In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 13 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT NCERT MCQ for Class 12 GEOGRAPHY INDIA- PEOPLE AND ECONOMYwhich will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MCQON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Question 1: What is the full form of UNDP?
(a) United nations development project
(b) United national development project
(c) United nations development programme
(d) None
Answer : C
Question 2: Human development is:-
(a) Always negative
(b) Always positive
(c) Both
(d) None of the above
Answer : B
Question 3: Which agency is responsible for preparation and publishing the list of human development of the world’s countries.
(a) WHO
(b) UNESCO
(c) UNICEF
(d) UNDP
Answer : D
Question 4: What is the literacy rate of India on the basis of census 2011?
(a) 74.1%
(b) 66%
(c) 92%
(d) 82%
Answer : A
Question 5: Name the country having highest human development index:-
(a) Norway
(b) India
(c) France
(d) Japan
Answer : A
Question 6: Which state has the highest per capita income in India?
(a) Punjab
(b) Bihar
(c) Odisha
(d) Goa
Answer : D
Question 7: Which one of the following best describes development –
(a) An increase in size
(b) A positive change in quality
(c) A constant in size
(d) A simple change in quality
Answer : B
Question 8: Which one of the following scholars introduced the concept of Human development –
(a) Humbolt
(b) Dr. Mahabub – ul – Haq
(c) Ellen c. Sempul
(d) Ratzel
Answer : B
Question 9: Which one of the following is not approach to human development –
(a) Income
(b) Welfare
(c) Equality
(d) Capability
Answer : C
Question 10: When was the first Human development Report published by UNDP-
(a) 1990
(b) 1992
(c) 1995
(d) 1996
Answer : A
Question 11: Which one of the following officially Proclaim the Gross National Happiness (GNH) as the measure of the country s progress –
(a) Bhutan
(b) Nepal
(c) India
(d) Canada
Answer : A
Question 12: On the basis of the human development countries can be classified in to
(a) 3 groups
(b) 2 groups
(c) 5 groups
(d) 6 groups
Answer : A
Question 13: Which one of the following has highest human development Index –
(a) Norway
(b) Sweden
(c) Germany
(d) Canada
Answer : A
Question 14: Which one of the following is not Pillar of human development –
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 13 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 GEOGRAPHY INDIA- PEOPLE AND ECONOMY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Question 1. Describe the trend of fertility and mortality rates in India since 1951. Answer: Fertility and Mortality rates (1) Death rate. The crude death rate (number of deaths per thousand of population in a particular year) in India has declined rapidly from 27.1 in 1951 to 7.48 per thousand in 2011.
(2) Decline in infant mortality rate (number of deaths of children under one year of age per thousand live births) has decreased from 148 to 47.5 per thousand.
(3) Child (0-4 years) mortality rate declined from 51.9 per thousand to 22.5. It means risk of death has declined at each stage of life. Certainly it is a definite improvement in health.
(4) The birth rates have also declined but at a slower rate. It came down from 40.8 per thousand to 26.1
(5) Simultaneously, total fertility rate also registered decline from 6 children per woman of child¬bearing age to 2.9.
Question 2. Examine the causes of comparatively low literacy rates in the country. Answer: In India, the literacy rate, according to 2011 census, is 74.04 per cent. The male literacy rate is 82.14 per cent while female literacy rate is 65.46 per cent. Thus there is a gap of 16.68 per cent in male and female literacy rate. Several social and economic factors are responsible for low literacy rate in India.
General poverty of people.
Low status of women.
High ratio of drop-outs from schools.
Low female literacy rate.
Farm based economy.
Prejudices against female education.
Fast growing population.
But due to changing socio-economic conditions, the literacy rate is steadily increasing.
Question 3. Identify the area of high and low literacy in the country. Answer: There are wide regional disparities in literacy rate. It varies from 63.82 per cent in Bihar to 93.91 per cent in Kerala (2011). (1) Kerala maintains its top position closely followed by Lakshadweep (92.28 per cent) and Mizoram (91.58 per cent).
(2) Bihar ranks last in literacy among the states and union territories of India.
(3) Total 22 states and union territories are above the national average while 13 are below it.
(4) Literacy is very high (above 72 per cent) in 17 states and 7 union territories viz., Kerala, Mizoram, Lakshadweep, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh, Maharastra, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Nagaland, Manipur, Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Dadar & Nagar Haveli, West Bengal, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Goa, Delhi, Chandigarh, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Daman and Diu.
Reasons : (i) These are most urbanised states union territories (ii) some of them are highly influenced by social and religious organisations. (iii) Highest level of literacy in Kerala may be attributed to the states’ long tradition of education due to enlightened administration and high proportion of non-agricultural workers.
Question 4. Why Human Development is necessary? Explain. Answer: According to Paul Streeten, human development is necessary on account of the following reasons : 1. The ultimate purpose of the entire exercise of development is to improve the human conditions and enlarge people’s choices.
2. Human development is a means to higher productivity. A well-nourished, healthy, educated, skilled, alert labour force is the most productive asset. Therefore, investments on these sectors are justified on grounds of productivity too.
3. It helps in reducing the rate of growth of population.
4. Human development is friendly to the physical environment also. Deforestation, desertification and soil erosion declines when poverty declines.
5. Improved living conditions and reduced poverty contributes to a healthy civil society, enhanced democracy and greater social stability.
6. Human development also helps in reducing civil disturbances in the society and in increasing political stability.
Question 5. Distinguish between Economic development and Human development. Answer: The basic difference between the concepts of economic development and the human development is : (i) The first focuses exclusively on the increase in income, while the second embraces the widening of all aspects of human life—economic, social, cultural or political.
(ii) Economic development is essential but in a different perspective. The basic tenet behind this is that it is the use of income and not income itself that is decisive in expanding human choices. Since the real wealth of nations is their people, the goal of development should be the enrichment of human life.
Question 6. Write a note on indicators of Human development used in India. Answer: Indicators of Human Development. The quality of life and the level of human well-being are difficult to measure quantitatively. However, in search of a comprehensive measure that could capture the various dimensions of human development, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has developed composite index, now known as the Human Development Index (HDI).
It includes (i) longevity of life (ii) knowledge base, and (iii) a decent material standard of living. Initially, life expectancy was chosen as an index of longevity, adult literacy as an index of knowledge and per capita Gross National Product adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) as an index of decent life. Therefore, a methodolgy was evolved to construct a composite index rather than several indices.
Question 7. ‘Development is freedom. Discuss. Or Explain the Western Euro-Centric view of development. Answer: According to Euro-centric Western view, development is freedom. It is believed that “Development is freedom” which is often associated with modernisation, leisure, comfort and affluence.
The present day symbols of develpment are :
Computerisation
Industrialisation
Efficient transport
Communication network
Larger education development
Advanced medical facilities
Safety and security of individual.
Every individual, community and government measures its performance or levels of development in relation to the availability and access to some of these things. But, this may be partial and one-sided view of development. It is often called the western or euro¬centric view of development. For a postcolonial country like India, colonisation, marginalisation, social discrimination and regional disparity, etc. show the other face of development. So, it is said, ‘Development and Environmental degradation are two faces of the same coin.
Question 8. Which factors determine the nature of human development ? Answer: Low scores in the HDI is a matter of serious concern but, some reservations have been expressed about the approach as well as indicators selected to calculate the index values and ranking of the states/ countries. (1) Lack of sensitivity to the historical factors like colonisation, imperialism and neo-imperialism
(2) Socio-cultural factors like human rights violation, social discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender and caste.
(3) Social problems like crimes terrorism and war
(4) Political factors like nature of the state, forms of the government (democracy or dictatorship) level of empowerment are some factors that are very crucial in determining the nature of human development. These aspects have special significance in case of India and many other developing countries.
Question 9. Describe the indicators of a healthy life. Describe the progress made in India in these. Answer: Indicators of a Healthy Life. Life free from illness and ailment and living a reasonably long life span are indicative of a healthy life.
Availability of pre and post natal health care
facilities in order to reduce infant mortality and
post delivery deaths among mothers
old age health care
adequate nutrition and
safety of individual are some important measures of a healthy and reasonably long life progress in India.
1. Death Rate. India has done reasonably well in some of the health indicators like decline in death rate from 25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 8.1 per thousand in 1999.
2. Decline in Infant Mortality Rate. Infant mortality from 148 per thousand to 70 during the same period.
3. Life expectancy. Similarly, it also succeeded in increasing life expectancy at birth from 37.1 years to 62.3 years for males and 36.2 to 65.3 years for females from 1951 to 1999. Though, these are great achievements, a lot needs to be done.
4. Birth rate. Similarly, it has also done reasonably well in bringing down birth rate from 40.8 to 26.1 during the same years, but it still is much higher than many developed countries.
Question 10. Explain the relation between Environ¬ment, Resources and Development. State the views of different writers. Or “The prime task before any development activity in India is to maintain parity between population and resources.” Justify the statement. Or “Development is a substantive concept once it is achieved it will address all the socio¬cultural and environmental ills of the society.” Analyse the statement. Answer: Population, Environment and Development. Development in general and human development in particular is a complex concept used in social sciences. It is complex because for ages it was thought that development is a substantive concept and once it is achieved it will address all the socio-cultural and environmental ills of the society.
Though, development has brought in significant improvement in the quality of’ life in more than one way but increasing regional disparities, social inequalities, discriminations, deprivations, displacement of people, abuse of human rights and undermining human values and environmental degradation have also increased.
Population and Resources. At the other extreme of this approach lie the views expressed by the Neo-Malthusians, environmentalists and radical ecologists. They believe that for a happy and peaceful social life proper balance between population and resources is a necessary condition. According to these thinkers, the gap between the resources and population has widened after eighteenth century.
There have been marginal expansion in the resources of the world in the last three hundred years but there has been phenomenal growth in the human population. Development has only contributed in increasing the multiple uses of the limited resources of the world while there has been enormous increase in the demand for these resources. Therefore, the prime task before any development activity is to maintain parity between population and resources.
It is not the availability of resources that is as important as their social distribution. Resources everywhere are unevenly distributed. Rich countries and people have access to large resource baskets while the poor find their resources shrinking. Moreover, unending pursuit for the control of more and more resources by the powerful and use of the same for exhibiting ones prowess is the prime cause of conflicts as well as the apparent contradictions between population resource and development.
Indian culture and civilisation have been very sensitive to the issues of population, resource and development for a long time. It would not be incorrect to say that the ancient scriptures were essentially concerned about the balance and harmony among the elements of nature.
Mahatma Gandhi in the recent times advocated the reinforcement of the harmony and balance between the two. He was quite apprehensive about the on-going development particularly the way industrialisation has institutionalised the loss of morality, spirituality, self-reliance, non-violence and mutual co-operation and environment.
In his opinion, austerity for individual, trusteeship of social wealth and non-violence are the key to attain higher goals in the life of an individual as well as that of a nation. His views were also re-echoed in the Club of Rome Report “Limits to Growth” (1972), Schumacher’s book “Small is Beautiful” (1974), Brundtland Commission’s Report “Our Common Future” (1987) and finally in the “Agenda-21 Report of the Rio Conference” (1993).
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 11 POPULATION: DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY, GROWTH AND POPULATION NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 GEOGRAPHY INDIA- PEOPLE AND ECONOMY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON POPULATION: DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY, GROWTH AND POPULATION
Question 1. ‘The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady l growth of population, whereas the decades of 1951-81 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India Explain giving reasons. Answer: Growth the populations is the change in the number of people living in a particular area between two points. The decadal and annual growth rates of population in India are both very high.
The decades 1921 -1951
It is a period of steady growth of population rate.
There was an overall improvement in health and sanitation.
It brought down the Mortality rate.
The crude death rate remained high.
The Decades 1951 -1981
It is a period of population explosion in India.
There was a rapid fall in Mortality rate.
There was a high fertility rate of population.
