Author Archives: mekhalaschool

Objectives for the Lesson:

1. You’ll learn about the working of a local self government body, that is, the Panchayti Raj.
2. The chapter helps us in understanding the functions of the Tehsildars and the Patwaris.
3. To understand about the Hindu Succession Amendment Act , 2005 .

Expected Learning Outcome:

The students will be able to understand the local self governing bodies of India and how different people are assigned to the task of rural development for a smooth functioning. The chapter will also enlighten students about the Hindu Succession Amendment Act, and its role in strengthening the future of Hindu Women in India.

Focus Point

The chapter focuses on the way villages and districts are administered.

Things to Answer after Reading the Context

1. Who is a Sarpanch?
2. Why do you think local self governing bodies are necessary?
3. What kind of a person is Raghu?

Local Self Governing Bodies

India is a vast country and to manage the country, we cannot rely on one Central Government. This is the reason why the Government has been divided into three different levels, The Central, The State and the Local Self Government. In this chapter, we will be having a small discussion on Panchayti Raj, a local self governing body with the help of a small story.

A Village Story

A farmer named Mohan had a small agricultural field , which they had been using for farming for many years . Another man named Raghu , lived next to him separated by a small boundary called bund . One day , Mohan noticed Raghu took over some  Mohan’s land by shifting the bund by feet .

ANGRY AND FRIGHTENED – Mohan got furious about the matter as well as he was frightened to do something about it because Raghu’s family owned many fields and also his uncle was the Sarpanch of the village .  But, still he took the courage and faced him . Raghu reluctantly denied the fact that he shifted the bund and started shouting and beating Mohan with the help of his helpers .

The neighbours heard them and took Mohan away . He was badly hurt and then he decided to take this matter to the police station .

Things to answer after reading the context :

1. What should have the police station done and what did they exactly do ?
2. How were the neighbours dealing with the matter ?
3. How do you feel about Raghu after the incident ?
4. Do you think it was a minor complaint ?
5. Who is the S.H.O. ? What is his duty?

The Police Station

They went to the police station and Mohan told the S.H.O. about the incident but the S.H.O. rudely behaved and told him that he had no time for such minor complaints . Mohan tried to convince him by showing him  his injuries but his complaint was still not recorded . Then he called the neighbours and a strong heated argument followed and he was again beaten up by the officers .

After that , they again insisted on registering the complaint and the officer finally agreed and asked Mohan to write down his complaint.

Incidents like these are common for the poor villagers in India. They are often harassed and abused, and their lands and properties are taken away like that. Why do you think the rich villagers do this?

Things to answer after reading the context :

1. Who is a Patwari ? What are the other names of the Patwari?
2. What are the other things the Patwari is responsible for ?
3. Who supervises Patwari’s work ?

Land Records

PATWARI – The main task of the Patwari is to measure the lands and keep their records . He is also responsible for organising collection of land revenue from the farmers . Also , they provide the information about crops to the government . It is therefore necessary for the Patwari to update those regularly .

The Patwari is also known as Lekhpal , Kanungo , Karamchari , etc in different states . The Patwari has ways to measure agricultural fields . In the above case , the Patwari had to measure the lands by using the maps , if they matched it means the boundaries did not change and vice versa .

Sometimes , farmers can also change the crops grown on their fields or dig a well somewhere else . So , it is the responsibility of the revenue department of the government to keep a record of this . The Patwari’s work is supervised by the senior people.

There are many states in India . All of them are divided into districts. The districts are further divided into subdivisions known as tehsil , taluka, etc . The head is the District Collector and the tehsildars ( revenue officers) are under him . They check that the records are kept properly and also the land revenue is collected .

The Tehsildar’s office is the place where all the land problems are discussed .

Hindu Succession Amendment Act ,  2005 

Do you remember learning about the division of labour in our history class? Women have been subjected to household chores since ages and have been taught that they do not have any right or share in the property of the family.

Indian women were not allowed to inherit the property of their parents as they were married off to another house. This often did not do justice to many daughters and therefore, it was decided that a law be passed that treats women equally. The court passed the “Hindu Succession Amendment Act” in 2005 which gave the daughters a right to inherit their father’s property and that no one could deny them their right. However, even today, thousands of Indian women do not have complete knowledge about this right.

