferred. People are illiterate and ignorant.
Death rate is also high since health and medical facilities are not available.
Stage III: [Developed countries]. Birth rate in low because people are educated and aware and use contraceptives, birth control is popularised. Death rate is also low because of availability of health and medical facilities, therefore population is low.
Transitional Stage: The stage between backwardness and skilled people]: In this stage growth rate of population is very high whereas death rates are brought down due to better medical facilities, nutrition and better medical and technological advancement therefore this transition period is associated with a population explosion.

6. Why did Malthus believe that catastrophic events like famines and epidemics that cause mass deaths were inevitable?
Ans. English political economist Thomas Robert Malthus argued that human population tend to grow at a much faster rates than the rate which the means of human subsistence (land, agriculture) can grow.
He said population rises in geometric progression whereas agricultural production can only grow in Arithmetic progression.
Malthus believed that positive checks to population growth in the form of famines and diseases, was inevitable. These are nature’s way of dealing with the balance between food supply and increasing population.
According to him, these natural checks are extremely painful and difficult. Although it helps to achieve a balance between population and subsistence by increasing the death rate.

7.What is meant by ‘birth rate’ and ‘death rate*? Explain why the birth rate in relatively slow to fall while the death rate declines much faster.
Ans. Birth rate and death rate are fundamental concepts in Demography.
Birth rate: It refers to the total number of births in a particular area, which can be the entire country, a state or any territorial unit during a specific period.
•Crude birth rate in expressed through the following method : B/p x 1000
B = Number of births P = Entire population
•It is crude birth rate because it does not include the ratio of bearing age.
•Birth rate can be defined as the number of live births per thousand persons in a years.
•Birth rate gets significantly affected by Age of marriage, infertility, climatic conditions, social condition, religious beliefs and education.
Death rate: It is the number of deaths per thousands persons in a year in a particular area, which can be the entire country, a state or any other territorial unit.
Causes of slow birth rate:
Birth rate is relatively slow while the death rate can be brought down at much faster rate for the following reasons:
•Public health measures and medical advancement can control the death rate immediately. Everybody wants good health and wants to live a long life. Because of the love for life everybody adopts all medical and technological measures with high level of motivation.
Birth rate continues to be high because it is related to attitude, beliefs and values of people. Birth rate is related to religious beliefs and by and large it is socio-cultural phenomena which is significantly slow to change.

8. Which states in India have reached or are very near the ‘replacement levels’ of population growth? Which ones still have very high rates of population growth? In your opinion, what could be some of the reasons for these regional differences?
Ans. Replacement level refers to the rate of growth required for new generations to replace the older ones that are dying out.
Replacement level refers to giving birth to two children that replacement completes. States at the replacement level of population growth: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab.
States very near to the replacement levels of population growth: Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and West Bengal.
States having very high rates of population growth: U.P., Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh.
Reasons of regional differences:
•Difference in Literacy Percentage in different states.
•Societal conditions vary in different states. Terrorism, war-like conditions and insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir and North-East.
•Socio-Economic conditions vary in different states.
(i) Number of BPL people is highest among states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Odisha.
(ii) Socio-cultural formation: A belief that more children means more hands to earn or religious beliefs.

9.What is meant by ‘the age structure’ of the population? Why is it relevant for economic development and growth?
Ans. •India has a very young population. The average age of an Indian is less than that for most other countries. Majority of Indians are between the age group of 15 and 64 years.
•Age structure of the population refers to the proportions of persons in different age groups relative to the total population.
•Population under the age of 15 has decreased from 42% in 1971 to 31% in 2011. During this period the ratio of age group 15 to 64 was gone up from 53% to 63.7%.
•Age structure in a country changes with development poor medical facilities, prevalence of disease reduce the life expectancy.
•Age structure of population can be put in following age groups:
0-14 years. [Children]
15-59 years. [Working population]
60 + Years. [Old people]
This age structure of the Indian population can be understood by following table.

This table indicates that the share of the under 15 age group in the total population has come down from higher level of 42% in 1971 to 34% in 2001 and it is perfected to be reduced to 23% in 2026. It means birth rate in India is gradually decreasing.
Relevance for economic development and growth:
•Due to the advancement in medical sciences, public health measures and nutrition the life expectancy is at rise. This is due to economic development and growth.
•Need of family planning in being understood. Decrease in 0-14 years age group reveals that National population policy is implemented properly.
•Because of socio-cultural changes in Indian society and economic growth Age structure of population is moving towards positive young India.
•Dependency ratio is decreasing and increase in working population is causing positive growth in Indian economy.
•Economic development and improvement in quality of life improve life expectancy and changes the structures of the population.
•High infant mortality rate and material mortality rate due to poor economic growth hence an adverse effect of age structure on the population

10.What is meant by the ‘sex ratio’? What are some of the implications of a declining sex ratio? Do you feel that parents still prefer to have sons rather than daughters? What, in your opinion, could be some of the reasons for this preference?
Ans. Sex ratio refers to the number of females per thousand males in a given area at a specified period of time.
•This ratio is an important indicator of gender balance in population.
•Historically there were more females than males in most countries of the world. This phenomena occurred due to two reasons:
(i)Girl babies enjoy better immune system and resistant to diseases in comparison of male child.
(ii)Females live longer than males in most of the societies.
•The ratio between female babies and male babies is roughly 1050 female to 1000 male.
•In India sex ratio is declining significantly and continuously for more than a century. From 972 female per thousand males at the turn of 20th century the sex ratio declined to 933 at the turn of 21st century.
•The state level child sex ratio is alarming. As many as 6 states and union territories have a child sex ratio as low child sex ratio of 793. The highest child sex ratio of 986 is found in Sikkim.
Sex ratio seems to be declining in countries like India, China and South Korea.
In India, parents still prefer male child. This is basically due to social and cultural reasons. Being agricultural society the village population preferred male child to look after the land. The reason of preference of male child is definitely not linked with economic reasons. The states like Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Chandigarh and Maharashtra are most prosperous states of India and should have highest child sex ratio, but things are just different.
The census of 2001 reveals that these are states with the lowest sex ratios i.e., 950 female babies per 1000 male babies. This data is a reliable evidence that selective abortion in these states is not due to poverty, ignorance or lack of resource. Predisposing factors for low child sex ratio in India:
•Religious or Cultural Beliefs: Belief that only son is entitled to perform funeral and related rituals of his parents. Only son is the waaris of family. In the absence of male child generation will not continue.
•Economic Reasons: The main occupation of Indian society is agriculture. Villagers have a thinking that landed property cannot be given to girls because after marriage they will go to another village, town or city. Neither girl child can get her share of load nor she can take care of the land.
•Lack of Awareness: People in Indian society having ignorant conservation attitude are still not ready to give equal status to daughter because they think that during old age they will be dependent on the son. Only he will share food, house, customs and responsibilities.
Implications of child sex ratio: Low child sex ratio, if continues, will have serious implications on our social network, particularly the Institution of marriage. It will also cause severe law and order problem related to women.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS : CONTINUITY AND CHANGE NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART A which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS : CONTINUITY AND CHANGE

Question 1.
What are the Social Functions of the Family?
Answer:
1. Socialization: The child learns ways of living in society only in family and becomes a good citizen. With the help of the family, the child establishes social contacts. The child takes birth in the family and, firstly, he comes in contact with his parents because they fulfill his basic needs. The person gets ascribed status from the family. Qualities like cooperation, love, sacrifice, disciplines develop in a person only in the family. If the child gets proper education in the family then good citizens will come forward in society. He comes to know about every type of behavior only while living in the family.

2. Protection and transmission of culture: Family protects our culture and this culture is our social heritage. Every family understands the responsibilities of giving good habits and values to the next generation, traditions, customs, rituals to the person. The child learns everything with an unconscious mind because he automatically does that thing which he observes in the family. Every family has its own customs on which it is based. The family tells the child to learn everything consciously so that the child should move according to the traditions of the family. In this way on the basis of this continuity, the family protects and carries forward their culture and values to the next generation.

3. Social control: Family is an important agency of social control because it is the first agency in which the child is controlled so that the bad habits should not be formed in him. For example, parents control him not to tell a lie, not to misbehave with elders so that he should follow the rules of the family. Every person wants to do that type of work which helps in increasing the prestige of his family in the society. The family controls every type of behavior and actions of its members. In this way the child becomes disciplined. If the child does not behave in a proper way with members of the family then he will definitely misbehave with other members of the society. In this way, the family controls its members.

4. To provide status: In the family, a child comes to know about his status and role. In ancient societies, the child was respected according to the family in which he was born. For example, the child born in a rich family, King’s house, Landlord’s house get social status automatically. Yet, today, man gets status according to his ability but still, the child has to work according to the family in which he is born.