There was improvement in living conditions,
Migration from neighbouring countries particularly Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, etc., had contributed to high growth rate of India.
Economy rose and development acitivites.
Question 2. “Apart from birth and death, migration is another way by which the population size changes.” Justify the statement. Answer: Migration is one of the major factors that affects the population change. Rural urban migration is important factor contributing to the population growth of cities. Population declines due to out-migration or immigration of people to foreign countries. Population increases due to in-migration or immigration of people from foreign countries.
Internal migration does not make any change but international migration makes the differences in the size of population. Marriage is a social factor which change the size of population if women married to foreigner population decreased and population of her husband country increased. Facilities of education, health, etc. inspire people to migrate. Due to employment facilities people migrate from their birth place.
Question 3. Describe briefly the factors responsible for the variations in ; density of population in India. Or An uneven distribution of population suggests a close relationship between socio-population and physical and economic factors”. Support the statement with suitable examples. Answer: Density of population means the average number of people living in a sq. km. area. It is called arithmetic density. It is calculated as under : Density ol population = Total population Total area Density of population of India in 2011 =1210 crore persons 32.8 lakh sq. km. area =382 persons per sq. km. With this average density of 382 persons per sq. km, India is considered to be one of the densely populated countries of the world.
Distribution Of Population
The population in India is not evenly distributed among different states. Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the most populous states of India while Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Tripura are sparsely populated states. The factors affecting the distribution of population can be grouped into three classes:
Physical factors
Socio-economic factors
Demographic factors
The following factors determine the density of population:
(i) Relief of the Land. Plain areas attract more population than mountains and plateaus. It is so because in plains, it is easy to conduct business, industry and farming. Against this, in the mountainous areas like Himachal Pradesh and Meghalaya the density is low. It is so because in hilly areas facilities like flat land, transport, irrigation, etc. are not available for the conduct of trade, industry and farming. A high density of population is found in the fertile plains of the Ganga and Sutlej.
(ii) Climate. The extremely cold climate of Ladakh and northern Himachal Pradesh, extremely hot climate of Thar Desert in Rajasthan and wet climate of Meghalaya discourage human settlement.
(iii) Rainfall. Areas with regular and moderate rainfall are densely populated. For instance, in West Bengal, density of population is 1029 per sq. km. due to the adequate rainfall which is beneficial for farming.
(iv) Irrigational Facilities. If the rainfall is scanty in an area but irrigational facilities are available, agriculture becomes possible which in turn supports large population. It is for this reason that we find high density in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu where water is available for irrigation.
(v) Soil. Deep, fertile soils are suitable for agriculture. River valleys, deltas and lowlands are the most productive areas. River valleys are densely populated areas. There is sparse population in region of poor soils.
(vi) Minerals. The presence of mineral deposits supports a high population density. New towns have sprung up in Damodar valley due to presence of minerals. Coal, water power and petroleum help in the location of industries. These industrial areas support a large population.
(vii) Rivers and water supply. Rivers are the main source of water supply. Most of the towns are located along the banks of rivers. The ancient civilisation grew up in the river valleys. Deserts are sparsely populated due to shortage of water.
(viii) Agriculture. Productive areas can generally support dense population. In West Bengal, three crops a year are obtained in rice-cultivating areas. Therefore, West Bengal has high density of population in agricultural areas. Areas adopting modern high yielding crops have high density of population like Punjab.
(ix) Means of transportation. Means of transportation affect industries, agriculture and trade of region. Areas with developed and means of transportation attract population. Inaccessible areas like mountains are sparsely populated.
(x) Demographic factors. Fertility, mortality, migration and urbanisation also affect the distribution of population.
Question 4. “The spatial distribution of population in India is highly uneven.” Discuss with the help of suitable examples. Or Describe the spatial patterns of density of population in India. Answer: The distribution of population in India is very unequal. According to 2001 census, the total population of India is 121.02 crores and the density of population is 324 persons per sq. kilometre. The density of population varies according to relief, climate and the agricultural productivity of the land. The density of population depends on the amount of rainfall. The areas of sufficient rainfall can support a large number of people.
Keeping in view, the national average density (382 persons per sq km), three types of population density areas are recognized: — 1. Densely populated areas: These areas have a density of more than 400 persons per sq kilometre. The high density areas make a girdle round the Deccan plateau. Right from Sutlej-Beas plain to Brahamputra valley, the density of population is very high. Three clusters of high density are found : (а) West Coastal Plain. Kerala has 859 persons per sq. kilometre density of population. (b) The East Coastal Plain. Tamil Nadu has a density of 555 persons per sq. kilometre. Mahanadi, Godawari and Krishna deltas are clusters of high density. (c) The Northern Plain. It includes West Bengal (1029), Bihar (1102), Uttar Pradesh (828), Punjab (550), Haryana (573).
Factors favouring high density :
Sufficient rainfall.
Fertile river valleys and deltas.
2 to 3 crops of rice in a year.
Irrigation facilities.
Healthy climate.
Rich in mineral and power resources.
Rural economy.
Urban and Industrial development in Kolkata and Delhi.
2. Moderately populated areas. These include the areas with a density between 250 to 500 persons per sq. kilometre. These areas are surrounded by Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats. Maharashtra (365), Andhra Pradesh (308), Karnataka (319), Gujarat (308), Odisha (269), Goa (399), Assam (397) have a moderate density.
Factors for moderate density:
Agriculture is not developed due to thin and rocky soils, undulating topography.
Rainfall is uncertain.
Means of transporation are not developed.
Some areas have high density of population due to irrigation and Green Revolution, lava soils, mineral resources and Industrial development.
3. Sparsely populated areas. These areas have a density less than 250 persons per sq. kilometre. The mountainous, arid and forest areas are not attractive to human habitation. An extensive tract of low density extends from the Aravallis to Odisha.
(a) North Eastern India. This region includes Meghalaya (132), Manipur (122), Nagaland (119), Sikkim (86) and Arunachal Pradesh (17).
(b) Rajasthan Desert. Rajasthan has a density of 128 persons per sq. kilometre.
(c) Western Himalayas. It includes Jammu and Kashmir (124), Himachal Pradesh (123).
Factors for low density:
The hilly nature of the land.
Dense forests.
Low rainfall.
Poor economic development.
Absence of minerals.
Lack of irrigation and agriculture.
Cold climate.
Ranking of States and Union Territories by Population : 2011
Rank in 2011
Indian States/Union Territories
Population 2011
Percent to total population of INDIA
Density of Population
1
2
1,21,01,93,422 3
100.00 4
382 5
INDIA
1,21,01,93,422
100.00
382
1.
Uttar Pradesh
19,95,81,477
16.49
828
z.
Maharashtra
11,23,72,9/2
9.29
365
3.
Bihar
10,38,04,637
8.58
1,102
4.
West Bengal
9,13,47,736
7.55
1,029
5.
Andhra Pradesh
4,93,86,799
4 00
308
6.
Madhya Pradesh
7,25,97,565
6.00
236
7.
Tamil Nadu
7,21,38,958
5.96
555
8.
Rajasthan
6,86,21,012
5.67
201
9.
Karnataka
6,11,30,704
5.05
319
10.
Gujarat
6,03,83,628
4.99
308
11.
Odisha
4,19,47,358
3.47
269
12.
Kerala
3,33,87,677
2.76
859
13.
Jharkhand
3,29,66,238
2.72
414
14.
Assam
3,11,69,272
2.58
397
15.
Punjab
2,77,04,236
2.29
550
16.
Chhattisgarh
2,55,40,196
2.11
189
17.
Haryana
2,53,53,081
2.09
573
18.
NCT of Delhi*
1,67,53,235
1.38
11,297
19.
Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh*
1,25,48,926
1.04
124
20.
Uttarakhand
1,01,16,752
0.84
189
21.
Himachal Pradesh
68,56,509
0.57
123
22.
Tripura
36,71,032
0.30
350
23.
Meghalaya
29,64,007
0.24
132
24.
Manipur
27,21,756
0.22
122
25.
Nagaland
19,80,602
0.16
119
26.
Goa
14,57,723
0.12
394
27.
Arunachal Pradesh
13,82,611
0.11
17
28.
Puducherry*
12,44,464
0.10
2,598
29.
Mizoram
10,91,014
0.09
52
30.
Chandigarh*
10,54,686
0.09
9,252
31.
Sikkim
6,07,688
0.05
86
32.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands*
3,79,944
0.03
46
33.
Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu*
585,764
0.05
970
34.
Lakshadweep*
64,429
0.01
2,013
35.
Telangana *Union Territories
3,52,86,757
3.00
307
# Note: The erstwhile state of Jammu & Kashmir reorganised into two Union Territories – Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh. As per Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (Merger of Union territories) Act, 2019, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu have been merged.
Question 5. Describe the geographical distribution of different language families in India. Answer: The people of India display a high degree of diversity in their languages. The languages spoken by the people can be classified into four language families.
1. Austric Family. The Austric languages are spoken by 6.2 million people in India. These include languages spoken by tribal people.
Munda language is spoken by tribal groups of Santhals, Mayurbhanj, Ranchi, Betul and Baudh Khondmahals (Jharkhand).
The Mon Khmer Khasi language is spoken in Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya.
Nicobari language is spoken in Nicobar Island.
2. Sino-Tibetan Family. These languages are spoken by tribal groups of Himalayan Region.
Tibeto-Himalayan group includes Tibetan, Balthi, Ladakhi, Lahauli and Bhutia : Lahauli, Kanauri and Lepcha. Ladakhi has the largest number of speakers.
North-Assam group includes Aka, Drafla, Abor, Miri and Mishmi Mishing mostly spoken in Arunachal Pradesh.
The Assam-Burmese group includes Bodo, Naga, Kochin and Kukichin.
3. Dravidian Family. These languages are spoken in Deccan plateau region. It includes Tamil (Tamil Nadu), Malayalam (Kerala), Kannada (Karnataka) and Telugu (Andhra Pradesh). There is less diversity in this group of languages. It also includes Kin, Parji, Khond, Tulu, Kurgi, etc.
4. Aryan Family. It has two main branches : (i) Dardic (ii) Aryan
The majority of people speak these languages. Hindi is the principal language spoken by the majority of people. Hindi is the main language in Northern plains. Urdu, Sindhi, Marathi, Konkani, Oriya, Bangla, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Marwari are other important languages in different regions. Hindi occupies the fourth place in the World. Urdu is very akin to Hindi and is widely spoken in this belt.
Question 6. Discuss the religious composition of Indian population and its spatial distribution. Answer: Religious Composition : Important aspect of India’s population is the multiplicity of religious faiths. It is commonly known that the religion of the land is Hinduism. India witnessed successive penetration by other religions (Christianity, Judaism, Zorastrianism, Islam) and sections of Indian population embraced these faiths from time to time.
(1) The earliest to appear was Christianity. Historical records show that the Syrian Christians appeared on the west coast of India in the very first century of the Christian era.
(2) The Arab traders brought the message of Islam to the people of India living on the west coast much before the Muslim conquest of India.
(3) Buddhism which was once upon a time a major religion of the land is today confined to a few pockets only. It is thus obvious that the religious composition of population has been changing with conversions from one faith to another, due to migration and partition of the country.
Different Religions. The religious groups of India include Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains, although other religious faiths such as Judaism and Zorastrianism are also represented. Several tribal communities adhere to animism and totemism. Hindus account for 82 per cent of the total population. They are distributed in all parts of India. However, in some districts they are less numerous than the Muslims, Christians, Sikhs or Buddhists.
The Muslims are the largest minority group and account for 12.12 per cent of the total population. The proportion of Christians is 2.34 per cent while Sikhs account for 1.93 per cent of the total population. Buddhists and Jains account for 0.76 and 0.39 per cent of the total population, respectively. It may be noted that while Hindus are found everywhere, other religious groups have their concentration in a few pockets only.
(1) Hindus : Hindus remain the most numerous groups everywhere.