Conclusion

This chapter has shown us how the administrative work is done especially in rural areas . It has also shown that even if the laws are right , there are certain people who do not obey the laws and the people who should look after it , sometimes become reluctant . There are the Patwaris who look after measuring the lands and keeping their records . There are different names of ‘Patwari’ in different states .

Also , their work is supervised by other senior people like the Tehsildars . This shows that if sometimes , one person does some kind of partiality , there are other people who can look into the matter and resolve it .

The new law has helped a lot of women from being homeless . It gave a confidence to women that even if nothing works or there is some problem , they can always rely on their share of land .

DID YOU KNOW

1. A district is the most important unit of rural administration .
2. The judgement of the new law was passed by the judges named Arun Mishra , S Abdul Nazeer and MR Shah .
3. The Tehsildars are appointed by the government based on revenue who must work with honesty .

How some men became rulers?

Around 3000 years ago, we found some changes had taken place in the ways in which rajas were chosen. Some men were then recognized as rajas by performing very big sacrifices. 

• Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual in which a horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. 
• If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. 
• If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice. 
• The raja who organized the sacrifice was recognized as being very powerful and all those who came brought gifts for him.    

Varnas

• The priests divided people into four groups called Varnas.
• According to them, each Varna had a different set of functions.
• These groups were decided on the basis of birth.

Brahmin: They were expected to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. 

Kshatriyas: They were the rulers and were expected to fight battles and protect people.

Vish or the Vaishyas: They were expected to be farmers, herders and traders. Both the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas could perform sacrifices.

Shudras: They had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals. Often, women were also grouped with them. They were not allowed to study the Vedas.

What is Janapada?

• The term Janapada is a compound composed of ‘Jana’ meaning tribe and ‘pada’ meaning foot. Its literal meaning, thus, is realm and subject population.  
• Early Vedic texts reveal several Janas or tribes of the Aryans living in semi-nomadic tribal states.  
• In due course of time, these early Indian Iron Age Rigveda Janas coalesced into geographically fixed Janapadas.  
• They were governed by rulers or rajas each having its own army and capital.  
• The kings maintained large armies who were paid regular salaries by using punch-marked coins

What is Mahajanapadas?

• Each Mahajanapadas was ruled by a king.  
• Villagers were controlled by a village headman called Gramini.  
• About 2500 years ago, some Janapadas became more important than others and were known as Mahajanapadas.
• Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified which means that huge walls of wood, brick, or stone were built around them.

Political Organisation  

• The political organization of the mahajanpadas was organized into two forms- monarchy and republican system.  
• In a monarchy, the king was the head of the state. Magadha was its example.  
• In a republican system, the state was ruled by an elected chief called Ganpat. Mallas was its example.  

Taxes

• As Mahajanapadas needed a huge amount of money, they imposed taxes. 
• The one-sixth tax was fixed on crops; tax on craftspersons, herders, goods bought and sold through the trade.  
• Further hunters and gathers had to give forest produce to the raja. 

Changes in agriculture

There were two major changes in agriculture around mahajanapadas time.

• The growing use of iron ploughshares: This means heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare so that more grain could be produced.
• People began transplanting paddy: This meant that instead of scattering seeds on the ground, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields.

A closer look: Magadha

• Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years.
• Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha which helped in transport, water supplies, and making the land fertile.
• Two powerful rulers of Magadha were Bimbisara and Ajatasattu.
• The first capital of Magadha was Rajagriha in Bihar and the second was Pataliputra.

A closer look: Vajji

• Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as Gana or Sangha.
• In a Gana or a Sangha, there were many rulers, each one was known as a raja.
• The rajas performed rituals together and met in assemblies.
• Women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.
• Both the Buddha and the Mahavira belonged to ganas or sanghas.
• The last of the sanghas were conquered by Gupta rulers around 1500 years ago.

Chandragupta I was the first important king of the Gupta dynasty. Samudra gupta proceeded on a long campaign of conquests in southern India.and northern india.
Harisena’s inscription gives an account of his reign and his love for music. His coins show him playing on a veena.