5. Provide occupation: In ancient societies, the child had to adopt the occupation of the family in which he was born. In the caste system, a child born in a Brahmin family adopts the occupation of the brahmins. According to ancient history, division of occupation was based on caste, and caste was related to the birth of the child. Today, a person can adopt the occupation according to his ability.

6. Help in marriage: This function was also done by the family in ancient societies. These days, man establishes marital relations according to his wish. But still, it is necessary that the family members should be present at the time of marriage. Even today it is the duty of the family to marry their children.

Question 2.
What are the changes that are coming in the institution of the family? Explain in detail.
Or
Explain the changes which are coming in the structure and functions of the family.
Answer:
1. Change in educational functions: With the change in society, changes are also coming in the functions of all the institutions. The functions of the family have been changed completely. In ancient times, a child was educated in the family, and education was generally related to the traditional occupation of the family. It was so because the joint family system was there and whatever professions the father was into, the child had to adopt the same occupation.

Under the guidance of the father-child got his training. But slowly and slowly, with modernization, children began to go to educational institutions to get an education and because of this, they started to move away from the traditional occupation of the family. He started adopting other occupations. In this way, the traditional function of the family changed and has gone into the hands of educational institutions and other changes that took place in society.

2. Change in the economic functions: During earlier times family was the center of economic activities. Every work-related to earning was done by the family. In this way, all the means of living were available to the family members. But with the advent of industrialization, all those functions of production were taken away by the big industries like, now cloth is made in textile mills. In this way, the economic functions of the family have been taken by industries. So the responsibility of the family of economic production has been taken away by other institutions.

3. Change in religious functions: During earlier times, one of the main functions of the family was to give religious education to its members. Elders of the family taught its members about religion and morality. But with the advent of new scientific inventions and discoveries, the outlook of the people changed from a religious to scientific point of view.

During earlier societies, religion was of utmost importance but today, religion is not given importance when it comes to societal issues. In earlier times people used to spend a lot of time in religious functions and religious rituals were performed for a number of days. Even now people believe in religion and customs but they can hardly spare time for them. They celebrate festivals and other important days together.

4. Change in social functions: Social functions of the family have been reduced. During earlier times, the husband was just like a God for his wife. It was the duty of the husband to keep his wife happy. The function of the family was the upbringing of children. But now, due to more number of nuclear families in cities and towns, only parents bring up their children.

5. Decreasing family unity. In earlier times joint families were there but today, unity and the system of joint family has come to an end. Everyone has their own ideals. No one tolerates anyone’s interference. They are living with each other, eating, drinking with each other but hardly bother about them. Clearly, they lack unity.

Question 3.
Discuss in brief the major characteristics of a joint family.
Answer:

1. Large in Size-In joint family, members of many generations five who are related with the descent of the father. That is why it is large in size.
2. Feeling of Cooperation-In this system of family, all the members of the family help each other. They all cooperate and work together. In fact, they work for a common cause.
3. Common Property-Ownership of the property is equal for all the members and the head of the family takes care of it.
4. Common Residence-All the members of the joint family live under one roof. Their kitchen is also one where they take food jointly by sitting with each other.
5. A Productive Unit-In this type of family, all the members of the family jointly work together and whatever they earn, share with each other.
6. Common Religion-All the members of the joint family believe in one religion. They take part in all the religious activities of the family jointly.
7. Common Kitchen-In joint family all the members use one kitchen. That’s why they celebrate all the religious activities jointly. Common kitchen enhances love in them.
8. Stability-Joint family is more stable as compared to other types of family. Members of joint family are more in number and that is why earners are more in number. So because of this, all the needs of the members of the family are generally fulfilled. If anyone is sick in the family and is unable to do work even then they can five properly. That is why more stability is there in this type of family and culture is transmitted from one generation to another.
9. Rights-In a joint family, the head of the family has a complete right over the members of the family. Head is of great importance in the family and all the other members of the family respect him. Every member has to obey his orders. The eldest member of the family is the head and he takes responsibility for the functions of the family. It helps in maintaining discipline in the family.

Question 4.
What are the merits of a Joint Family?
Answer:
1. Cooperation-Relations between the members of the joint family are of cooperation and mutual understanding. Every member takes care of each other’s needs. They lack a sense of selfishness. In fact, they have a sense of sacrifice. One member is ready to do anything for another.

2. Preservation of Culture-In joint family, members of many generations live with each other. That is why every person has to obey the rules made by the family. These rules and ideas are taken forward from one generation to another.

3. Social Control-In joint family all the members of the family are controlled by the head of the family. Every person has to obey the orders given by elders. That is why a child learns to respect others in the family. Children never try to do anything without the advice of elders.

4. Religious Functions-Common religion is there in the joint family. They celebrate all the religious activities jointly with each other. All the religious and customary functions are done by them jointly.

5. Recreation-Joint family is big in size. That is why they enjoy the company of each other. In the evening they sit with each other, have dinner together, which helps in the recreation.

6. Economic Advantage-All the members of the joint family work jointly and there is no division of land or labor among them. Males work outside and females work at home. All the functions of the family have been done by the members of the family.

7. Security of Members-All the members in a joint family work together. That is why if any member falls sick then other members take care of him. At the death of any member, they take joint responsibility for his wife and children. They help each other economically. In this way, there is no tension of unemployment or any physical ailment in the joint family. They help each other with every type of problem.

Question 5.
What are the demerits of the joint family?
Answer:
1. Lack of personality and Non-development of individual-Person cannot develop his personality while living in a joint family. The main reason behind this is that he cannot test his abilities. He cannot do anything according to his wish. In fact, he works according to the wish of others. Every member in a joint family has a say in each other life and so, an individual’s own choice is not given credit in joint families. In this way, he never gets a chance to develop his personality.

2. Lower Status of Women-Joint families are generally patriarchal families in which males are dominant. Females are just restricted to produce children or to take care of the kitchen. It is so because she is economically dependent upon others. In this way status of women is low.

3. Carelessness-In joint family everyone knows that whether they will work or not, they will get bread. In this condition, some members a lot and some sit idle. In this condition, some take responsibility for the whole family and others waste their time by not doing anything.

4. Conflicting Situation-In joint family conflicts and quarrels generally takes place. With this, the peace of the family comes to an end. Sometimes members of the family hardly speak to each other. In this condition sometimes joint family comes to an end.

Hence, we can say that in a joint family common property is there but no one takes its responsibilities, and in the situation of conflict sometimes property is also destroyed. Some other problems are also emerging because of joint family. That is why joint family is losing its importance. Social mobility has come because of industrialization, urbanization, and means of transport, etc.

Question 6.
Why are joint families disintegrating?
Answer:
1. Importance of Money-In modern society, man has changed his lifestyle by getting an education because of which he needs a lot of money. So, he started earning a lot of money by using his capabilities so that he could be able to raise his status and living standard. This thinking has encouraged him to separate from joint family.

2. Impact of Westernisation-British empire had brought a lot of changes in India. They promoted the Western culture. Western education helped the people to form independent views. That is why people started to live separately. Individualistic interests also developed.

3. Industrialisation-Modern society is also known as an industrial society. Industries came into being. Production of houses was gone to industries. Machines can do a lot of work with less expenditure. Artisans started to move towards industries. In this way, they started to separate from their roots. Now, there was no need to adapt to their traditional occupation. That’s why people started to move towards cities for jobs and joint families started to disintegrate.

4. Social mobility-In modern societies, man can achieve status according to his capabilities. That is why he has to do a lot of hard work. Every person wants to rise upwards in society. In joint family status of the person is ascribed and that is why there is no need to work hard. There is a lot of social mobility in society and thus, the joint families started to disintegrate. Now everyone thinks about his own family. The sense of individualism has been developed. He wants to make his personality himself. In this way, social mobility has encouraged the disintegration of joint family.

5. Development in the means of transportation-Means of transport has been developed. In earlier times man was unable to move from one place to another due to lack of means of transport and communication. That is why they lived a confined life. But with the development of means of transport, this problem was solved. Now they can live in different places and even then they can contact each other very easily. That is why the joint family started disintegrating.

6. Some other reasons-Another reason for the disintegration of the joint family was the conflicts and quarrels of the family because of which there had always been a tense atmosphere in the society. Because of which people started to leave the families. Many functions of the family have been taken by other institutions like stitching was done in the family but now tailor stitches the clothes. Children are going to creches if a mother is going out for a job. The government has also passed some laws with which females get complete independence in society. Now, the husband cannot treat his wife violently. She can five separately by getting a divorce. Both males and females have equal rights over the property. A girl has the same rights over the property of the father as the boy.