(a) In many parts of the country such as a few districts of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh the proportion of Hindus population goes up to 95 per cent or even above. It is lowest (5 %) in Mizoram.
(b) In the sub-Himalayan districts of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh the proportion of Hindu population is high above 95 per cent.
(c) The Hindu percentage remains well above 90 per cent in eastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern Gujarat, southern Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and coastal Andhra Pradesh.
(d) There are, however, certain districts on the west coast where the Hindu percentages fall below 70 per cent and even below 50 per cent. Hindus are in minority in Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya, Nagaland and North East Tribal areas.
(2) Muslims : According to the 1991 Census, Muslim population numbered 101.5 million which accounted for 12.12 per cent of the country’s total population. The major areas of Muslims concentration are situated in the Kashmir Valley, parts of the upper Ganga plain (Uttar Pradesh) and a number of districts in West Bengal where the Muslim proportion ranges between 20 and 40 per cent. In Murshidabad (West Bengal), the Muslim proportion goes as high as 61.40 per cent. In the upper Ganga Valley, Muslims are fairly predominant in several districts.
(3) Christians : Of the 19.64 million Christians of India, about 29 per cent live in the state of Kerala alone. Other areas of Christian concentration are in Goa and Tamil Nadu.
About 30 per cent of population of Goa consists of Christians. Several Tribal districts of Odisha and Bihar have significant proportion of Christian population. Likewise, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Manipur have very high proportion of Christians. In Nagaland for example, their share in the total population is as high as 87.47 percent.
Mizoram with 85.73 per cent of its population consisting of Christians follows closely. Percentages remain very high in the districts of Meghalaya and some districts of Manipur (between 50 and 98 per cent). Several districts of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab have small Christian population.
(4) Sikhs : The 1991 Census returns show that there are 16.25 million Sikhs in the country. While there is no part in India where the Sikhs are not found, their major concentration is seen in the states of Punjab and neighbouring districts of Haryana. This is obvious because Sikhism arose from the soil of Punjab.
Minor pockets of Sikh concentration are found in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, Ganganagar, Alwar and Bharatpur districts of Rajasthan. Sikhs account for 4.84 per cent of the total population of the Union Territory of Delhi. In the urban areas of other states, Sikhs live in small numbers.
(5) Buddhists, Jains and Parsis : India has about 6.38 million Buddhists, 3.55 million, Jains and about 72,000 Parsis. Of the total Buddhists of India, 79 per cent live in Maharashtra alone. These are Neo-Buddhists who embraced this religion after large scale conversion under the influence of the movement launched by Baba Saheb Ambedkar. The main pockets of traditional Buddhism, however, lie in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura.
Of the total population of India, 28.80 per cent live in Maharashtra, 16.78 per cent in Rajasthan and 14.65 per cent in Gujarat. These three states account for 60.23 per cent of the Jain population of the country. An interesting feature of the distribution of Jains is that their majority live in the urban areas. The Parsis are the smallest religious group. They are most concentrated in Western parts of India in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Question 7. Discuss the trend of urbanisation in India with special reference to the post independence period. Answer: Urbanisation in India : According to census, the population is classified into two groups; rural and urban. People living in towns are included in urban population. A town is an area which has a municipal committee, corporation etc. ; it has a population more than 5000 and 75% people are engaged in occupations other than agriculture.
India is primarily an agricultural country. Most of people live in villages. Villages have been the basis of Indian culture. India has a large urban population. According to census of 2011, the total urban population in India was 39 crores. It is almost equal to the urban population of U.S.A. (25,9 crore) India ranks the largest urbanised country in the world. But the degree of urbanisation in India is low as compared to other countries of the world.
Country
Urban population %
U.S.A.
82.6
Brazil
84.9
Egypt
43.7
Pakistan
36.7
India
31.7
Growth of urban population :
With the rapid increase in population, the urban population has also rapidly increased. During the last 110 years (1901-2011), the total population of India increased three times, but the urban population has increased eleven times during the same period.
Rural and Urban Population : 1901-2011
Census year
Population (million)
Percentage of total population
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
1901
213
26
89.2
10.8
1911
226
26
89.7
10.3
1921
223
28
88.8
11.2
1931
246
33
88.0
12.0
1941
275
44
86.1
13.9
1951
299
62
82.7
17.3
1961
360
79
82.0
18.0
1971
439
109
80.1
19.9
1981
524
159
76.7
23.3
1991
629
218
74.3
25.7
2001
741
285
72.2
27.8
2011
833
377
68.8
31.7
The rate of growth of urbanisation has been slow during the period 1901.-61. But during the period of 20 years (1961-81) there has been a rapid growth of urbanisation in India. The urban population increased from 7.8 crores to 15.6.
The percentage of urban population increased from 17.9% to 23.3%. In 2001 the urban population has increased to 28.5 crores (27.8% of the total population). The growth of towns has helped rapid growth of urbanisation. Many industrial towns have been established. The Indian towns have been classified into 6 groups.
Class
Population
Class I Class II
More than 1 Lakh 50000 – 99999
Class III
20000 – 49999
Class IV
10000-19999
Class V
5000 – 9999
Class VI
Less than 5000
After independence, the number of big towns is increasing while the number of small towns is decreasing. In 1991, there were 299 class I towns out of 4689 towns. In 1981, there were 218 class I towns, but in 1901 there were only 24 class I towns. The number of million towns in India is 35.
These towns have a population of 10 crores which is about 1.3rd of total urban population of India. Kolkata, Mumbai, ‘Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Kanpur, Nagpur, Jaipur, Lucknow are million towns in India.
Question 8. ‘Dense population is found in states in Ganga and Sutlej plain.’ Explain. Answer: West Bengal (1029 persons per sq. km) and Bihar (1102 persons) are the two states with dense population in Northern plains, Uttar Pradesh (20 crores population) is the state with highest population of India with density of population of 828 persons per sq. km. Punjab has density of population of 550 persons per sq. km. while Haryana has a density of population of 573 persons per sq. km. All the states he in Ganga Sutlej Basin.
Question 9. Identify the challenges of the adolescent population before the society. Enlist a few measures to overcome these problems. Answer: The share of adolescents is about 20.9% of the population. The adolescent population though regarded as the youthful population, having high potential is quite vulnerable if not quided properly. The National youth policy looks into the overall development of our large youth population. It stresses on an all round improvement of the youth and adolescent enabling them to shoulder responsibility towards constructive development of the country.
It reinforces the qualities of patriotism and responsible citizenship.
Special emphasis was given in empowering women and girl child to bring parity in the male and the female status.
Efforts were made to look into health. Sports and recreation creativity and awareness about new innovations in the spheres of science and technologies.
Question 10. Show the following on the outline map of India and label these. Answer: (1) Most populated state. (2) Least populated state. (3) State with highest density of population. (4) State with lowest density of population. (5) State with highest growth rate of population. (6) State with lowest growth rate of population. (7) State with highest percentage of rural population. (8) Most urbanised state. (9) State with highest sex ratio. (10) State with lowest sex ratio.
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 12 MIGRATION : TYPES , CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 GEOGRAPHY INDIA- PEOPLE AND ECONOMY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON MIGRATION : TYPES , CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES
Question 1. Explain the main reasons for the migration of males and females separately in India. All Indio 2014 Answer: The main reasons for the migration of males and females separately in India are as follows:
They migrate mainly because of employment/work. Only 2% of males migrate because of marriage (only in Meghalaya).
About 65% of women migrate because of marriage. Only 3% of women migrate for employment.
Question 2. Explain any three push factors that have caused rural to urban migration in India. OR Explain any three ‘push factors’ which compel the people to migrate from one area to another area in India. Answer: Push factors are those that force people to leave their place of residence or origin. Push factors may include:
Poverty and hunger are one of the main reasons in push factors of migration.
When people do not find means of livelihood in their home villages, they are pushed out to the nearby or distant towns.
Political disturbances and inter-ethnic conflicts drive people away from their homes.
Question 3. Why do people migrate? State the four streams of migration in India. All India 2012 Answer: People migrate from one place to another mainly due to poverty, poor economic activity, lack of basic infrastructure like health care, education, etc. Apart from these factors, natural disasters like Tsunami, earthquake, etc and war or local conflicts are also strong reasons for migration.
The four streams of migration are:
Rural to Rural
Rural to Urban
Urban to Rural
Urban to Urban
Question 4. How is migration a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over a space? Explain the economic consequences of migration in India. Answer: Migration is the permanent or semi-permanent change of a person’s place of residence. The main cause for male migration is unemployment. People migrate for work and employment. The main cause for female migration is marrige. About 65% for female move out from their parental house following their marriages. Migration act as agents of social change.
The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girls education, etc get diffused from urban to rural areas through them. Migration leads to inter-mixing of people from diverse cultures. It widen up the mental horizon of people at large. For economic consequences of migration,
Consequences of migration are discussed below: Positive
Remittances are imported for the economy of a country as migrants sent remittances to their family members for food, repayment of loans/debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc.
Green revolution in the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh was a success because of the migrants from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.
Negative
Overcrowding due to unregulated migration.
Development of unhygenic slums in industrially developed states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi.
Question 11. Explain why the causes of male and female migration are different in India. Find out the environmental consequences of migration. (Delhi 2016) OR Explain with examples any three environmental consequences of migration of people in India. (Delhi 2000) Answer: Causes of male and female migration are different in India as according to census 2001, about 65% of women migrate because of marriage. Only 3% of women migrate for employment. Whereas the majority of 38% of males migrate because of employment/work. Only 2% of males migrate because of marriage, (mainly in Meghalaya).
There are some environmental consequences of migration, which have degraded the quality of life especially in urban areas which are:
Over crowding of people, due to rural-urban migration, has put pressure on existing social and physical infrastructure.
Unplanned growth of cities and development of illegal and unhygenic slums result of a this.
Cities are facing some major environmental problems like over use depletion of natural resources, pollution of ground water, air pollution, noise pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.
Question 5. Examine the economic and social consequences of migration in India. Answer: For economic consequences of migration, Consequences of migration are discussed below: Positive
Remittances are imported for economy of a country as migrants sent remittances to their family members for food, repayment of loans/debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc.
Green revolution in the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh was a success because of the migrants from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.
Negative
Overcrowding due to unregulated migration.
Development of unhygenic slums in industrially developed states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi.
Social consequences of migration are discussed below: Positive
Migrants work as an agent of social change. They diffuse new ideas of science and technology, family planning, girl’s education, etc from one place to another place.
People also bring different cultures with them which help to break the narrow considerations and broaden up the mental horizon of the people.
Question 6. Define the term migration. Explain the social and environmental consequences of migration in India. Answer: The movement of population from one place to another is known as migration. Migration may be permanent or temporary. When people migrate permanently from one place to another is called as permanent migration. On the other hand, temporary migration may be annual, seasonal, or daily. Census of India determines the migration by place of birth or residence.
For social and environmental consequences,
Migration is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi-permanent residence. For economic consequences of migration,
Consequences of migration are discussed below: Positive
Remittances are imported for the economy of a country as migrants sent remittances to their family members for food, repayment of loans/debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc.
Green revolution in the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh was a success because of the migrants from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.
Negative
Overcrowding due to unregulated migration.
Development of unhygienic slums in industrially developed states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi.
The demographic consequences are both positive as well as negative: Positive
Migration leads to redistributing of the population within a country.
The process of urbanisation is dependent on rural-urban migration. Thus, it gives acceleration to urbanisation as well as industrialisation.
Negative
Imbalance in an age of sex composition are also brought in the recipient areas,
Aged skill selective out-migration from rural areas have an adverse effect on the rural demographic structure.
Imbalance in demographic structure.
Age and skill selective out-migration created an imbalance in the demographic structure of rural areas.
Age and sex-composition are seriously affected in states of Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra due to migration.
The same situation happens in the recipient states.
Question 7. Examine any five push factors that cause migration of population in India. Delhi 2013 Answer: Push factors are those that force people to leave their place of residence or origin. Push factors may include:
The abject poverty and hunger is one of the main reasons in push factors of migration.