Chandra gupta II Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas. He maintained friendly relations with the Deccan kings. Skandagupta defeated the Hunas but his uccessors were weak. The Hunas attacked the Guptas. The empire broke up into small kingdoms.

The Guptas patronised Hinduism and sanskrit literature the ramayana the amhabharata and the puranas were rewritten Plays of Bhasa and the works of Kalidasa were composed . There  was a great advance in the knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.

Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were two great astronomers and mathematicians. Books on medicine were also prepared.
The age saw a great advance in art and architectuer Hindu temples and images of gods were built.

The Budddhist architecture was well advanced. A mingling of various styles was visible. The Gupta  Age is the Golden Age od ancuient India

The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, 2,000 years back when he overthrew the Nanda King. His assistant was Chanakya, a shrewd advisor and strategic thinker. He has written a book called Arthashastra that comprises his thoughts on politics, economics, foreign affirs, administration, military arts, war and religion. 

Chandragupta was succeeded by Bindusara, his son who extended the Mauryan Empire till Mysore. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, who is regarded as the greatest ruler of the empire by many historians. He extended the Mauryan Empire till the modern-day Afghanistan, with Patliputra as capital.

The Mauryan Emperors appointed the family members to control the large empire. Only the capital Patliputra was controlled by the emperor while states like Ujjain and Taxila were governed by royal princes. The Emperors also appointed officials for collecting taxes, maintaining law and order and keeping a check on the activities of the subjects.

Numerous army battalions were maintained for protection against attacks, which required expenditure on salaries. Hence, the system of taxes was introduced in the empire. The three lions or the Lion capital on the Indian Currency notes and coins are from the edicts of the Mauryan Empire which were found at Sarnath.

The story of Buddha

About 2500 years ago, Siddhartha the founder of Buddhism was born. He was also known as Gautama Buddha. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.

Buddha’s Teaching

The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. Even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied and want even more. The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.

Upanishads

Upanishad means ‘approaching and sitting near’. The texts contained in the Upanishad were the conversations between teachers and students.

1. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas.
2. There is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts.
3. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.

Jainism

The last and 24th Tirthankara of the Jainas was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha. At the age of 30, he left home and went to live in a forest. For 12 years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.

He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings.

Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives. They had to be absolutely honest and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.

The sangha

Sangha was an association of those people who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer – beggar) and bhikkhunis. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.

Monasteries

Both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. The permanent shelters, which monasteries were built were known as viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves, especially in western India. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond

Maps

• A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface according to a scale. But it is impossible to flatten a round shape completely.

Different types of Maps

Physical Maps

• Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans etc. are called physical or relief maps

Political Maps
• Maps showing cities, towns and villages, and different countries and states of the world with their boundaries are called political maps.

Thematic Maps
• Some maps focus on specific information; such as road maps, rainfall maps, maps showing distribution of forests, industries etc. are known as thematic maps.

Components of Maps

Distance
• Maps are two-dimensional drawings. It reduces the entire world or a part of the world on a small sheet of paper. While making a map, cartographers pay attention to properly represent the distance between two places. This helps us in finding the actual distance between two places.

• Small Scale Map: When a large area is shown on a small map, such a map is called a small scale map. Example; map of a country or state.

• Large Scale Map: When a small area such as a village is shown on a map, such a map is called a large scale map. A map of a neighbourhood is another example of large scale map. A large scale map gives more details compared to a small scale map.

Direction

• A map also contains information about directions. 
• On most of the maps, you will usually see an upward arrow and the letter ‘N’. This shows the north direction. Once we know the north, we can easily find the other directions. North, South, East and West are the four major directions. These are called Cardinal Directions. 

• Some maps also show the intermediate directions, viz. north-east, south-east, south-west and north-west.

Compass
• Compass is very useful for finding directions at a place. 

• This is a small circular box with a magnetic needle inside.

• The needle of the compass always points in the north-south direction. 
• Compass has been used by travellers and sailors since ages.