Question 7.
What is meant by Nuclear Family? Explain it with characteristics.
Answer:
Nuclear families are of great importance in modern societies. The nuclear family is a very limited group, on the basis of numbers, in which husband, wife, and their unmarried children live together. Nuclear families came into being after social changes. They are also known as basic families. Many sociologists have given their views about them which are given below:

According to G.P. Murdock, “The nuclear family consists typically of a married man and woman with their offsprings, although in individual cases one or more additional persons may reside with them.”

According to I.P. Desai, “Nuclear family is a family in which the members are not related to their kin through or by property or income or the right and obligations pertaining to them, as are expected and related by kinship.”

According to Haris, “Nuclear family is a small group of those people who except fulfilling the biological role fulfills the institutional responsibilities towards each other which are expected from them to do in the family.”

So on the basis of these definitions, we can say that husband, wife, and their unmarried children are there in a nuclear family. When children get married then they also start living in their separate families. These families are connected on the basis of marriage. They are small in size. In this type of family, only eight types of relations are included.

Characteristics of a nuclear family
1. Limited Size-Nuclear families are formed on the basis of the number of members. That is why the size of a nuclear family is small. In this husband, wife, and their unmarried children are included.

2. Limited relations-In nuclear families, 8 types of relations are included like: Husband-wife, Mother-son, Father-son, Mother-daughter, Father-daughter, sister- sister, sister-brother, brother-brother. In these types of families, blood relations are important. They have formal relations with other members of the family.

3. Common authority-Every member of the family has equal authority. Everyone shares advice and views in the family to solve the problems of the family. In this way, father alone does not have all the responsibilities. In this more importance is given to individual capabilities. Responsibilities and duties are shared among all the members.

4. Importance of all members of the family-In a nuclear family, only two generations live together. In this type of family, everyone has got an equal status. Labour is equally divided among the members of the family. Children have more importance in nuclear families. Parents wish to give good education to their children and they take care of every type of need of their children.

5. Independent Social Unit-The mam characteristic of a nuclear family is its independent nature. It means that the members of the family are dependent upon other members for their needs but they are not dependent upon other relatives. In this way, these families are of independent nature.

Question 8.
What is Kinship? Give its definitions.
Answer:
‘Kin’ is an English word that has been taken from the word ‘Cynn’ which means relative. Sociologists and anthropologists have kept the word ‘relatives’ while studying kinship. In the word kinship, all the relatives are included like blood relatives, relatives made by marriage, etc.

In simple words, according to Sociology and Anthropology, Kinship System is a collection of rules which regulates the nomenclature, heiress, heritage, marriage, extramarital relations, place of living, etc. and determines the status of a person in any specific society or in-group from the point of view of blood relation and relatives.

It means that the system of social relations developed and made by blood relations or affinal relations. Its clear meaning is that all those relations which have been made by blood or by marriage are part of the Kinship system. For example, mother-father, uncle-aunt, maternal uncle-aunt, brother-sister, father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, etc. All these are relatives and are part of Kinship.

For the broader meaning of Kinship, it is necessary for us to see the definition of Kinship given by different scholars.

Definitions

1. According to Levi Strauss, “Kinship is an arbitrary system of the idea.”
2. According to Charles Winick, “Kinship system may include socially recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties.”
3. According to Redcliffe Brown, “All those relations which came as a result or made because of family and marriage are the part of Kinship System.”

On the basis of the given definitions, we can say that two persons are relatives. If their ancestor is one, then, they are the offsprings of one person. The kinship system is the system of relatives that is based on blood relations or affinal relations. The kinship system is cultural and its structure is different in the whole world. It is a system of specific relation groups in which all the relatives are included which understand the responsibilities towards each other. In this way system of social relations established by socially sanctioned real or made up blood and affinal relatives is known as the Kinship system.

Question 9.
Explain in brief the significance of the kinship system.
Answer:
1. With the help of the Kinship system, rights, marriage, family, production, and method of consumption, rights of political power are determined in tribal and agricultural societies. Even in urban societies, we can see the importance of Kinship relations at the time of marriage and family festivals.

2. Kinship, family, and marriage are very deeply related to each other. With the help of the Kinship system, we can determine who marries whom and which name would be given to which relation. From Kinship only we can come to know about the nomenclature, clan, and the family of the person.

3. Family life, relations of family, nomenclature, clan, and rituals related to birth and death are determined by the Kinship, and who will perform all the rituals is also determined by Kinship. For example, in the rituals related to marriage big brother, mother, and sister of the father are of great importance. Who will be the heir of the person is also determined by the Kinship. At the time of social functions, festivals, relatives are of great importance because at these the relationships are strengthened.

4. Kinship system gives strength to society. The kinship system plays an important role in making social organization. If the Kinship system would not be there then the social system will break down and there will be chaos in the society.

5. Kinship system determines sexual relations. Sexual relations in the Kinship system are restricted in our society. If the Kinship system would not be there then there will be a lot of illegal relations and children in the society and social disorders will prevail in society.

6. Kinship System plays an important role in the determination of marriage. You are not supposed to marry in your clan, how many relatives would be left from the mother’s side and the father’s side all depend upon the Kinship system. If this system would not be there then no one will obey the rules related to marriage.

7. Kinship system gives mental peace to an individual. Yet in modern industrial society, our views have been changed from emotional to practical but still, man is tied with the Kinship ties. Humans are based on the group and Kinship. Without Kinship, man is just like a dead man. Our relatives know us very well. They accept themselves as part of the family. If we are in any trouble, then our relatives would help us. Only by living with our relatives we become happy and feel pleasure in their company.

In this way, we can say that Kinship is of great importance in our society. Nothing will be left in our society if we take out the Kinship system from it.

Question 10.
Explain briefly the different categories of the kinship system.
Answer:
On the basis of closeness and distance from the person, Kinship has been divided into different categories. In Kinship, we do not have the same type of relations with all the relatives. The type of relations which we have with our parents, husband-wife, and children, we cannot have that type of relations with our uncle, aunt, nephew, etc. We do not have very close relations with them. On the basis of this closeness and distance, Kinship has been divided into three categories which are given below:

1. Primary Relatives: In the first category of Kinship primary relatives like husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, mother-daughter, father-daughter, sister-sister, brother-sister, brother-brother are included. According to Murdock, they are of 8 types. They are primary because relations among them are direct and very close.

2. Secondary Relatives: Some of our relatives are primary like mother-father, brother-sister, etc., and have direct relations with them. But some relatives are there who are not directly related to us. In fact, we are connected with them with the medium of our primary relatives like a brother, of the mother, brother or father, sister or mother, sister of father, husband of sister, wife or brother, etc. We do not have a very close relationship with them. They are our secondary relatives. According to Murdock, these are of 33 types.

3. Tertiary Kins: First relatives are primary. Then, comes the secondary relatives which are related to us through primary relatives. The third types are those relatives which are primary relatives of secondary relatives. Like a son of the brother of father, wife or mother’s brother, wife of the brother of father, .etc. According to Murdock, these are of 151 types.

So in this way, there are three types of categories of Kinship.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 4 THE MARKET AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART A which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON THE MARKET AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

Question 1.
What is Distribution?
Answer:
For a layman, the meaning of distribution is to take anything from one place to another and to sell that thing. But in economics, distribution is that process with which the actual and complete value of anything is distributed among those persons who have contributed to the production of that thing. Different persons and groups have their own specific contribution in the production of anything and they should be rewarded for that. In this way, the money or reward given to them is distributed. For example, rent to the owner of the land, labor to laborer, interest to the person who has invested money, tax to the government. All of them get a share in this form.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Capitalism?
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance. Production in capitalism is on large scale and we can see stiff competition among different capitalists. Capitalist tries to get more profit because of which he invests his money. This money and credit are of great importance in capitalism. The biggest feature of capitalism is the exploitation of laborers.

Question 3.
Write characteristics of Capitalism.
Answer:

1. Production in capitalism is on large scale.
2. The base of capitalism is private property.
3. There is a lot of competition among different classes in capitalism.
4. Capitalist invests his money to get more profit.
5. The exploitation of laborers is there in capitalism.
6. Money and credit are of great importance in a capitalist economy.

Question 4.
In agrarian societies, periodic markets are a central feature of social and economic organizations. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2012)
Answer:
In most agrarian or peasant societies around the world, periodic markets are a central feature of social and economic organization. Weakly markets bring together people from surrounding villages, who come to sell their agricultural or other products and to buy manufactured goods and other items that are not available in their villages.