When people do not find means of livelihood in their home villages, they are pushed out to the nearby or distant towns.
Political disturbances and inter-ethnic conflicts drive people away from their homes.
Environmental problems and natural disasters like drought, floods etc often are caused the loss of money, homes and jobs and render people helpless.
When a place is having heavy population pressure on land resources, then finally the natural resources tend to exhaust in near future overused by population and became extinct, which ultimately forced people to move from that place to another place.
Question 8. What is migration? What are the four streams of migration in India? Write the main features of each? Answer: Migration is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi-permanent residence. The four streams of internal migration in India with their features are as follows
Rural to Rural In this stream, people move from a rural area to another rural area in India. The short distance of this stream is dominated by females because of marriage. Male migrants are less in this streams About 64% of females migrate in India because of marriage.
Rural to Urban In this stream, people move from a rural area to urban area. Most rural-urban migrants are males. They migrate because of work and employment. Urban areas attract them by opportunities existing in those areas. Another reason is education. Female migration for education is less.
Urban to Urban In this stream, people usually move out from a small urban area to large urban area to gain more opportunities. Millions of people in India migrate from small cities to large metropolitan cities for higher wages and salary
Urban to Rural In this stream, people move from urban area to rural area. In India,’ this type of migration is usually done by retired and old age people due to overcrowding, pollution and others.
Data Based Questions
Question 9. Study the given diagram, showing intra state migration streams in India and answer the questions that follow. (i) Which migration stream shows the highest number of migration both male and female categories? (ii) Why does this migration stream show the highest migration in both categories? Give one reason for each. (iii) Why do female migrants dominate in all four streams of migration? Give two reasons. Answer: (i) Rural to rural stream shows the highest numbers of migration in both male and female categories. (ii) Rural to rural stream has the highest numbers of a female because of marriage. While male had the highest number because of work. (iii) Female migrants dominate in all four streams of migration because of:
Marriage
Move with household
Better education
High wages
Better opportunities
Question 10. Study the diagram given below and answer the questions that follow. (i) Which are the four streams of migration in India? (ii) What is the common feature shown among all the migration stream? (iii) In which stream is the number of female migrants is the highest? Give the main reason for it. Answer: (i) Rural to Rural (R-R), Rural to Urban (R-U), Urban to Rural (U-R), and Urban to Urban (U-U) are four streams of migration in India. (ii) The common feature is the dominance of female migrants in all the streams. (iii) Rural to rural stream has highest numbers of female because of marriage.
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 9 DEVELOPING PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILL NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON DEVELOPING PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILL
1. What competencies are required for becoming an effective psychologist?
Answer
The competencies which are required for becoming an effective psychologist fall into three broad sections: (i) General Skills: These skills are generic in nature and are needed by all psychologists irrespective of their field of specialisation. These skills are essential for all professional psychologists, whether they are working in the field of clinical and health psychology, industrial/organisational, social, educational, or in environmental settings, or are acting as consultants. These skills include personal as well as intellectual skills. It is expected that it will not be proper to provide any form of professional training (in clinical or organisational fields) to students who do not possess these skills.
(ii) Observational Skills: A great deal of what psychologists as researchers and practitioners do in the field is to pay attention, watch and listen carefully. They use all the senses, noticing what is seen, heard, smelt, tasted, or touched. A psychologist, thus, is like an instrument that absorbs all sources of information from the environment.
(iii) Specific Skills: These skills are core/basic to the field of psychological service. For example, psychologists working in clinical settings need to be trained in various techniques of therapeutic interventions, psychological assessment, and counselling. Similarly, organisational psychologists working in the organisational context need to have skills in assessment, facilitation and consultation, behavioural skills to bring about individual, group, team and organisational development besides research skills, etc. Though, specific skills and competencies are required for a very specialised professional functioning, nonetheless, all skill sets do overlap quite a bit.
2. What are the generic skills needed by all psychologists?
Answer
The list of generic skills needed by all psychologists are: (i) Interpersonal Skills: ability to listen and be empathic, to develop respect for/interest in others cultures, experiences, values, points of view, goals and desires, fears, openness to receive feedback, etc. These skills are expressed verbally and/or non-verbally. (ii) Cognitive Skills: ability to solve problems, engage in critical thinking and organised reasoning, and having intellectual curiosity and flexibility. (iii) Affective Skills: emotional control and balance, tolerance/understanding of interpersonal conflict, tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty. (iv) Personality/Attitude: desire to help others, openness to new ideas, honesty/integrity/value ethical behaviour, personal courage. (v) Expressive Skills: ability to communicate one’s ideas, feelings and information in verbal, non-verbal, and written forms. (vi) Reflective Skills: ability to examine and consider one’s own motives, attitudes, behaviours and ability to be sensitive to one’s own behaviour or others. (vii) Personal Skills: personal organisation, personal hygiene, time management, and appropriate dress
3. Define communication. Which component of the communication process is most important? Justify your answer with relevant examples.
Answer
Communication is a process that helps in transmitting meaning from one person to another. It is a conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in which feelings and ideas are expressed as verbal and/or non-verbal messages that are sent, received, and comprehended. One important component of communication is speaking with the use of language. Language involves use of symbols which package meaning within them. To be effective, a communicator must know how to use language appropriately. Because language is symbolic, it is necessary to be as clear and precise as possible when using words. Communication takes place within a context. So one needs to consider the other’s frame of reference, that is, the context used by the sender to say something. Also whether s/he shares your interpretation. If not, it is important to adjust your vocabulary level and choice of words to fit the level of the listener. Remember that slang expressions, words unique to a culture or region, and euphemism can sometimes become obstacles in good communication.
4. Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test.
Answer
The set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test are as follows: (i) Ability to select and implement multiple methods and means of evaluation in ways that are responsive to, and respectful of diverse individuals, couples, families, and groups. (ii) Ability to utilise systematic approaches to gather data required for taking decisions. (iii) Knowledge of psychometric issues and bases of assessment methods. (iv) Knowledge of issues related to integration of different data sources. (v) Ability to integrate assessment data from different sources for diagnostic purposes. (vi) Ability to formulate and apply diagnoses; to understand strengths and limitations of current diagnostic approaches. (vii) Capacity for effective use of supervision to implement and enhance skills
5. What is the typical format of a counselling interview?
Answer
The format of a counselling interview is as follows: (i) Opening of the Interview: The opening of interview involves establishing rapport between two communicators. The purpose is to make the interviewee comfortable. Generally, the interviewer starts the conversation and does most of the talking at the outset. This serves two functions, i.e. it establishes the goal of interview, and gives the interviewee time to become comfortable with the situation and the interviewer. (ii) Body of the Interview: The body of the interview is the heart of the process. In this stage, the interviewer asks questions in an attempt to generate information and data that are required for the purpose. (iii) Sequence of Questions: To accomplish the purpose of an interview, the interviewer prepares a set of questions, also called a schedule, for different domains, or categories s/he wants to cover. To do this, the interviewer must first decide on the domains/categories under which information is to be generated. For example, in the questions used in job interview, the interviewer selected several categories such as nature of the organisation last worked for, satisfaction with the past job, views on product, etc. These categories and the questions within them are framed ranging from easy-to-answer to difficult-to-answer. Questions are also formulated to assess facts as well as subjective assessment
6. What do you understand by the term counselling? Explain the characteristics of an effective counsellor.
Answer
Counselling provides a system for planning the interview, analysing the counsellor’s and client’s behaviour, and determining the developmental impact on the client. In this section, we will discuss skills, concepts, and methods that are designed to help develop concrete competencies. A counsellor is most often interested in building an understanding of the clients problem by focusing on what understanding the client has of her/his problem and how s/he feels about it. The actual or objective facts of the problems are considered less important, and it is considered more important to work on the feelings and their acknowledgement by the clients. The focus is more on the person and how s/he defines the problem.
The following elements about counselling are common to the major theoretical approaches to counselling: (i) Counselling involves responding to the feelings, thoughts, and actions of the clients. (ii) Counselling involves a basic acceptance of the client’s perceptions and feelings, without using any evaluative standards. (iii) Confidentiality and privacy constitute essential ingredients in the counselling setting. Physical facilities that preserve this quality are important. (iv) Counselling is voluntary. It takes place when a client approaches a counsellor. A counsellor never uses any kind of coercion for obtaining information. (v) Counsellors and clients both transmit and receive verbal and non-verbal messages during the process. Therefore, awareness and sensitivity to the nature of the message is an important prerequisite for a counsellor’s effectiveness.
7. To be an effective counsellor, it is mandatory that s/he undergoes professional training. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your arguments.
7.What competencies are required for becoming an effective psychologist? Answer.
For becoming an effective psychologists, following competences are essential: (а)General Skills (b) Observational Skills (c) Specific Skills (a)General Skills: •General skills are essential for all professional psychologists. •These skills include personal as well as intellectual skills. •Once ensuring that a student has these skills subsequent training in his/her area of specializations to him/her intellectual and personal skill are as follows: Interpersonal Skills: Ability to listen and be empathic. It may be verbal or non-verbal. •Cognitive: — Ability to solve problems — Having curiosity and flexibility •Affective Skills: — Openness to ideas — Agreeableness — Honesty •Expressive skills: Ability to communicate in verbal and non-verbal form. •Reflective Skills: — Intrapersonal intelligence —Ability to examine own motives,attitude and behaviour. •Personal skills: — Personal hygiene — Time management (b)Observational Skills: Psychologists should have training in objectives and systematic observation. •They should have skill to observe various aspects of surrounding including people and varying events. •Psychologists should engage in observing people and their actions with following precautions: — Patience. — Optimistic curiosity. — Respecting clients privacy. — Awareness of people reactions, emotions and motivation. — Training good questions which could be answered during observation. (c)If the psychologist wants to work in a specialized field then professional training in specific skill development is essential. The main specific skills are as follows: (a) communication skills (b) Psychological testing skill (c) Interviewing skill (d) Counselling skill
8.Define communication. Which component of the communication process is most important? Justify your answer with relevant examples. Answer.
Communication is a conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in which feelings and ideas are expressed as verbal and/or non-verbal messages that are sent, received and comprehended. Component of the Communication: The mort important component of communication is speaking with the use of language. •Language involves use of vocabulary which includes words by symbols. •Communicator must know how to use words appropriately in organized and understandable form. •It is necessary to be clear and precise. •Communication takes place within a context and needs to consider the other’s frame of reference. •It is important for the speaker to adjust his vocabulary level and choice of words to fit the level of the listener. •Slang expressions, words unique to a culture, euphemism can become obstacles in good communication. •Listening may appear as a passive behaviour, as it involves silence. But this is far from true. •Listening requires a person to be attentive, patient, non-judgmental and have the capacity to analyze and respond. •It is an active process. •Hearing and listening are not the same, hearing is biological mechanism. It involves reception of a message through sensory channels.
9.Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test. Answer.
•Developing the skills of psychological testing is important since tests are important tools used for the assessment of individuals for various purposes. Proper training is required for administration, scoring and interpretation of tests. •Psychologists study individuals, differences based on factors such as occupation, age, gender, education, culture, etc. •While using psychological test, following factors must be kept in mind: 1.An attitude of objectivity 2. Scientific orientation 3. Standardised Interpretation must be kept in mind. For example, in organizational and personnel work, in business and industry, where specialized tests are used to select individuals for specific jobs, it is essential to use actual performance records or ratings as a criterion for establishing validity of a test. •Suppose the personnel department wants to know whether a certain psychological test can help it to identify potentiality of best stenographers. •It must be established that the test differentiates among employees of several performance levels. •It should be found the performance on the job of a newly employed worker selected on the basis of test indeed matches with his/her test scores.