Symbols
• Cartographers also need to show various details; like important structures, landmarks, etc. on a map. These things are shown by some standard symbols on the map. 
• While using colours to show different themes and items on a map; certain conventions are followed. Mountains are usually shown in brown colour, plains in green, water body in blue and plateau is shown in yellow.

Sketch
• A drawing based on memory is called a sketch. A sketch is not made to scale. A sketch map is useful when you need to show directions to your house to your friend.

Plan
• Drawing of a small area on a large scale is called a plan. Architects usually make plans to show the layout of a house.

Flower is the most beautiful and attractive part of a plant. These are available
in different shapes, sizes and colours. It is the reproductive part of a plant. It
produces fruits and seeds.
Structure of a flower –
The flower arises from the floral bud on the stem. It is attached on the axis by
a structure called pedicel. The pedicel continuous to form slightly swollen tip
called thalamus. It bears four consecutive whorls of flower. These are –

1. Calyx – It is the outermost whorl of a flower. It consists of green
   coloured leaf-like structures called sepals. The sepal protects the flower
   during bad stages.
2. Corolla – It is the second whorl of a flower. It consists of large, brightlycoloured, scented petals. Petals enclosed and protect the reproductive
   part of a flower. Corolla attracts insects like bees and butterflies for
   pollination.
3. Androecium – It is the third whorl of a flower. It forms the male
   reproductive part of a flower and consists of many male reproductive
   units. These units are called stamens. The stamen consists of the
   filament and the anther.
   i. Filament – It is a long, thin, hair-like structure which bears
   yellowish sac like structures on its free end.
   ii. Anther – An anther is a small, sac-like structure borne at the tip of
   the filament. Each anther contains many fine, powdery particles
   called pollen grains. Pollen grains play important role in plant
   reproduction as they contain male reproductive cells.
4. Gynoecium – it is the forth whorl of a flower. It constitutes the female
   reproductive part which is known as pistil. Pistil consists of carpels
   (female reproductive units). Each carpel consists of three parts –
   i. Ovary – it contains one or more ovules
   ii. Style – long, tube-like extension of the ovary
   iii. Stigma – pollen grains are received here.
   

1. Complete flower – A flower that shows all the four whorls. Example –
   hibiscus and rose
2. Incomplete flower – a flower that lacks of one or more such
   structures. Example – begonia and willow
   Functions of a flower –

• Primary function is reproduction by producing fruits that contains seeds.
  Seeds help in multiplication of species.
  Pollination –
  The process which involves transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
  stigma of same or another flower.
  Kinds of pollination –

1. Self pollination –When pollen grains transfer from anther to stigma of
   same flower or flowers of the same plant.
2. Cross pollination – When pollen grains from anther of a flower are
   transferred to the stigma of another flower or another plant of same
   species.
   Agents of pollination –
3. Pollination by insects
4. Pollination by animals
5. Pollination by wind
6. Pollination by water
   Fertilization – The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization.
   The Fruit – After fertilization the ovules grows to become seeds. A seed
   contains embryo and food for developing new plants. It has a tough
   protective coating called seed coat. The ovary of a flower can produce
   number of seeds.
   After the process of fertilization, an ovary develops and becomes a fruit.
   When fruit is ripened, other parts of a flower dry up ad fall off. A fruit
   protects the seed.
   

Structure of a fruit – A fruits is made up of two parts.

1. Pericarp – it develops from ovary wall. It further consists of three parts
   i. Epicarp – It is thin, leathery part and is generally discarded.
   ii. Mesocarp – Fleshy, sweet edible part.
   iii. Endocarp – innermost hard layer which encloses the seed
2. Seed – it develops from ovule.
   Types of fruits –
3. Dry fruits – whose pericarp is not distinguished. Example – nut, wheat
   and legumes
4. Fleshy fruits – whose pericarp is distinguished into three parts. Example
   – kiwi and cherry
   Functions of fruits
    It protects the seed from extreme hot or cold weather conditions and
   animals.
    It is an important source of food for animals.
   The Seed – The number and shape of seeds are different in different fruits.
   Structure of Seed –
5. Seed coat – outer protective covering of seed
6. Cotyledon – the fleshy part of the seed. It also stores food for
   developing embryo
7. Embryo – It has two parts
   i. Plumule – it develops into shoot
   ii. Radicle – it develops into root
   Types of seeds – According to numbers of cotyledons, seeds are of two
   types.
8. Monocotyledonous seed –contains only one cotyledons like wheat,
   bajra
9. Dicotyledonous seed – contains two cotyledons like mango, gram etc.
   