They attract traders from outside the local area, as well as moneylenders, entertainers, astrologers, and a host of other specialists offering their services and wares. In rural India, there are also specialized markets that come up at less frequent intervals, for example, cattle markets. These periodic markets link different regional and local economies together and link them to the wider national economy and to towns and metropolitan centers.

Question 5.
What is Globalisation? Explain briefly.
Answer:
The process of Globalisation is a wide economic process that can be seen in all societies and countries. Different countries have free trade and economic relations in this process. Actually, not even a single country is completely self-dependent to fulfill its need. It has to depend upon other countries to fulfill the basic needs of its people. With this, even other countries are also dependent upon each other to fulfill their needs.

Because of this mutual dependence, mutual relations were increased in different countries and one idea came into being to increase relations of free trade in each other’s country. This idea of increasing economic relations and free trade is given the name of Globalisation. The concept of Globalisation gave rise to the concept of liberalization in which different countries are opening their doors for other countries to have duty-free trade relations among them.

The concept of Globalisation is not very old. It is as old as 15-20 years which has taken the whole world in its fold. That is why the world is shrinking these days. We can get the foreign-made goods while living in our small town or city. We can see any sector of the country. For example, many foreign cars like Mercedes, General Motors, Rolls Royce, Ferrari, Honda, Mitsubishi, Hyundai, Skoda, Toyota, etc. came to India, which were not available in the decade of 1980s.

It is happening because of Globalisation and liberalization that the market of our country is opened for foreign companies. In this way, a lot of foreign-made goods and Indian goods are available in our country. It is Globalisation in which different countries are opening their doors for foreign companies and are encouraging free trade. These days the world is shrinking and now it is just like a small village or town. The government is increasing Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in every sector. This is called Globalisation.

Question 6.
Explain briefly the different characteristics of Globalisation.
Answer:
1. World Trade. The first and necessary condition of Globalisation is world trade. It is the main base of trade in the world. It unites the people of different sectors living in different countries and gives them business. For example, India has a lot of surplus tea. That is why different countries of the world are importing tea from India. In the same way, almost all the countries of the world depend upon Arabian countries for crude oil. In this way, with the exchange of goods and because of trade they are coming closer to each other. People of India depend upon Arabian people and they depend upon us. World Trade and Globalisation has been increased.

2. Economic globalization: Globalisation has established a new economy in the world. Now the economy of one country depends upon the economy of another country. That is why the concept of the world economy came into being. Different countries unite with each other because of the economy and the exchange of cultural traits starts between them. Investment, exchange of division of labor, specialization, production, consumption, etc. have an important role in this business. Economic globalization has encouraged capitalism. Now, people are thinking even for international economy and structure.

3. Globalisation of market: Globalisation has increased the market to a great extent. Now, globalization of the market is not being done only on the basis of production but is also on the basis of consumption. Companies are producing things while keeping in mind the market of other countries or international markets. Even some countries depend on others for consumption. In this way, production and consumption depend upon the foreign market. With this, the business with other countries increases and foreign exchange comes into the country. In this way, the market depends upon foreign countries. We can find a number of foreign-made goods in our market. Even the eatables are available in markets. In this way, the market is expanded with globalization.

4. Division of labor: Globalisation has encouraged the division of labor. Now, people are doing many courses to go to a foreign country. For example, people are doing a number of computer courses so that they could earn money in a foreign country. We can see many types of advertisements in newspapers that specialists in different countries are required. Division of labor is encouraged because specialists are in great demand in different countries of the wound. It is the feature of globalization that has encouraged the division of labor.

5. Migration of laborers to other countries: Another feature of globalization is the migration of workers from one country to another country in search of work. Generally, people, specialists in different sectors from South Asian countries are going to western countries for work because they think that they can earn more in western countries. Workers of different countries are working in foreign lands and are earning money. In this way because of globalization people of different countries have been able to migrate to other countries.

6. World economy: Another feature of globalization is the encouragement of the world economy. Now the economy of one country is not restricted only to that country because its economy is affected by the economies of other countries. With the increase in trade, economies depend upon each other. In this way because of inter-dependence, the world economy and world trade have been increased.

Question 7.
What is the impact of Globalisation on the Indian Economy?
Answer:
1. Increase of the Indian Share in world export: With the process of globalization, the Indian share in world export has been increased. Indian goods and services in the decade of 1990-2000 have been increased by 125%. In 1990, the Indian share in the world’s export of goods and services was 0.55% which was increased up to 0.75% in 1999.

2. Foreign investment in India: Foreign direct investment is an important feature of globalization because foreign investment increases the capacity of production of any economy. Foreign investment in India is continuously increasing. From 1995-96 up to 2000-01, it has been increased by 53% and during this time 500 crores have been invested in India annually.

3. Foreign Exchange Reserve: Foreign exchange is necessary for import. In June 1991, the foreign exchange reserve in India was 1 Billion Dollars which was enough only to fulfill the needs of only two weeks of the country. After this India adopted new economic policies. Globalization and liberalization were encouraged because of which foreign exchange reserve was increased very quickly. Now, the foreign exchange reserve is near 350 Billion Dollars. ‘

4. Growth of Gross Domestic Product: Because of globalization the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country has been increased. In 1980, it was 5.63% which was increased to 5.80% in 1990. Now, it is around 7%.

5. Increase in Unemployment: Because of globalization, unemployment in India has been increased. During the decade of 1990-2000, the economic problems came in Mexico, South Korea, Thailand, Singapur, Indonesia, Malasia and it was because of globalization.

That is why millions of people lost their jobs and they had to live below the poverty line. At the start of the 1990’s the rate of unemployment was 6% which was 3.8% in 2011.

6. Impact on Agriculture: The share of agriculture and its related activities in the Gross Domestic Product of the country is 14%. But it is 2% in the U.S.A., 55% in Japan and France. If we look at the labor force then India’s 69% labor force is related to agricultural functions but the labor force in the agricultural sector in U.S.A. and U.K. is only 2.6%. In the near future, it is necessary for India to open its market for world companies in the agricultural sector which is in agreement with W.T.O.

7. Educational and technical development: Globalisation and liberalization have exerted a great impact on the education and technology sector which has seen a revolution. The world has been shrinking due to means of transport and communication. Internet and computer have brought a revolution in this sector.

8. Change in the form of Classes: Globalisation has changed the form of different classes. In the 20th century, only three main classes i.e., higher class, middle class, and lower class were there but now the number of classes has been increased.

9. Privatization: One of the good effects of globalization can be seen in the form of Privatisation. Many public sector undertakings (P.S.U.’S) like V.S.N.L., I.P.C.L., NALCO are now in the hands of private parties because of which they are earning huge profits.

10. Development of Industries. Foreign direct investment is very helpful in achieving a higher rate of economic development. It gives not the only advantage to industries but consumers are getting products of better quality and better technology. It gives motivation to Indian industries to compete with foreign companies in the international market.

Thus, the process of globalization is very good in bringing social change and giving good quality products to consumers in India.

Question 8.
What is meant by liberalization? Which problems occurred due to liberalization?
Answer:
Meaning of liberalization. Lifting up of unnecessary restrictions of the controlled economy is liberalization. Lifting up unnecessary restrictions from businesses and industries, so that economy could become more competitive and open, is called liberalization. liberalization is a process in which different countries of the world are motivated to provide such facilities with which free business and trade could develop among them.

One of its aims is to reach the objective of better international economic relations. This process encourages wide business and economic relations between different countries of the world. This policy increases the working capacity of the economy and private enterprises have the ability to give better results than public enterprises.

Problems of liberalization. This process brought up many problems in India which are given below:
1. Increase in Unemployment. The unemployment rate in India was 6% in 1990, which became 7% in 1999 and it was 3.8% in 2011. It is only the result of liberalization. 36% of the total population of India still lives below the poverty line because they lack basic amenities. Domestic industries are directly related to employment because they give a lot of employment to a number of people.

If industries will increase then more and more people will get employment. But if local industries will be destroyed then not only unemployment but poverty will also increase. The process of liberalization is going on for more than is the year in our country. Large industries are coming forward but domestic and cottage industries are destroyed by these larger industries. It has increased unemployment.

2. Evil consequences of liberalization. Industries begin to throw out their employees from factories with this process. When the policy of liberalization was implemented then it was told that this process will solve all the problems of the country. But even after such a long time not much impact has been seen on our economy. 36% of the total Indian population still lives below the poverty line. Yet India got technical advantage through this but certain areas are there which have faced evil consequences of this process.