10.What is the typical format of a counselling interview? Answer
. Interview refers to purposeful conversation through face-to-face interactions. •It follows a basic question-answer format. •First, the objectives of the interview are set. •The interviewer then prepares on interview format. •There is a basic format which is followed, regardless of the interview’s purpose; i.e., an interview has three stages: — Opening — The body — The closing A.Opening of the Interview: 1. In involves establishing report between the two communicators, so that the interview becomes comfortable. 2. Generally, the interviewer starts the conversation and does most of the talking at the outset. This serves two functions: (a)It establishes the goal of the interview (b)It gives the interviewee time to become comfortable with the situation and the interviewer. B. Body of the Interview: 1.This is the heart of the process. 2.In this stage, the interviewer asks questions in an attempt to generate information and data that are required to fulfil/required for the purpose. Sequence of Questions: To accomplish the purpose of an interview, the interviewer prepares set of questions – called a schedule for different domains or categories he/she wants to cover. 1.To form the schedule, the interviewer must first decide on the domain/categories under which information is to be generated. For example for questions used in job interview (box 9.5), the interviewer selected various categories such as not use’ of the organization last worked for, satisfaction with the past job, views on product etc. 2.These domains/categories and the questions within them are formed ranging from easy to answer to difficult to answer. C. Closing of the Interview: While closing the interview, the interviewer should: 1.Summarise what she/he has been able to gather. 2.Give a chance to the interviewee to ask questions or offer comments. One ‘ should end witfc a discussion of the next step to be taken.
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 8 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
1: How is creativity related to intelligence? Differentiate between creativity tests and intelligence tests.
Ans: Imagination starts developing in early childhood and expressed through physical activities. Variations in potential for creativity heredity and environment like motivation, commitment, family support, peer influences, training, and opportunity.
Terman, 1920, all creative people are intelligent, may not be high IQ, But all gifted people may not be creative. Therefore, intelligence by itself does not ensure creativity.
Creative tests to assess variations- open ended; freedom to use ones imagination and express it in original ways; divergent thinking; ability to see new relationships; guess causes and consequences; put things in a new perspective.
Intelligence tests are closed ended; convergent thinking; assesses memory, logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual ability, clear thinking. No scope for originality, spontaneity, imagination.
2: Describe Lazarus’ general model of stress appraisal.
Ans: • Based on Cognitive theory of stress as given by Lazarus et al.
Depends on how the stressful event is interpreted or appraised.
Primary appraisal- positive, negative and neutral
Secondary appraisal- They are subjective and depend on:
o Past experiences. o Controllable- sense of self confidence and self-efficacy
o Type of stressor- environmental, social or psychological
o Dimensions of the stressor- intensity, duration, complexity predictability o Person characteristics- physiological, psychological, cultural
o Resources- physical, personal and social
3: What is addictive behaviour? Name any two frequently abused substances and describe their consequences.
Ans: – Addictive behaviour involves excessive intake of high calorie food resulting in extreme obesity or involving the abuse of substances such as alcohol or cocaine. ·
– Disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours resulting from regular and consistent use of the substance involved are included under substance related and addictive disorders ·
– These alter the way people think, feel and behave.
4: What are some of the measures suggested by WHO to prevent suicide? What are the approaches that are useful in strengthening positive self-esteem in children?
Ans: Some measures suggested by WHO include:
limiting access to the means of suicide
reporting of suicide by media in a responsible way • bringing in alcohol-related policies
early identification, treatment and care of people at risk
training health workers in assessing and managing for suicide
care for people who attempted suicide and providing community support
To foster positive self-esteem in children the following approaches can be useful:
accentuating positive life experiences to develop positive identity. This increases confidence in self.
providing opportunities for development of physical, social and vocational
establishing a trustful communication.
goals for the students should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant
5: A big percentage of the population lives below the poverty line in India. As a responsible student, suggest steps to reduce poverty
Ans: Brief explanation of any 4 of the points given below: ·
– breaking poverty cycle by helping attain self-sufficiency ·
– helping poor take responsibility ·
– providing educational and employment opportunities ·
– measures for improving mental health ·
– steps for empowering the poor ·
– any other relevant point
6 Marks Questions
6: What are anxiety disorders? Explain its types.
Ans: Anxiety disorders is a combination of the following symptoms: rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness, frequent urination and tremors.
-Types of anxiety disorders:
Generalised anxiety disorder-consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that are not attached to any particular object. The symptoms include worry and apprehensive feelings about the future; hyper vigilance, motor tension, as a result of which the person is unable to relax, is restless, and visibly shaky and tense.
Panic disorder-consists of recurrent anxiety attacks in which the person experiences intense terror. A panic attack denotes an abrupt surge of intense anxiety; occur in an unpredictable manner. The clinical features include shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling, palpitations, choking, nausea, chest pain or discomfort, fear of going crazy, losing control or dying.
Phobias-irrational fears related to specific objects, people, or situations. Phobias can be grouped into three main types, i.e. specific phobias, social phobias, and agoraphobia.
Obsessive-compulsive disorderare unable to control their preoccupation with specific ideas or are unable to prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying out a particular act or series of acts that affect their ability to carry out normal activities. obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop thinking and compulsive behaviour is the need to perform certain behaviours over and over again.
7: Identify the causes belying any international conflict which is causing distress to humanity. As a psychologist, what strategies would you suggest to resolve this conflict?
Ans: Identify the conflict; Mention the causes- poverty, fighting for resources, religion,etc
– Some of these strategies to resolve conflicts are:
Introduction of superordinate goals :Like Sherif’s study showed that by introducing superordinate goals, inter-group conflict can be reduced. Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups differently in society.
Increasing intergroup contacts :This can be done by involving groups in conflict on neutral grounds through community projects and events. The idea is to bring them together so that they become more appreciative of each others stand.
Respect for other group’s norms : It has been noticed that a number of communal riots between different groups have taken place because of such insensitivity
8: Why do conflicts arise between groups and how can they be resolved?
Ans: Conflict is a process in which either an individual or a group perceives that others have opposing interests, and both try to contradict each other; intense feeling of We and they.
Major reasons of conflict: lack of communication; relative deprivation; believe in the superiority of ones party over the other; feeling of being poorly regarded by others; Desire for retaliation; biased perception; people in a group are more aggressive; perceived inequity.
Resolution of conflict: Introduction of super ordinate goals; Altering perception Redrawing group boundaries; Increasing intergroup contacts; Negotiations; Structural solutions; Respect for other group norms.
9: Explain mental disorders from the perspective of any three psychological models.
Ans: 1. Psychodynamic model –Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts between these forces. This model was first formulated by Freud who believed that three central forces shape personality- intrapsychic conflict— instinctual needs, drives and impulses (id), rational thinking (ego), and moral standards (superego).
Behavioural model.This model states that both normal and abnormal behaviours are learned and psychological disorders are the result of learning maladaptive ways of behaving. Learning can take place by classical conditioning (temporal association in which two events repeatedly occur close together in time), operant conditioning (behaviour is followed by a reward), and social learning (learning by imitating others’ behaviour).
Cognitive model.People may hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves that are irrational and inaccurate. People may also repeatedly think in illogical ways and make overgeneralizations, that is, they may draw broad, negative conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event.
Humanistic-existential model, which focuses on broader aspects of human existence. Humanists believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative and constructive, and are driven to selfactualise, i.e. to fulfil this potential for goodness and growth. Existentialists believe that from birth we have total freedom to give meaning to our existence or to avoid that responsibility. Those who shirk from this responsibility would live empty, inauthentic, and dysfunctional lives.
10: Is there a consistency between attitude and behavior? Explain.
Ans: Attitude and behaviour are consistent when
the attitude is strong, and occupies a central place in the attitude system,
the person is aware of her/his attitude,
there is very little or no external pressure for the person to behave in a particular way. For example, when there is no group pressure to follow a particular norm,
the person’s behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others, and
the person thinks that the behaviour would have a positive consequence, and therefore, intends to engage in that behaviour.
when behaviour decides the attitude. For example, when somebody indulges in a behaviour, it may lead to change in attitude.
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 7 SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSESS NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSESS
1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and in groups and outgroups.
Answer
Formal and Informal Groups These groups differ in the degree to which the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an office organisation. The roles to be performed by group members are stated in an explicit manner. The formal and informal groups differ on the basis of structure. The formation of formal groups is based on some specific rules or laws and members have definite roles. There are a set of norms which help in establishing order. A university is an example of a formal group. On the other hand, the formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws and there is close relationship among members.
Ingroup and Outgroup Just as individuals compare themselves with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have and what others have, individuals also compare the group they belong to with groups of which they are not a member. The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another group. For ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used. By using the words they and we, one is categorising people as similar or different. It has been found that persons in the ingroup are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favourably, and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the ingroup members. Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our social lives.
2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that group.
Answer
Yes, I am a member of a certain group.These are the factors which motivated me to join that group: (i) Security : When we are alone, we feel insecure. Groups reduce this insecurity. Being with people gives a sense of comfort, and protection. As a result, people feel stronger, and are less vulnerable to threats. (ii) Status : When we are members of a group that is perceived to be important by others, we feel recognised and experience a sense of power. Suppose your school wins in an inter-institutional debate competition, you feel proud and think that you are better than others. (iii) Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of self-worth and establish a positive social identity. Being a member of prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept. (iv) Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s social and psychological needs such as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving attention, love, and power through a group. (v) Goal achievement : Groups help in achieving such goals which cannot be attained individually. There is power in the majority. (vi) Provide knowledge and information : Group membership provides knowledge and information and thus broadens our view. As individuals, we may not have all the required information. Groups supplement this information and knowledge.
3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups?
Answer
Groups usually go through different stages of formation, conflict, stabilisation, performance, and dismissal. Tuckman’s stage model suggested that groups pass through five developmental sequences which are forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. (i) Forming stage: When group members first meet, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the group, the goal, and how it is to be achieved. People try to know each other and assess whether they will fit in. There is excitement as well as apprehensions. (ii) Storming stage: It is a stage of intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming. In this stage, there is conflict among members about how the target of the group is to be achieved, who is to control the group and its resources, and who is to perform what task. When this stage is complete, some sort of hierarchy of leadership in the group develops and a clear vision as to how to achieve the group goal. (iii) Norming stage: This storming stage is followed by norming. Group members by this time develop norms related to group behaviour. This leads to development of a positive group identity. (iv) performing stage: It is the fourth stage. By this time, the structure of the group has evolved and is accepted by group members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some groups, this may be the last stage of group development. (v) Adjourning stage: For some groups, for example, in the case of an organising committee for a school function, there may be last stage and group comes to an end. In this stage, once the function is over, the group may be disbanded.
4. How do groups influence our behaviour?
Answer
Groups and individuals exert influence on us which may force us to change our behaviours in a particular direction. Group influence our behaviour by the method of ‘social influence’ which means getting influenced by the imagined presence of other people. Throughout the day we may encounter a number of situations where others have tried to influence our and make us think in ways they want.Social influence is a part of our life. In some situations, social influence on us is very strong as a result of which we tend to do things which we otherwise would have not done. On other occasions, we are able to defy influence of others and may even influence them to adopt our own viewpoint There are three important group influence processes, i.e. conformity, compliance and obedience. (i) Conformity: It means behaving according to the group norm, i.e. the expectations of other group members. Persons who do not conform (called ‘deviants’ or ‘non-conformists’) get noticed more than those who do conform. (ii) Compliance: In this, there are external conditions that force the individual to accept the influence of the significant other. Compliance also refers to behaving in a particular way in response to a request made by someone. It could take place even without a norm (iii) Obedience: A distinguishing feature of obedience is that such behaviour is a response to a person in authority. The presence of an authority figure immediately makes this behaviour different from conformity. For instance, you may stop talking loudly in the classroom when the teacher asks you to keep quiet, but not when your classmate tells you to do the same thing.
5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social loafing in school. How did you overcome it?