3. Increasing pressure of foreign debt. The first era of economic reforms was started in 1991 and went until 2001. The second era was started in 2001. During the second era, it was thought that the rate of economic growth of the country will increase but nothing happened. Steps on the way of economic progress and economic reforms became slower. The aim of economic growth was kept at 8% but it fluctuated all the time. The pressure of foreign debt is increasing. India has to pay 349.5 billion dollars of foreign debt in 2012 and that is why every Indian is under the debt of foreign countries. All this has happened because of the process of liberalization.

4. Decrease in Export and Increase in Import. Export of India has also been reduced by process of liberalization and also import has increased. Import as compared to 1991, was increased in 1996 and export was reduced. Its reason was that western things came into our country and the people started to use those things. That is why imports were increased and export was decreased. Balance of business was also destabilized. Increasing import has adversely affected local industries. Western things are durable and less expensive. That is the reason why local industries are adversely affected.

5. Reduction in Value of Rupee. The value of the rupee has been decreased to a great extent due to liberalization. The value of one dollar was Rs. 18 in 1991, it became Rs. 36 in 1996 and Rs. 47 in 2001. Now, it is around Rs. 67. It is all because of liberalization. The decline in the monetary value of a country led to an increase in inflation which is also not good for poor people. It might be profitable for developed countries but is disastrous for developing countries. In this way value of the rupee has been declining due to liberalization.

Question 9.
What do you know about capitalism? Write in detail.
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance. Capitalism does not its an advanced stage at once but it develops slowly. To see its development we have to study it from ancient societies.

In ancient societies, the system of exchange of goods was there. There was no concept of profit at that time. People were not collecting things for profit but were collecting for those days when those things will become unavailable. The business system was generally dependent upon the exchange of service and goods. No one was aware of economic factors like labor, investment, individual profit during those times.

In the middle ages, business and commerce developed a bit. Yet, in the beginning, the business was based on the system of exchange and gradually money became the medium of business. It has given a type of motivation to business and commerce because of which the importance of money, gold, silver, and coin was increased. Money was, yet, not the property, but was the symbol of property. It has a complete effect on the production forces and features. According to Simmer, the institution of money has affected all parts of life when it became systematic in modern western society.

It has given the freedom to owner and servant and also affects the things and services and buyers and sellers because with this formal relations came into being in both sides of the business. According to Simmer, money has brought a lot of changes in the philosophy of our life. It has made us practical because now we are measuring everything in terms of money. Social relationships and social contact have become informal and formal. Human relationships have become cold.

At the beginning of modem times, economic activities were regulated by governmental forces. In this, we can see the shadow of moving forward of European people under their monarchs. At this time economic activities were regulated by the political authority so that the king’s profit is increased and treasure should be filled. The country was running under the supervision of businessmen and the businessmen were engaged in earning money like an economic organization. Production forces were also regulated by business laws.

After this, the industrial revolution came, which changed the ways of production. Business policies were unsuccessful in doing the welfare of the people. For the production of more things policy of ‘Laissez Fairer was adopted. According to this policy, there will be no interference in economic matters. According to this, any person can see his individual interests, there was no pressure and burden on him. The state has stopped interfering in economic matters. According to Sumner, State should remove all the restrictions which were put on business and commerce and it should remove all the restrictions which were put on production, exchange, and accumulation of money. Adam Smith has given four concepts at this moment:

1. The policy of individual interest.
2. Policy of Laissez Fairer
3. Theory of competition, and
4. To see a profit.

These concepts have put a great effect on that particular time. Under the effect of these rules and because of the industrial revolution new system of property and ownership of production came into, being which was given the name of capitalism. Because of the industrial revolution, the domestic system of production was changed into the production in factories. In factories, every work has been divided into small parts and every laborer was doing small work. That is why production was increased.

With the passage of time, big industries came into being. Big owner corporations of these industries came into being. In this new system of production and exchange, owners of means of production were different individuals and they had no social responsibility. The property was completely private and it was totally free from the restrictions of state, religion, family, and other institutions. Owners of the factories were free to do anything. Their main aim was profit. They were not restricted to produce anything without profit. The way of production was profitable and the government had adopted the policy of no-interference and it helped the owners of means of production in this way.

Question 10.
What is meant by the Market? Explain the main features of the Market.
Answer:
In common everyday usage, the word Market may refer to particular markets such as the fruit market, the wholesale market, the vegetable market. It means we relate it with the economy. But it is also a social institution. Sociologists are of the view that markets are social institutions that are constructed in culturally specific ways. Markets are generally organized or controlled by particular social groups or classes and have specific relations to other institutions, social processes, and structures. From an economic point of view, only economic activities and institutions are included in markets. It means that only mutual exchange or contracts take place in the market which is based upon money.

In both Economics and Sociology, a market is understood to be an area over which any well-defined commodity is exchanged between buyers and sellers. Such commodities are considered to be of two kinds-goods and services. The total amount of a commodity produced and available for purchase is referred to as the supply of the commodity, while the total amount being sought for purchase is termed the demand.

(Features of Market)
The following are the main features of a Market:
1. Mutual exchange: First and most important feature of the market is a mutual exchange. In general, the market is based on mutual exchange. In this, either things are given for things, or things are given for money, or services are given for things. If mutual exchange would not be there would not have been a market.

2. Continuous process: The market is a continuously changing institution. We can observe any of the society like modern society, rural society, or tribal society. The market is available in all societies. If anyone wants to run the house then he is required to go to the market to buy things. It leads to regulation of the market as well.

3. Formal relations: Another feature of the market is that people have formal relations among them. Yet, people know very well about shopkeepers of the market but their mutual relations are limited to a certain extent. If they have good relations among them, even then they cannot exert a great impact on market rules. The shopkeeper will definitely take his profit. It hardly matters whether it is less or more. Relations in the market could be made between two strangers.

4. Medium: Medium of exchange is used according to market rules. This medium could be in any form like things, money, or services. The number of goods could be reduced or increased according to the value of the medium. Contracts are always based on the quantity of medium and mutual exchange that takes place according to this.

5. Relations based on a contract: Relations in the market are always based on the contract. These relations are always formal. Rules of a contract are applicable on all markets in one form or the other and everyone is bound to accept these rules. In modem industrial society, relations based on contract are in demand.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 5 PATTERNS OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND EXCLUSION NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART A which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON PATTERNS OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND EXCLUSION

1. How is social inequality different from the inequality of individual?
Ans. Individual inequality refers to destructiveness and variations among individuals in their psychological and physical characteristics.
Social inequality refers to a social system where some people are getting opportunity to make use of the resources and others are not. Some people are at a higher level in terms of wealth, education, health and status while others are at the lowest level. Social inequality gets manifested in following forms:
(i) Social stratification (ii) Prejudices
(iii) Stereotypes (iv) Discrimination

2.What are some of the features of social stratification?
Ans. The key features of social stratification are
(i) Social stratification is a characteristics of society, not simply a function of individual differences.
It is society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people.
For example: In the most technologically primitive societies-hunting and gathering societies, little was produced, so only rudimentary social stratification could exist.
In more technologically advanced societies, where people produce a surplus over and above their basic needs, however, social resources are unequally distributed to various social categories regardless of people’s innate individual abilities.
(ii) Social stratification persists over generations:
It is closely linked to the family and to the inheritance of social resources from one generation to the next. A person’s social position is ascribed, i.e., a child assumes the social position of its parents. Births dictate occupation e.g. a Dalit is likely to ‘ be confined to traditional occupation such as agricultural labours, scavenging or
leather work, with little chance of being able to get high paying white-collar or professional work.
The ascribed aspect of social inequality is reinforced by the practice of endogamy,
i.e., marriage is usually restricted to members of the same caste, ruling out the potential for breaking caste line through intercaste marriages.
(iii) Social stratification is supported by patterns of beliefs and ideology:
No system of social stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is widely viewed as being either fair or inevitable. For example, Caste system is justified in terms of the opposition of purity and pollution, with Brahmans designated as the most superior and Dalits as the most inferior by virtue of their birth and occupation.
Not everyone, thinks of a system of inequality as legitimate. Typically, people with the greatest social privileges express the strongest support, while those who have experienced exploitation and humiliation of being at the bottom of the hierarchy are most likely to challenge it.

3.How would you distinguish prejudice from other kinds of opinion or belief?
Ans. Prejudice refers to pre-judgement, i.e., an opinion made in advance. Prejudice refers to pre-thought opinions or attitudes held by members of one group towards another.
Prejudice may be either positive or negative. A prejudiced person’s pre-thought views r are .generally based on hearsay rather than on direct evidence. This word is generally used for negative pre-judgements.
On the other hand, an opinion is a judgment about someone or something, not necessarily based on fact and knowledge.