Answer
It has been found that individuals work less hard in a group than they do when performing alone. This points to a phenomenon referred to as ‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. An example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for us to identify how much force each member of the team has been exerting. Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free rider. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by Latane and his associates who asked group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in knowing how much noise people make in social settings. They varied the group size; individuals were either alone, or in groups of two, four and six. The results of the study showed that although the total amount of noise rose up, as size increased, the amount of noise produced by each participant dropped. In other words, each participant put in less effort as the group size increased. Reasons for the occurrence of social loafing: (i) Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed and therefore exert less effort. (ii) Motivation of members decreases because they realise that their contributions will not be evaluated on individual basis.https://b9ce6b68e5900a017d56c6b5a379a7ad.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-38/html/container.html(iii) The performance of the group is not to be compared with other groups. (iv) There is an improper coordination (or no coordination) among members. (v) Belonging to the same group is not important for members. It is only an aggregate of individuals.
Two incidents of social loafing in school: (i) Some students work very less in group projects and works. (ii) Sometimes during sports competition, some students practice very less and thus this affect the whole team. It may be reduced by: (i) Making the efforts of each person identifiable. (ii) Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group members committed to successful task performance). (iii) Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task. (iv) Making people feel that their individual contribution is important. (v) Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the motivation for successful group outcome.
6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of conformity?
Answer
Conformity in your behavior means behaving according to the group norm, i.e. the expectations of other group members. Conformity in behavior can be shown by the following examples. Some of your friends come to you with a letter of protest against a rule that has been recently announced, i.e. banning use of mobile phones in the school. Personally you believe that the rule is very sensible and should be enforced. But you also know that if you do not sign the letter. Thus, I have to behave according to the group norm. Determinants of conformity are size of the group, Size of the minority, nature of the task, public or private expression of behaviour and personality. (i) Size of the group: Conformity is greater when the group is small than when the group is large. It is easier for a deviant member (one who does not conform) to be noticed in a small group. However, in a large group, if there is strong agreement among most of the members, this makes the majority stronger, and therefore, the norm is also stronger. In such a case, the minority member(s) would be more likely to conform because the group pressure would be stronger. (ii) Size of the minority : Suppose the subject finds that after some rounds of judgment of the lines, there is another participant who starts agreeing with the subject’s answer. When the dissenting or deviating minority size increases, the likelihood of conformity decreases. In fact, it may increase the number of dissenters or non-conformists in the group. (iii) Nature of the task: In Asch’s experiment, the task required an answer that could be verified, and could be correct or incorrect. Suppose the task involves giving an opinion about some topic. In such a case, there is no correct or incorrect answer then conformity would be less likely in the second situation. (iv) Public or private expression of behaviour: In the Asch technique, the group members are asked to give their answers publicly, i.e. all members know who has given which response. However, there can be other situations in which the behaviour of members is private. Less conformity is found under private expression than it is seen under public expression. (v) Personality: The conditions described above show how the features of the situation are important in determining the degree of conformity shown. We also find that some individuals have a conforming personality. Such persons have a tendency to change their behaviour according to what others say or do in most situations.
7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming others? Explain.
Answer
People obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming others because if we disobey, some punishment might follow. Sometimes, it is because we believe that persons in authority must be obeyed. Several reasons for this are: (i) People obey because they feel that they are not responsible for their own actions, they are simply carrying out orders from the authority. (ii) Authority generally possesses symbols of status (e.g., uniform, title) which people find difficult to resist. (iii) Authority gradually increases commands from lesser to greater levels and initial obedience binds the followers for commitment. Once you obey small orders, slowly there is an escalation of commitment for the person who is in authority and one starts obeying bigger orders. (iv) Many times, events are moving at such a fast speed, for example in a riot situation, that one has no time to think, just obey orders from above.
8. What are the benefits of cooperation?
Answer
When groups work together to achieve shared goals, we call it cooperation. The rewards in cooperative situations are group rewards and not individual rewards. Benefits of coopoeration: (i) People work together and hence work load on each individual is less. (ii) Each individual can attain the goal only if other members of the group also attain the goal. (iii) In cooperative groups, there is more coordination and acceptance for each other’s ideas. (iv) members became more friendly and can excel easily in groups. (v) Members are more active towards communication, interaction and discussions.
9. How is one’s identity formed?
Answer
One’s self-definition of who s/he is which may include both personal attributes, e.g. hard working, happy-go-lucky, or attributes which you share with others, e.g. girl or boy is known as social identity. One’s self identity is formed by oneself as a unique individual, and social identities derived from groups we perceive ourselves to be members of. Although some aspects of our identity are determined by physical characteristics, one may acquire other aspects as a consequence of our interaction with others in society. Sometimes we perceive ourselves as unique individuals and at other times we perceive ourselves as members of groups. Both are equally valid expressions of self. The extent to which we define ourselves either at personal or at social levels is flexible. From our own experience, we would realise that identification with social groups can have a great deal of importance for your self-concept. feel so because of our social identity as an Indian. Social identity is, thus, that aspect of our self-concept which is based on our group membership. Social identity places us, i.e. tells us what and where we are in the larger social context, and thus helps us to locate ourselves in society.
10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict. Reflect on the human price of this conflict.
Answer
Some of the major reasons for group conflicts are: (i) Lack of communication and faulty communication by both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e. there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict results. (ii) Another reason for intergroup conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when members of a group compare themselves with members of another group, and perceive that they do not have what they desire to have, which the other group has. In other words, they feel that they are not doing well in comparison to other groups. This may lead to feelings of deprivation and discontentment, which may trigger off conflict. (iii) Another cause of conflict is one party’s belief that it is better than the other, and what it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other. One may often witness a tendency to magnify even smaller differences, thereby conflict gets escalated because every member wants to respect the norms of her/his group. (iv) A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group, and actually violates those norms because of a malevolent intent. (v) Desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for conflict. (vi) Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts. As already mentioned earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to biased perceptions. (vii) Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well as more aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over scarce resources, both material resources, e.g. territory, and money as well as social resources, e.g. respect and esteem.
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 6 ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITIONNCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION
1.Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude. Ans. Attitudes are state of the mind, set of views or thoughts or ideas regarding some topic which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral). These are relatively stable predispositions. . Various components of an attitude are as follows: (i)The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect of attitude. (ii)The emotional component is known as the affective aspect. (iii)The tendency to act is called the behavioural (conative) aspect. These three aspects have been referred to as the A-B-C (affective-behavioural-cognitive)components of attitude. Attitudes are themselves not a tendency to behave or act in certain ways. They are part of cognition, along with an emotional component which cannot be observed from outside.
2.Are attitudes learnt? Explain how? Ans. By enlarge attitudes are learnt. They are formed on the basis of learning. Formation of Attitudes: The term ‘attitude formation’ refers to the movement we make from having no attitude toward an object to having a positive or negative attitude. There are some factors which contribute to the formation of attitudes: 1.Learning: The attitudes are acquired through learning. Many of our views are acquired in situations in which we interact with others or merely observe their behaviour. -Classical Conditioning/Leaming by Association: •A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus. •Player often develop a strong liking for the bat by which they made good runs. Many students start liking a subject if they like the teacher. -Instrumental Conditioning/Leaming Altitude by Reward and Punishment: A basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive outcomes or that permit avoidance of negative outcomes are strengthened. •It applies to the situations when people learn attitudes which are systematically rewarded by significant others, such as parents, teachers or friends. -Observational Learning: A basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behaviour or through observing others. •Children are keen observers and learn a whole lot of things from their parents and other family members. •They learn many attitudes about other ethnic groups, neighbours and idealize simply by observing the behaviours of adults. 2.Learning through Exposure to Information: •Many attitudes are learnt in a social context without physical presence of others. Print media, electronic media, biographies of self-actualized people facilitate attitude formations. 3.Learning Attitudes through Group or Cultural Norms: •Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour. Gradually these norms may become part of our social cognition, in the form of attitudes, e.g., offering money, sweets, fruits and flowers in a place of worship is a normative behaviour in various religions. People imitate such behaviour shown by others as socially approved and develop positive attitude towards it.
3.What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude? Ans. The following factors provide the context for the learning of attitude through various processes: (i) Family and School Environment: parents and other family-members play a significant role in attitude formation. Learning of attitudes within the family and school usually takes place by association, through rewards and punishment and through modelling. (ii)Reference Groups: Attitudes towards political, religious and social groups, occupations, national and other issues are often developed through reference groups. Reference groups indicate to an individual the norms regarding acceptable behaviour and ways of thinking. Various institutions, religion, culture and communities are form of reference groups. (iii) Personal Experiences: Many attitudes are formed, not in the family environment or through reference groups, but through direct personal experiences which bring about a drastic change in our attitude towards people and our own life. (iv) Media Related Influences: Technological advances have made audio-visual media and internet as very powerful sources for attitude formation. School textbooks also influence attitude formation. The media can be used to create consumerist attitude. The media can exert both good and bad influences on attitudes.
4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example. Ans. An individual’s attitude may not always be exhibited through behaviour. Likewise one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic. Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitude and behaviour when: (i)The attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the attitude system. (ii)The person is aware of his/her attitudes. (iii)Person’s behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others. (iv)Person thinks that the behaviour would have a positive consequences. Richard La Piere, an American social psychologist, conducted the following study. He asked a Chinese couple to travel across the United States, and stay in different hotels. Only once during these occasions they were refused service by one of the hotels. La Piere sent out questionnaires to managers of hotels and tourist homes in the same areas where the Chinese couple had travelled asking them if they would give accommodation to Chinese guest. A very large percentage said that they would not do so. This response showed a negative attitude towards the Chinese, which was inconsistent with the positive behaviour that was actually shown towards the travelling Chinese couple. Attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one’s behaviour.
5.Highlight the importance of schemas in social cognition. Ans.•Social schemas (schemata) are mental structure. •They function as a framework to process social information. These schemas lead to emergence of prototypes. •Prototypes are concepts which have most of the defining features of a concept, class or family. •These are best representatives of the population. •Various stereotypes emerge from these schemas. In other words stereotypes are category-based schemas.
6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype. Ans. Prejudices are negative attitude. •These are bias about others. •Prejudices are baseless and false. •It refers to biased attitude formed about an individual or a group of people. •These are usually negative. •It has three components, i.e., A-B-C- (a) Affective (Emotional i.e dislike or hatred). (b)Behavioural (i.e., discrimination). (c)Cognitive (Believes, i.e., stereotypes). Stereotypes are cognitive component of prejudice. It is strongly influenced by the processing of incoming social information. •These are over-generalized beliefs, e.g., girls are talkative. •Stereotypes are category based schemas. •These may be positive or negative or neutral. •Stereotype has no emotional blending. •From stereotypes, prejudices may emerge very easily. •Stereotypes are usually formed for the groups. •Stereotypes are pre conceived notions.
7. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice-versa. Comment. Ans. Prejudices can exist without being shown in the form of discrimination. Similarly, discrimination can be shown without prejudice. •Wherever prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts are very likely to arise between groups within the same society. •We all witnessed many instances of discrimination, with and without prejudice, based on gender, religion, community, caste, physical handicap, and illnesses such as AIDS. •Moreover, in many cases, discriminatory behaviour can be curbed by law. But, the cognitive and emotional components of prejudice are more difficult to change.
8. Describe the important factors that influence impression formation. Ans.Impression formation is a process by which impression about others is converting into more or less induring cognitions or thoughts about them.In short, impression formation is a process through which we draw quick conclusion/ inferences regarding others. Factors facilitating Impression Formation: •Nature of the phenomena (familiar or unfamiliar). •Personality traits of the perceiver. •Social schemas stored in the mind of perceiver. •Situational factors. The process of impression formation consists of the following three sub-processes: •Selection: We take into account only some bits of information about the target person. •Organization: the selected information is combined in a systematic way. •Inference: We draw a conclusion about what kind of person the target is. Some specific qualities, that influence impression formation, are: •The information presented first has a stronger effect than the information presented at the end. This is called the primacy effect. •We have a tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive qualities must also be having other specific positives that are associated with first set. This is known as halo effect, e.g., if we think that a person is ‘tidy’ then we are likely to think that this person must also be hard/working. •Whatever information comes at the end may have a stronger influence on impression formation. This is known as the recency effect.