4. What is social exclusion?
Ans. Social exclusion is the combined result of deprivation and discrimination that presents individual or groups from participating completely in the economic, social and political life of the society in which they live.Social exclusion is structural i.e., the outcome of social processes and institutions rather than individual action.
In this process, the individuals may cut off from total improvement in the broader society.

5. What is the relationship between caste and economic inequality today?
Ans. In the hierarchy of caste system each caste has a specific place and social status. There has been a close correlation between social or caste status and economic status. The high’ castes were almost invariably of high economic status. On the other hand, the “low’ caste were almost always of low economic status.
However, in the 19th Century the link between caste and occupation had become less , rigid consequently, the link between caste and economic status is not as rigid today as it used to be.At the macro line things have not changed much. The difference between the privileged a high economic status sections of society and disadvantaged (a low economic status) sections still persists

6. What is untouchability?
Ans. Untouchability is a social practice within the caste system in which members of the lowest castes are thought to be ritually impure to such a limit that they cause pollution by mere touch or even sight. Untouchable castes are at the bottom of the hierarchical system. These low castes are excluded from most social institutions.
It is an extreme and vicious aspect of the caste system. It uses stringent social and ritual sanctions against members of castes located at the bottom of the purity pollution scale. They are considered to be outside the caste hierarchy.

7. Describe some of the policies designed to address caste inequality.
Ans. At the state level, there are special programmes for scheduled tribes and scheduled castes.
Because of massive discrimination practised against them, special provisions have been made for them.
The OBCs have also been added to this special provisions.
The laws passed to end, prohibit and punish caste discrimination, especially untouchability are:
(i) Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850, disallowed the curtailment of rights of citizens due solely to change of religion or caste. It allowed entry of Dalit to government schools. .
(ii) Constitution Amendment (93rd Amendment) Act of 2005, for introducing reservation for OBCs in institutions of higher education.
(iii) Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989, to abolish untouchability (Article 17) and introduced reservation provisions.
(iv) 1989 Prevention of Atrocities Act revised and strengthened the legal provisions against Dalits and Adivasis

8.How are the Other Backward Castes different from die Dalits (or Scheduled Castes)?
Ans. Untouchability was ttie most visible and discriminatory form of social inequality. Despite this, there was a large group of castes which were of low status and were also subjected to varying levels of discrimination. The ex-untouchability communities their leaders have coined, another term, Dalit’, which is now the generally accepted term for referring to these groups. The term Dalit literally means ‘downtrodden’ and conveys the sense of an oppressed people.
However, the constitution of India recognises the probability what there may be groups other than SCs and STs who suffer from social advantages. These groups were described as “socially and educationally” backward classes or other backward classes.” The OBCs are neither part of the formed castes at the upper end of the caste hierarchy, nor the Dalits at the lower end. The OBCs are a much more diverse groups than the Dalits

9. What are the major issues of concern to adivasis today?
Ans. The tribes, were considered to be “people of the forest’ whose special habitat in the hilly of and forest regions made their economic, social and political attributes. At present, except the North-Eastern states, there are no areas of the country which are inhabited exclusively by tribal people.
The regions where tribal population are concentrated, their economic and social conditions are much more than those of non-tribals.
However, after independence Adivasi lands were acquired for new river and dam projects. Consequently, millions of Adivasis were displayed without any adequate compensation or rehabilitation.
The resources of Adivasis are being taken away in the name of *03110031 development’ and ‘economic growth’.
For example projects such as Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river Narmada and the Polavaram Dam on river Godavari would displace hundred of thousands of Adivasis. The policy of economic liberalisation is leaving Adivasis to greater destitution.

10. What are the major issues taken up by the women’s movement over its history?
Ans. Scholars and social reformers have shown that the inequalities between men and women are social rather than natural. The women’s question became prominent in the 19 th Century. Raja Rammohun Roy’s attempt to reform society, religion and status of women in Bengal. He undertook the campaign against “Sati” which was the first women’s issue to receive public attention.
Jyotiba Phule was from socially excluded caste and he attacked both caste and gender discrimination. He established the Satyashodhak Samaj with its primary emphasis on truth seeking. ”
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan made efforts to reform Muslim Society. He wanted girls to be educated, but within the precincts of their homes.
He stood for women’s education but sought for a curriculum that included instruction in religious principles, training in arts of housekeeping and handicrafts and rearing of children.
Tarabai Shinde a Maharashtrian housewife, wrote, Stree Purush Tulana as a protest against the double standards of a male dominated society.
Women’s issues emphatically surfaced in 1970s . The burning issues were rape of women in police custody, dowry murders and gender injustice, etc. The new challenges have come in the form of social bias against the girl child sex ratio which is falling very sharply.

In This Post we are  providing BALANCE OF PAYMENT NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON BALANCE OF PAYMENT

1. Distinguish between autonomous and accommodating transactions of Balance of Payments account.
Ans. Autonomous items, also termed as ‘above the line items’, are those items, which are related to transactions which are determined by considerations of profit (economic motive) and hence, was no concern with the state of BoP. Autonomous transactions are present in both current and capital account of BoP, While accommodating transactions are present only in capital account of BoP. Accommodating items, also termed as ‘below the line items’, are those items of BoP that are not determined by considerations of profit but to restore identity of BoP.
The difference between autonomous and accommodating transacting is mat while deficit or surplus in BoP due to autonomous items, the accommodating items, are meant to restore the BoP identity.

2. Distinguish between Balance of Trade and balance on current account.
or
Distinguish between Balance of Trade and balance on current account of Balance of Payments.       (All India 2013)
Ans. Difference between Balance of Trade and balance on current account

Basis	Balance of Trade	Balance on current account
Meaning	Balance of Trade includes only visible items. It is the difference between exports and imports of goods of a country.	Balance of current account is the difference between sum of credit items and sum of debit items on current account.
Coverage	Balance of Trade does not record any transactions of invisible items and transfers	Balance of current account includes balance of visible items, balance of invisible items and balance of unilateral transfer.
Concept	Balance of Trade is a narrow concept and it is only a part of the Balance of Payment account.	Balance of current account includes the Balance of Trade hence, it is a broader concept.

3. State the components of capital account of Balance of Payments.
Ans. Components of capital account of Balance of Payments:
(i) Investments It includes investments to and from abroad in the form of FDI and Fll. Investment from abroad is a ‘credit’ item, whereas investment to abroad is a ‘debit’ item.
(ii) Borrowing and lending It includes the borrowings by residents from the residents of abroad (credit item), and sending to the resident of foreign country (debit item).
(iii) Foreign exchange It includes the reserve of foreign currency gold and Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) with the domestic country.

4. What does a Balance of Payments account show? Name the two parts of the Balance of Payments account.
Ans. The Balance of Payment (BoP) of a country is a systematic record of all economic transactions between its residents and residents of foreign countries. It summarises the exports and imports and other international transaction of a country with other countries.
Two parts of Balance of Payments account are as follows:
(i) Current account                  (ii) Capital account

.

5. List the transactions of current account of the Balance of Payments.

Ans. The transactions included in the current account of the Balance of Payments are:
(i) Export and import of visible items                      (ii) Export and import of services (invisible items)
(iii) Unilateral transfers

6. Explain the concept of surplus in the Balance of Payments account.
Ans. Balance of surplus When the receipts of the country on account of autonomous transactions exceed the payments of a country on account of autonomous transactions, this difference is termed as BoP surplus.
BoP Surplus = R>P, where R = Receipts of the country, P = Payment of the country, e.g., if the receipts of the country is Rs. 200 crore and the payments are Rs. 190 crore, then BoP surplus will be (200 -190) = Rs. 10 crore.

7. List the items of the current account of Balance of Payments account. Also define Balance of Trade.
Ans. Components of current account are as follows:
(i) Export and import of goods (visible items).
(ii) Export and import of services (invisible items).
(iii) Unilateral transfers to and from abroad.
Balance of Trade
Balance of Payment The Balance of Payment (BoP) of a country is a systematic record of all economic transactions between its residents and residents of foreign countries.
Balance of Payments account are classified into current account and capital account. Borrowing from abroad are recorded in the capital account (credit side) of Balance of Payments as it is a foreign liability on the country and it is to be repaid with interest.
Trade Balance The difference between export and import of goods, i.e. only the visible items of economic transactions is termed as Balance of Trade.
Balance of Trade = Export Goods – Import of Goods
Current account balance Current account is that account of BoP, which records exports and imports of visible and invisible items and unilateral transfers.