9.Explain how the attribution made by an ‘actor’ would be different from that of an ‘observer’. Ans. Actor observer phenomena refers to the tendency to attribute our own behaviour mainly to situational causes but the behaviour of others mainly to internal (dispositional) cause. A distinction is found between the attribution that a person makes for actorrole and observer-role. Person makes attribution for his/her own positive and negative experiences, it is actor role and the attribution made for another person’s positive and negative experience is observer-role. For example, if we get good marks, we will attribute it to our own ability and hard work (actor-role, internal attribution for a positive experience). If we get bad marks, we will say we were unlucky or test was difficult (actor-role, external attribution for negative experience). On the other hand, if our classmate gets good marks, we will attribute his/her success to good luck or easy test (observer-role, external attribution for positive experience). If same classmate gets bad marks, we are likely to feel that his/her failure was because of low ability or due to lack of effort (observer-role, internal attribution for a negative experience). The reason for the difference between the actor and observer roles is that people want to have a nice image of themselves, as compared to others.
10.How does social facilitation take place? Ans. • It is form of group influence. •Social facilitation refers to a concept that performance on specific task is influenced by the mere presence of others. •Norman Triplett observed that individuals show better performance in presence of others, than when they are performing the same task alone. Better performance in presence of others is because the person experiences arousal, which makes the person react in a more intense manner. The arousal is because the person feels he or she is being evaluated. Cottrell called this idea evaluation apprehension. The person will be praised if performance is good (reward); is criticised if performance is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid criticism. As in case of complex task, the person may be afraid of making mistakes. And the fear of criticism or punishment is stronger. If the others present are also performing same task, this is called a situation of co-action. When task is simple or a familiar one, performance is better under co-action than when the person is alone. Task performing can be facilitated and improved or inhibited and worsened by the presence of others. If we are working together in a larger group, the less effort each member puts in. This phenomena is called social loafing, based on diffusion of responsibility. Diffusion of responsibility can also be frequently seen in situations where people are expected to help.
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 1 INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE
1. How do psychologists characterize and define intelligence? Ans. Psychological motion of intelligence is quite different from the common sensed motion of intelligence. Generally people saw intelligence as mental alertness, ready art, quickness in learning and ability to understand relationships. Oxford dictionary explained intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning understanding and knowing. Accordingly Alfred Binet also used these attributes and defined intelligence as ability to judge well, understand well and reason well.Later Wechsler gave a comprehensive definition in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaptation to environment. He defined intelligence as “the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment.” Present day psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg emphasized that “Intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but actively modifies or shapes it.” Sternberg views intelligence as “ the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.”
2.What extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss. Ans. (i) Whether intelligence is evolved or it is developed due to the environment, is a question of debate. (ii)Lot of studies have been done to determine the role of nature and nurture. (iii)Here we will discuss the controversy with the help of various twin studies, adoption studies and environmental studies. On the basis of twin studies co-relation results are as follows: (i)Identical twins reared together correlate 0.90 (ii)Identical twins reported early in childhood and reared in different environments correlate 0.72 (iii)Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60 (iv)Siblings reared together correlate 0.50 (v) Siblings reared apart correlate 0.25 •Adoption Studies before the Age of 6-7 Years These studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological parents. These studies provide evidence that intelligence is determined because of nature. •Adoption Studies after the Age of 6-7 Years According to these studies as children grew older tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents. Environmental Studies Evidence for the influence of environment (Nurture) on the basis of Twin studies. (i) The intelligence score of twins reared apart as they grew older, tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents. (ii)On the basis of differences in environment, children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher, socio-economic status exhibit an increase in their intelligence scores. (iii)Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. Factors such as nutrition, good family background and quality schooling increase growth rate of intelligence. (iv)There is general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture). (v)Heredity provides the potentials and sets a range of growth whereas environment facilitates the development of intelligence.
3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner. Ans.Gardner’s theory based on information processing approaches functions on three basic principles: (i)Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences. (ii)The intelligences are independent from each other. (iii)Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of problem. Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all individuals do not possess them in equal proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the prominence of one type of intelligence over the others. Following are the eight types of intelligence: 1.Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others. 2.Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific work. 3.Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension formation of images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers, sculptors and painters have highly developed spatial intelligence. 4.Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone required for singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music etc. 5.Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making etc. 6.Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours of other people.sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious readers have high degree of inter-personal intelligence. 7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one’s self and developing a sense of identity, e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders. 8.Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences etc.
4. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence? Ans. 1. Robert J. Sternberg proposes a theory of intelligence based on information processing approach in 1985 known as the Triarchic theory of intelligence. 2. According to Sternberg, intelligence is an ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture. 3. This theory attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in problem solving. 4. According to him there are three types of intelligences: (i)Componential intelligence (Analytical): This dimension specifies the cognitive processes that underlie an intelligent behaviour. This dimension serves three different functions: (a)Knowledge acquisition components: These are the processes used in learning, encoding, combining and comparing information. (b)Metacomponents: ‘Meta’ means higher. These are executive processes. They control monitor and evaluate cognitive processing. (c)Performance components: These components execute strategies prepared by metacomponents to perform a task.For example, While studying students plan the lesson chapterwise, they make schedules, categories the learning material and do integrate the information to comprehend well. (ii)Experiential intelligence (Creative): This dimension specifies how experiences effect intelligence and how intelligence effects a person’s experiences. (а)Experiential intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to make use of one’s past experiences to deal with novel situations creatively and effectively. (b)This intelligence is mostly high among scientists and creative people. (c) For example if a person is trapped in a room, he finds out a way of coming out of the room using rope or ladder etc. in a creative way. He had some knowledge of getting out from this situation by watching out a movie few years back. (iii)Contextual intelligence (Practical): This dimension specifies the ability to deal with environmental demands on daily basis. (a)It is individual’s ability to make use of his/her potential to deal with day-to-day life. (b)It may be called street smartness or ‘business sense’. (c)People high in this ability are successful in life. •It deals with the ways people handle effectively their environmental demands and adapt to different contexts with available resources
5. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three ‘neurological systems’. Explain with reference to PASS model. Ans. According to PASS model, theory based on information processing approach, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of the three neurological systems called the functional units of the brain. These units are responsible for: •the arousal and attention. • the simultaneous and successive processing. •the planning. Arousal and Attention (i)State of arousal helps in attending to the stimuli. (ii)Arousal and attention enable a person to process information. (iii)Optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a problem. (iv)Too much or too little arousal interferes with attention and performance. Example: Arousal helps the individual to focus ones attention on reading, learning and revising the contents of the material to be learnt. Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Simultaneous Processing refers to perceiving relations amongst various concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension! For e.g., in Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM Test) choosing appropriate pattern by comprehending relationship. Successive Processing refers to recalling information serially so that one recall leads to another recall. For example, learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables. Planning: 1.After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated. 2.Planning involves reaching to the target and evaluating their effectiveness. Planning allows us to think of possible courses of action and implementing them. 3.If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or the situation. 4.For example, to take a test scheduled by your teacher, you’d have to set goals, plan a time schedule of studies, get clarifications in case of problems or think of other ways to meet your goals.
6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence? Ans. Yes, culture, which is a set of beliefs, customs, attitudes and achievements in art of literature, affects the process of intellectual development. •According to Sternberg, intelligence is a product of culture. •Vyotsky believes that while elementary7 mental operations are common, higher mental activities like problem-solving and thinking are culturally produced. •Technological Intelligence (i)Promotes an individualistic pattern of action. (ii)Individuals in technologically educated western societies possess this kind of intelligence. (iii)They are well versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis, speed, moves abstraction, generalisation, creativity, Minimum moves etc. •Integral Intelligence (i)Intelligence in the Indian tradition is integral intelligence. (ii)It views intelligence from a holistic perspective. (iii)It gives equal attention to cognitive and non-cognitive processes, as well as their integration. (iv)‘Buddhi’ is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience, will and desire. (v)It has effective, motivational as well as cognitive components. . It includes: (i)Cognitive competence (discrimination, problem-solving). (ii)Social competence (respect for elders, concern for others, respecting opinions of others). (iii)Emotional competence (self regulation, self monitoring). ‘ (iv)Entrepreneurial competence commitment, persistence, patience).
7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the bases of their IQ scores? Ans.(i)IQ is an index of brightness. (ii)It is the ratio of mental age to chronological age. (iii)The concept of IQ was given by William. Stern w7ho gave the formula to calculate IQ i.e., •IQ is relatively stable. •It is a good predictor of potential. •IQ scores are distributed in a population in such a way that most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. •This can be shown in the form of following table.
8.Discuss various types of intelligence tests. Or How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
Ans.Types of Intelligence Tests: Individual or group tests based on contact: . Individual Test: (i)Administered to one individual at a time. (ii)Requires the administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to his/her feelings, mood and expressions during the testing sessions which provides understanding of other aspects of subjects personality. (iii)Allows people to answer orally or in written form or manipulate the objects as per the tester’s instructions. • Example: Stanford Binet intelligence scale, WAIS, WISSC, Alexander Pass along test. Group Test: (i)Administered to several individuals at a time simultaneously. (ii)Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings. (iii)Seek answers in a Multiple-choice format. (iv)It is relatively economical and less time consuming. (v)Example: Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta, Group Test on Intelligence by S. Jalota. Verbal, Non-verbal and Performance Tests based on Mode of Administration: Verbal Tests: (i)Requires subject to give verbal responses either orally or in written form. (ii)Can be administered to literates only. , (iii)Example: CIE, Verbal Group Test, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale. Non-verbal Test: • Has pictures or illustrations as test items. •Example: Ravens progressive matrices. In this test the subject examines an incomplete pattern and chooses a figure from the alternatives that will complete the pattern. •Reduces culture biases. •Example: SRPM, CIE Non-verbal group test of Intelligence. Performance Test: •Requires the subject to manipulate objects to perform the test. •Written language is not necessary for answering the items. •Example: Kohs’s Block designs test. Here the subject is asked to arrange the blocks in a specified period to produce a given design, Bhatia’s Battery performance test. •Can be administered to persons from different cultures and reduce culture biases. •Example: Draw a Man Test by Pramila Pathak, Kohs Block designs test. Culture Biased or Culture Fair Tests based on Nature of Items used: •Psychological tests that show a bias toward the culture in which they are developed are Culture Biased Tests. •Tests developed-in-America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural ethos. (Middle class white subjects perform well on these tests). The items do not consider favourably to Asians and Africans. •Culture Fair Tests: One does not discriminate against as individuals belong to different cultures. •Non-verbal and Performance Tests reduce cultural influences. To overcome the limitation of Culture biased tests, Culture fair tests were developed, e.g. non-verbal and performance tests are called so because people of any culture could take them. For e.g. Standard progressive Matrices and Bhatia’s Battery Performance Test.
9. Discuss how interplay of Nature and Nurture influences intelligence. Or All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain. Ans. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. They vary in their intellectual ability. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Some possess high IQ range while others have average or below average. All the scores gradually and symmetrically decline towards both the sides but never touch the X-axis. (i) The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean. (ii) On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2 percent people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior, their IQ score is more than 130. (iii) People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence. (iv) Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’. Mental retardation refers to sub-average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and manifest in four forms i.e., mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation. The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which are known as gifted i.e., they enjoy exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional creativity.
10.Which of the two lQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and Why? Ans. (i) IQ is a good predictor of potential. (ii) EQ is a good predictor of success. -Researchers had proved that—EQ helps in dealing with students who are stressed and face challenges of the outside world. -It improves the academic performance. -It is very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the classroom. -They are less anti-social and more co-operative.