8. Distinguish between Balance of Trade account and current account balance of BoP account.
Ans. Difference between Balance of Trade and current account balance of BoP account

Basis	Balance of Trade	Balance on current account
Meaning	Balance of Trade includes only visible items. It is the difference between exports and imports of goods of a country.                               .	Balance of current account is the difference between sum of credit items and sum of debit items on current account.
Coverage	Balance of Trade does not record any transactions of invisible items and transfers	Balance of current account includes balance of visible items, balance of invisible items and balance of unilateral transfer.
Concept	Balance of Trade is a narrow concept and it is only a part of the Balance of Payment account.	Balance of current account includes the Balance of Trade.
Financing of deficit	A deficit in Balance of Trade can be meet out by surplus of current account.	Deficit in current account cannot be meet out by using surplus of BoT.

9. Distinguish between current account and capital account of Balance of Payments.
Ans. Current account is that account of BoP, which records exports and imports of visible and invisible items and unilateral transfers. Current account shows the trade position of the country. Whereas capital account shows the assets and liabilities position of the country.
It records capital transfer such as loans and investments between one country and the rest of the world, which causes a change in the assets or liability status of the residents of a country or its government.

 6 Mark Question

10. Explain the distinction between autonomous and accommodating transactions in Balance of Payments. Also explain the concept of Balance of Payments deficit in this context.     
Ans. Autonomous items, also termed as ‘above the line items’, are those items, which are related to transactions which are determined by considerations of profit (economic motive). Autonomous transactions are that transaction between the residents of two countries which take place due to the considerations of profit. Autonomous items are not conditioned by the BoP status of the country, i.e. these are independent. Autonomous transactions are not done to establish identity of BoP. i.e. current account and capital account.
Accommodating items, also termed as ‘below the line items’, are those items of BoP that are not determined by considerations of profit but to restore identity of BoP. These are undertaken to maintain balance in the BoP account. These transactions correct the disequilibrium in autonomous items of BoP account. Accommodating transactions are also known as ‘below the line items’ and include foreign exchange reserve and borrowings to meet BoP deficit.
BoP Deficit
When the payments of a country on account of autonomous transactions exceed the receipts of the country on account of autonomous transactions, this difference is termed as BoP deficit.
Deficit in BoP = Receipts on account of autonomous transactions < Payments on account of autonomous transactions Suppose, the receipts of the domestic country is r 200 crore. Where as payments are r 220 crore. Then BoP deficit will be
= 220 – 200 crore = Rs. 20 crore

In This Post we are  providing FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATE NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATE

1. Distinguish between devaluation and depreciation of domestic currency.
Difference between devaluation and depreciation

Basis	Devaluation	Depreciation
Meaning	Devaluation is the fall in the value of domestic currency in relation to foreign currency. It is planned by the Central Bank in situation, when exchange rate is not determined by the forces of demand and supply.	It occurs when the value of domestic currency decreases in relation to the value of foreign currency in the foreign exchange market.
Example	A government has set 10 units of its currency is equal to one dollar.	If US $ exchanges ? 45 instead of ? 40 earlier the domestic currency (Indian rupee) has shown depreciation of domestic currency.

2. Giving two examples, explain why there is a rise in demand for a foreign currency
when its price falls?
Ans. (i) when there is a fall in the price of foreign currency, the import gets cheaper. It encourages the importers to import more and consequently, the demand for that foreign currency increases.
(ii) When the price of a foreign currency falls, the price of foreign assets also falls. It encourages domestic people and companies to buy foreign assets and consequently, the demand for that foreign currency increases.

3. Distinguish between fixed and flexible foreign exchange rate.
Ans. Fixed exchange rate is the system, under which the central authority or government maintains their exchange rate fixed either against gold or some other foreign currency. Whereas the rate of exchange which is determined by the market forces of demand and supply of foreign currencies in the foreign exchange market, is termed as flexible exchange rate.

4. Give meanings of fixed, flexible and managed floating exchange rates.

Ans. Fixed and flexible exchange rate
(i) Minimise exchange rate fluctuations
(ii) Reduces volatility and fluctuations in prices
(iii)Imposes discipline on the monetary authority
(iv) Encourages international trade and investment flows
(v) Less speculation in the currency market
The rate of exchange which is determined by the market forces of demand and supply of foreign currencies in the foreign exchange market, is termed as flexible exchange rate system.
Managed floating exchange rate The system of adjusting the exchange rates as per the rules and regulations of foreign exchange market is termed as managed floating.

5. What is meant by appreciation and depreciation of domestic currency? Explain. (All India 2010)
Ans. When the value of domestic currency increases in relation to a foreign currency due to demand and supply forces in a free market, it is termed as appreciation of the domestic currency.
Depreciation of the domestic currency occurs when the value of domestic country’s currency decreases in relation to the foreign currency.
For example, Increase in exchange rate is currency depreciation and decrease in exchange rate is currency appreciation.
(i) When Rs./$ exchange rate falls from 55 to 50 , it is termed as appreciation of domestic currency (i.e. Indian rupee) –
(ii) When Rs./$ exchange rate rises from 50 to 55, it is termed as depreciation of domestic currency .

6. Explain the meaning and two merits of fixed foreign exchange rate.
Ans.Fixed foreign exchange rate
(i) Minimise exchange rate fluctuations
(ii) Reduces volatility and fluctuations in prices
(iii)Imposes discipline on the monetary authority
(iv) Encourages international trade and investment flows
(v) Less speculation in the currency market
Two merits of fixed foreign exchange rate are:
(i) Less speculation in the currency market.
(ii) Encourages international trade and investment flows.

7. State two sources each of demand and supply of foreign exchange.
Ans. Two sources of demand for foreign exchange are:
(i) Imports from rest of the world.
(ii) Foreign investment across the world.
Two sources of supply of foreign currency are:
(i) Exports of goods and services from domestic country to foreign country .
(ii) Remittances from abroad.
4 Mark Questions

8. Explain two merits each of fixed exchange rate and flexible exchange rate. 
Ans. Merits of fixed exchange rate are as follows:
(i) Minimises exchange rate fluctuations.
(ii) Encourages international trade and investment flows.
Merits of flexible exchange rate are as follows:
(i) Independent monetary policy.
(ii) No need to maintain huge stock of gold or other currency.

9. How is foreign exchange rate is determined in the market?
Foreign exchange rate is determined by the market forces of demand and supply in foreign exchange market. The point where demand and supply of foreign exchange meet, gives the equilibrium rate of exchange

In the above figure, D stands for the demand for foreign exchange and 5 curve represents the supply of foreign exchange for different values of R i.e. rate of exchange. Point E is the equilibrium point, where D =5, so R will be the rate of exchange. If the rate of exchange is arbitrarily fixed other than R, there wi 11 be a situation of either excess demand or excess supply of foreign exchange, so R is the rate of exchange which is obtained from the equilibrium point E. Any disequilibrium will be adjusted automatically by the forces of demand and supply of foreign exchange to attain equilibrium.
6 Mark Question

10. Give the meaning of foreign exchange and foreign exchange rate. Giving reason, explain the relation between foreign exchange rate and demand for foreign exchange.

Ans. Foreign exchange Foreign exchange rate is determined by the market forces of demand and supply in foreign exchange market. The point where demand and supply of foreign exchange meet, gives the equilibrium rate of exchange as shown in figure and quantity of foreign exchange.

Foreign exchange rate Foreign exchange rate refers to the rate at which one currency can be exchanged for the other currency in foreign exchange market, e.g. if Rs. 58 is paid to buy one US dollar, then Rs./$ exchange rate will be 58 i.e. Rs.58 per dollar.

Relation between foreign exchange rate and demand for foreign exchange There is an inverse relationship between the foreign exchange rate and demand for foreign exchange, with the rise in foreign exchange rate, demand for foreign exchange falls and vice-versa.

In the above figure, D curve represent the demand for foreign currency. When exchange rate is high (R1), demand for the foreign currency falls (Q1,). On the other hand, when exchange rate is low (R₂), demand for the foreign currency rises Q₂. The demand curve for the foreign currency is always downward sloped and signifies an inverse relationship between demand and exchange rate i.e. price of foreign exchange.

In This Post we are  providing GOVERNMENT BUDGET AND THE ECONOMY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON GOVERNMENT BUDGET AND THE ECONOMY

Question 1.
What is meant by fiscal deficit? What are the implications of a large fiscal deficit?
Or
What is ‘fiscal deficit’? What are its implications?
Answer:
Fiscal deficit is the excess of total expenditure of the government over its total revenue and the capital receipts, excluding the borrowings and other liabilities of the government. Alternatively, fiscal deficit is an aggregate of the budgetary deficit plus government borrowings and the other liabilities. Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – Total Receipts (excluding borrowings)
Or
Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – (Total Revenue Receipts + Non-debt Capital Receipts)
Or
Fiscal Deficit = Budgetary Deficit + Borrowings and the other Liabilities Implications.

The important implications of fiscal deficit are:
(i) Large budgetary and fiscal deficit is an indication that the government has been spending beyond its means.

(ii) The mounting fiscal deficit implies that the increase in the tax revenue is not consistent with the revenue requirements of the government or that the tax collections are relatively sluggish. The implication may also follow that the tax system is relatively less elastic.

(iii) The increasing fiscal deficit implies that the government’s reliance over market and other borrowings has been rising. Moreover, it implies that the burden of debt seivice has been increasing.

Question 2.
Can there be a fiscal deficit in a government budget without a revenue deficit?
Answer:
Yes, there can be a fiscal deficit in the government budget without a revenue deficit.
Revenue deficit refers to a situation where revenue expenditure of the government exceeds its total revenue receipts. Fiscal deficit, on the other hand, refers to a situation where the total expenditure of the government exceeds sum total of its revenue receipts and non-debt capital receipts (total receipts excluding borrowings). Fiscal deficit is possible in a government budget even without revenue deficit ; in the situations when:

(i) the revenue budget is balanced and capital budget shows a deficit:
or
(ii) the deficit in the capital budget is greater than the surplus in the revenue budget

Question 3.
What are the implications of revenue deficit? State two measures of reduce this deficit. (C.B.S.E Outside Delhi 2011 Comp.)
Answer:
The excess of the government’s revenue expenditure over the revenue receipts is called the revenue deficit.
Given the same level of the fiscal deficit, a higher revenue deficit is worse than a lower one. High revenue deficit implies that the government should follow contractionary fiscal policy, that is, increase tax and/or reduce spending. In a less developed countries, it is difficult to force people to pay higher taxes or to cut expenditure on development activities.

Thus, the government usually finance its revenue deficit through borrowings. A revenue deficit implies a repayment burden in the future, not matched by any benefits via investment. It leads to rise in the prices and hampers the progress of the economy. Measures to reduce the revenue deficit are following:

• Framing suitable policies
• Proper utilisation of revenue receipts

Question 4.
What is a government budget? Discuss its objectives.
Answer:
The budget is a government’s annual statement of estimated receipts and payments over the fiscal year, which runs from April I to March 31.
The main objectives of government budget are:
(i) Reallocation of Resources: The government aims to reallocate resources in a way so that its economic (profit maximisation) and social objectives (public welfare) are fulfilled. The government can influence allocation of resources through implementation of appropriate fiscal policy.

(ii) Reducing Inequalities in Income and Wealth: Another important objective of the government is to reduce income inequalities through its policies. The government imposes higher taxes on the rich and spends the revenue on the welfare of the poor. This helps in reducing inequalities in the I distribution of income.

(iii) Economic Stability: The government budget plays a significant role in preventing business fluctuations due to inflation or deflation and hence, maintains economic stability.

(iv) Management of Public Enterprises: A large numbers of public sector industries have been established and managed for the welfare of the public. The government budget provides financial support to these enterprises.

(v) Economic Growth: The rate of saving and investment in an economy determine the rate of economic growth. The budgetary policy, therefore, aims to mobilise sufficient resources for investment in the public sector.

(vi) Reducing Regional Disparities: It is an important objective of the government budget to reduce regional disparities through taxation and expenditure policy. For this, government provides funds for the setting up of production units in economically backward regions.

Question 5.
Describe the importance of government budget.
Answer:
The importance of budget can be explained with the help of following points:
(i) Economic Stability: Government can achieve economic stability through budget. During inflation, government makes the surplus budget, whereas during depression, it makes deficit budget. Prices can be stabilised through budget.

(ii) Economic Control: Government controls the whole parliament and councils through budget. Revenue can be properly utilised through budget.

(iii) Economic and Social Development: Budget has a great importance in economic and social development Government encourages industries and agriculture by giving subsidies through its budget and encourages production. In the same way, government imposes high taxes through budget on rich class and redistributes the revenue collected by these taxes among the poorer sections of the society.

(iv) Administrative Efficiency: Government decides the limits of working areas of every official and employment through its budget.

(v) Instrument of Fiscal Policy: Budget is an important instrument of the fiscal policy of the country. Fiscal policy is the policy of fixing its revenue and expenditure in a way that economic fluctuations are minimised.

Question 6.
Explain the importance of public expenditure.
Answer:
Importance of public expenditure has been increased due to the following reasons: –
(i) Increase in the Activities of the State: In the modern age, the activities of the state have been increased many times. There has been an extensive and intensive increase in the activities of central, state and local governments.

Now a days, governments undertake various activities such as to run, encourage and regularise the economic activities, to maintain economic stability, to secure poor and backward classes and to increase the rate of economic development, etc. There is a great importance of public expenditure in the completion of these activities.

(ii) Economic Planning: Developing countries like India has adopted the path of economic planning for the removal of problems like poverty, unemployment and for the development of the country. As a result, the government has to incur expenditure on large scale. There is a great importance of public expenditure in economic planning.

(iii) Removing Unemployment, Poverty and Income Inequalities: Public expenditure has a great importance for the reduction of chronic problems like unemployment, poverty and income inequalities.

Question 7.
What is the meaning of revenue deficit? What problems does it create?
Answer:
The concept of revenue deficit is simple and straight. The revenue deficit is defined as the excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts. Mathematically
Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts
For example, according to the government of India, Budget for the year 2005-2006 states:
Total Revenue Receipts = ₹ 3,09,322 crores Total Revenue Expenditure = ₹ 3,85,493 crores

Revenue Deficit = ₹ 3,85,493 – 3,09,322 = ₹ 76,171 crores In other words, there should be revenue surplus, which should be used for building projects or building assets which yield return. In fact, revenue surplus represents government savings, which can be used for financing development.

Revenue deficit represents a critical situation in the economy. Revenue deficit indicates the amount of current expenditure which cannot be met by revenue receipts. It implies that government is spending beyond its means. The government should either increase its tax/non-tax receipts or should cut its expenditure.

In poor countries, in the initial stages of economic development, often the situation arises when the government has to incur large expenditure on administration and maintenance (particularly on defence, police and law and order) but it is difficult to compel the poor people to pay high taxes. In such situations, the government meets its revenue deficit either through borrowing or through disinvestment. Borrowing by the government, on the other hand, creates the problem of repayment of debt. Disinvestment reduces the asset of the government.

Question 8.
Explain the meaning of the following:
(i) Revenue Deficit
(ii) Fiscal Deficit
(iii) Primary Deficit
Ans.
(i) Revenue Deficit: Revenue deficit is the excess of current revenue expenditure over the current
revenue receipts.

Revenue Deficit = Current Revenue Expenditure – Current Revenue Receipts Current revenue expenditure includes both plan and non-plan expenditure of the government to be met through revenue receipts. Current revenue receipts include the net tax and non-tax revenue receipts of the central government.

Until the middle of 1970’s, the central government in India enjoyed revenue surplus as the revenue receipts of the central government exceeded the revenue expenditure. The phenomenon of revenue deficit made its appearance during the latter 1970’s.

(ii) Fiscal Deficit: Fiscal deficit is the difference between total expenditure of the government and its total revenue receipts and capital receipts excluding the borrowings and other liabilities of the government. Alternatively, fiscal deficit is the aggregate of budgetary deficit plus borrowings and other liabilities.

Fiscal Deficit can be calculated as below:
Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – Total Revenue Receipts – Capital Receipts excluding borrowings.

(iii) Primary Deficit: Primary deficit is the difference between fiscal deficit and interest payments. It is the aggregate of budgetary deficit plus borrowings and other liabilities minus interest payments.
It can be calculated as:
Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit – Interest Payments Alternatively primary deficit can be evaluated as:
Primary Deficit = Budgetary Deficit + Borrowings and Other Liabilities – Interest Payments. The primary deficit in the central government budget in India was of the magnitude of? 19,502 crore in 2000-01 . which has increased to ? 31,317 crore in 2001 -2002.

Question 9.
Find budget deficit from the following data:
Answer:

Items	(₹ in Crore)
1. Revenue receipts	40,000
2. Revenue expenditure	30,000
3. Capital receipts	30,000
4. Capital expenditure	50,000

Budget Deficit = (Revenue Expenditure + Capital Expenditure) – (Revenue Receipts + Capital Receipts)
= (30,000 + 50,000) – (40,000 + 30,000)
= 80,000 – 70,000 = ₹ 10,000 crore

Question 10.
Is balanced budget an achievement for the government?
Answer:
Balanced budget is not always an achievement for the government. When the economy is in a state of depression, it is in fact suggested to increase government expenditure, even if it causes inflation in the economy.