In This Post we are providing CHAPTER 5 SELF AND PERSONALITY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter
NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONSON SELF AND PERSONALITY
1.What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion? Ans. Self is an organized cognitive structure. It can be understood in terms of subject and object or I and Me. It refers to the totality of one’s conscious thoughts, and feelings which pertain to one’s own self. . Indian Concept of Self •Self is characterized by the shifting nature of the boundaries. •The Indian view does not make rigid dichotomies. •It is based on collectivistic Indian society. Western Concept of Self •The boundaries between self and the group are rigid. •It holds clear dichotomies between self and group. •It is based on individualistic society of the West.
2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development? Ans. (i) Learning to delay or defer from gratification of needs is called self-control. It emerges from self-regulation. (ii)Self-regulation is behavioural component of self. (iii)It refers to an ability to organize and monitor ones own behaviour. People who can change their behaviour according to the demands of the external environment are high on self-monitoring. (iv)Self-regulation leads to self-control. (v)It plays a key role in fulfilment of long-term goals. (vi)Indian culture provides us effective mechanisms like fasting (vrata or roza) and non-attachment with worldly things to develop self-control. (vii)It is ones ability to say ‘No’. Psychological techniques to develop self-control are: (a)Observation of Own Behaviour: it provides us with necessary information that may be used to change, modify, or strengthen certain concepts of self. ‘ (b)Self-instruction: We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want. (c)Self-reinforcement: It involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes (like going to see a-movie with friends if we do well in exams). — Self-control is important for the development of mature personality. This is the reason that all cultures emphasise the self-control. It helps in the fulfilment of long-term goals. Indian cultural tradition provide us with certain effective mechanisms, e.g., fasting in varta or roja and know attachment with worldly things for developing self-control. — Self-control is also important for effective functioning of social network.
3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality? Ans. The word ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, which means a mask or false face which Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. According to Gordon Allport “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems thqt determine his unique adjustments to his environment.” One of the major approaches to understanding personality was to develop theories on what it was. There are many broad personality theories, which can be grouped into four categories: – (i)Dynamic approaches, which emphasize on-going interaction among motives, impulses and psychological processes. (ii)Type and train approaches, which focus on people’s characteristics, stubbornness, shyness and so forth and how these characteristics are organized into systems. (iii)Humanistic approaches, which emphasize the self and the importance of the individual’s subjective view of the world. (iv) Learning and behavioural approaches, which emphasize the way habits are acquired through basic learning process.
4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach? Ans.Trait approach psychologists explain personality on the basis of specific psychological characteristics. Type approach psychologists believe that personality can be classified into broad categories. Traits are relatively stable, persistent and characteristic patterns of behaviour which makes the individual different from others. (i)These are overlapping, i.e., inclusive in nature. (ii)Traits are specific psychological characteristics, e.g., shy or timid. Types are cluster of similar traits. (i)These are broad categories. . (ii)These do not overlap, i.e., exclusive in nature, e.g., extrovert or introvert.
5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality? Ans.The Id: (i) The Id is the original source of personality, present in the newborn infant, from which the ego and super ego later develop. (ii) It consists of everything that is inherited, including the instinctual drives—sex and aggression. (iii) It is closely linked to the biological processes and provides the energy source—the libido for the operation of all three systems. (iv) It is totally unconscious and works on pleasure principles regardless of any,external potential costs of seeking the gratification of impulses. The Ego: (i) The ego develops out of Id because of the necessity for dealing with the real world. The ego’s task is to hold the Id in check until conditions allows for satisfaction of its impulses. (ii) It operates on reality principles. For example, a hungry man would want to have food at any cost due to id impulses, but it is the ego which delays tl’ i hunger impulse until the appropriate conditions are found. (iii)The ego is essentially the executive of the personality. It keeps a person working for a living, getting along with people and generally adjusting to the realities of life. (iv) Ego mediates between the demands of id, the realities of the world and the demands of the super ego. The Super Ego: (i)It is related to the values and morals of the society as taught to us by our parents and others. It works according to social norms. (ii)It is concerned with morality—whether various ways that could satisfy id impulses are right or wrong. The main functions of the super ego are: (i) To inhibit the unacceptable impulses of Id such as sex and aggression. (ii)Freud assumed that Id is energised by two instinctual forces, called life instinct and death instinct. Life instinct is individuals, tendency to construct whereas death instinct is for the destruction. According to Freud, life instinct is more dominant among human beings. According to Freud, the instinctual life force that energises the Id is called Libido. It works on the pleasure principle, and seeks immediate gratification. It is source of energy.
6. How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler? Ans. While Karen Horney focuses more on interpersonal relationships during childhood, Alfred gives greater importance to personal goals of an individual. There are, in my opinion, Horney would attribute the cause of depression to parental relations with children which are characterized by excessive interference or indifference. Deep anxiety would result from the behaviour rewards the child which, if is erratic, indifferent and discouraging feelings of isolation and helplessness will also emerge. Alfred Adler would, on the other hand, attribute depression to the feeling of inadequacy and guilt arising within the individual, due to the inability to achieve his/her personal goals. These goals provide an individual with security and are important in overcoming feelings of inadequacy. If individual is not able to attain the goals and could not overcome inferiority appropriately then it leads to depression.
7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualization? Ans. Humanistic theories emphasise personal responsibility and innovate tendencies toward personal growth. They focus on the importance of people’s subjective attitudes, feelings and beliefs especially with regard to the self. •According to humanistic approach, we human beings are most creative, growing, fully functioning and self-actualizing people. •Fully functioning persons, according to Rogers theory, psychologically healthy persons who live life to the fullest. •They live in the here and now and trust their own feelings. They are sensitive to the needs of others but they do not allow society’s standards to shape their feelings or actions to an excessive degree. •Rogers suggests that each individual has a concept of ideal self. If there is discrepancy between real self and ideal self then individual develops maladjustment. •Rogers proposed two basic assumptions: (a)Human behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile. (b)People always choose adaptive and self-actualizing behaviour. •Rogers believed that many individuals fail to become fully functioning persons because they grow up in an atmosphere of conditional positive regard and develop distorted self-concept# which interferes with personal growth. Such people fail to self-actualise. •All human beings desire unconditional positive regard, freedom of choice and feeling of fulfilment for attainment of self-actualization. •Humanistic theories don’t deny the importance of past experience but they generally focus on the present. Maslow’s Contribution to Humanistic Approach Maslow’s Self-Actualization •It is a state which people have reached their own fullest potential. •He had an optimistic view of man who has potentialities for love, joy and creative work. •According to him, human beings are free to shape their lives and to self-actualise.
8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods? Ans. • Observational method is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behaviour. •A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many respects, (i)Selection: Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation. (ii)Recording: While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc. (iii)After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it. (iv)Observation is a skill. A good observation is a skill. A good observer knows what he/she is looking for, w’hom he/she wants to observe, when and where the observation needs to be made. •Observation can be of the following types : (a) Non-Participant vs. Participant Observation: 1.Non-participant observation (i)To observe the person or event from a distance. (ii)The observer may become part of the group being observed. (iii)In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that he/she is being observed. For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class. . (iv) Install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation. 2. Participant observation (i)In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed. (ii)the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting him/her as one of the group members. (iii)the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study. The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. However, the observation method is labour-intensive, time-consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event.
9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests? Ans. Structured personality tests are self-report measures that have the following features: •Questions are direct and structured. •They are called self-report because the examinee has to respond objectively to the items of the measure and his/her response are accepted as they are. •They are objective in nature and they deal with the present state of mind. — Self-report measures use inventories and questionnaires to assess conscious part of personality. — Goal of the test may be revealed. — These tests assess only conscious part of personality •Their results depend on motivation and emotional state of the examinee; they are non-projective and direct inferences are made. _ Some of the self-report measures are: 1.Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): This test was developed by Eysenck to assess two basic dimensions of personality namely introverted—extroversion and emotionally stable—emotionally unstable (Neuroticism). 2.MMPI: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. This test was developed by Hathaway and Mckinely. •It has been found very effective in detecting psycho-pathology like hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria etc. •The test is divided into 10 sub scales. This test helps in clinical diagnosis of various mental disorders like hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, etc. •It has two sets’MMPI-I and MMPI-II. Now-a-days, MMPI-II is being used. •It has 567 items in the form of affirmative statements. The subject judges each item ‘statements’ as true or false. •MMPI is one of the very good tests for clinical purposes (diagnosis). •Indian version of MMPI is also available named as Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) by Malik and Joshi. 16-PF Questionnaire •It is developed by Cattell. •It identifies large set of personality descriptions—subjected to factor analysis to identify basic personality structure. •Subject responds to situation by choosing from alternatives. •This test is being used with high school level students in India for career guidance and counselling. ‘ Problems Faced by self-report Measures •Social Desirability: It is a tendency on part of the respondent to endorse items in a socially desirable manner. •Acquiescence: It is a tendency of the subject to agree with items/questions irrespective of contents. •Testing and understanding personality require great skill and training. •People become self-aware and conscious, hesitate to share thoughts and feelings and motivation. If they do it, it is done in a socially desirable manner. So, the real personality characteristics are not manifested.
10. State in common features of projective techniques. Describe anyone projective technique. Or Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists? Ans. •Projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists. •Projective techniques are most indirect method to assess personality. •Psycho analytic theory proposed that behaviour is also determined by unconscious forces. •The projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings. — The stimulus material is relative or fully unstructured and poorly defined. — The person being assessed is usually not told the purpose and the method of scoring and interpretation before the administration of test. — The person is informed that there are no right or wrong responses. — Each response is considered to reveal a true and significant aspect of personality. — The scoring and interpretation in projective assessment are lengthy and subjective. Projective Techniques — Developed to assess unconscious motives, feelings and conflicts. — A less structured or unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project his/her feelings, desires and needs on to that situation, — Projections are interpreted by experts. — Cannot be scored objectively, require qualitative analysis for which a rigorous training is needed. 1.The Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach) •Consists of 10 inkblots—5 black and white, 2 with red ink, 3 in pastel colours. •Blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form, made by dropping ink on a piece of paper and then folding the paper in half (hence called inkblot test). •The cards are administered individually in two phases: —Performance proper: The subjects are shown the cards and are asked to tell what they see in each of them. —Inquiry: A detailed report of the response is prepared by asking the subject to tell where, how, and on what basis was a particular response made. •Fine judgment is necessary to place the subject’s responses in a meaningful context. Use and interpretation of this test requires extensive training 2. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Morgan and Murray •This test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card—each picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations. • Some cards are used specifically with adult males or females, boys or girls—have been modified for the children and the aged. •The cards are presented one at a time and the subject is asked to tell a story describing the situation presented in the picture—what led up to the situation, what is happening at the moment, what will happen in the future, what the characters are feeling and thinking? •Uma Chaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT is also available. 3.Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study) • This study assesses how people express aggression in the face of a frustrating situation. •Presents with the help of cartoon-like pictures a series of situations in which one person frustrates another, or calls attention to a frustrating condition. •The subject is asked to tell what the other (frustrated) person will say or do. •The analysis of responses is based on the type and direction of aggression—examine whether the focus is on the frustrating object (environment), or on protection of the frustrated person (oneself), or on constructive solution of the problem. •Pareek has adapted this test for the Indian population 4. Sentence Completion Test •This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences—the starting part of the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence. •The type of endings used by the subjects reflect their attitudes, motivation and conflicts. •The test provides subjects with several opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious motivations. 5. Draw-a-Person Test •In this test, the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper and then a figure of an opposite sex person. •Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if he/she was a character in a novel or play. •Some examples of interpretations are as follows: — Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly conflict-ridden interpersonal relationships. — Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests lack of control over impulses. — Disproportionately large head suggests organic brain disease and pre-occupation with headaches. .. Limitations •Interpretation of the responses requires sophisticated skills and specialized training. •There are problems associated with the reliability of scoring and validity of interpretations.