Germination of seeds – The process in which a seeds begins to grow.
Types of Germination –

1. Epigeal germination – the hypocotyl elongates rapidly and arches
   upwards pulling the cotyledons which move above the soil. This can be
   seen in dicotyledonous seeds. Example – bean, cotton etc.
2. Hypogeal germination – the epicotyl elongates and the cotyledons
   remain below the soil. It can be seen in monocotyledonous seeds.
   Example – pea, mango etc.
   Conditions necessary for germination – Water, air and suitable
   temperature are essential for seed germination. In the presence of these
   conditions the food stored inside the seed dissolves and provides energy
   to the growing embryo.

Adaptation is the ability of plant and animal to cope means to live and survive with the
conditions of their habitats.
Adaptation can be physical feature or special behaviour.
On basis of habitats organisms divided into five main groups:
o Terrestrial
o Aquatic
o Amphibians
o Arboreal
o Aerial
Adaptation of plants animals with respect to their habitats.
(A) Structural adaptation:
The special body parts of an organism helps in survive.
Change in skin colour, shape are examples of structural adaptation
(B) Physiological adaptation:
The special system found in organism which helps in survival. Ability to maintain a constant
body temperature, making venom comes under physiological changes
(C) Behavioural adaptation:
Taking a certain posture, being active at night are behaviour adaptations.
Aquatic Habitat:
Hydrophytes are the plants found in fresh water bodies.
 As they are light in weight and spongy, and having air chambers make them float in
water. Poor development of root system.Eg. water lily
 Some plants are submerged in water, as they have narrow leaves, lack in stomata as
they breathe to their surface and makes the water clean Eg. Tapegrass
 With developed root system plants termed as fixed plants such as lotus.
Adaptation in Fish:

1. Fish have streamline and smooth body having gills for respiration. Whereas dolphins
   and whale do possess the blowholes at upper parts of their head by which they
   perform breathing above water surface.
2. Presence of scales on their bodies protect them and make easy to swim.
3. Flat fins and tails help the fish to change their direction in water.
4. In salty water as well as in fresh water fish can survive.
   

Adaptation for Deserts:
 Plant Life:

1. Xerophytes are the plants which live in hot and dry climates of deserts.
   Example: cactus, babul.
2. Roots are long to penetrate deep into soil in search of water easily.
   Adaptation in Cactus:
    For storage of water cactus possess fleshy and swollen stem
    The stem is green to store food. Waxy coat help in retention of water.
    Photosynthesis is carried out by leaves
    Leaves are converted into spikes as to reduce loss of water from transpiration.
   Animal Life:
   Animals have fewer pores and thick skin and they excrete less urine and minimal amount of
   sweat in order to retain more water.
   Adaptation in Camel:
3. Have long eyelashes and ear hairs , theses variation protect eyes and ears from sand
   .
4. Long legs to stay away from heat
5. Hump on camel store fat as stored food.
6. Broad feet helps them to walk on sand
7. Ability to drink large amount of water at a time
8. Nostrils can be closed to keep out sand
   Adaptation for Mountains:
   Plant life:
9. Plants grow near the land, which prevent uprooting due to harsh and strong wind.
   Examples pine and fir.
10. Plant cope up with extreme cold temperature.
11. Leaves are needle shaped to prevent water loss
12. Some plants grow under snow layer.
    Animal life:
    Animal mainly found in mountain region are goat, sheep snow leopards, polar bear.
    They have thick coat of hair from prevention of chilling cold.
13. White thick and long fur that keeps the body warm found in case of goat
14. Strong hooves to walk on cliff and on uneven slope.
15. They can jump very far

Adaptation for Air:

Adaptation for flight in Birds

1. Feathers are provide insulation.
2. Feathers protect them from cold and rain and keep the body warm as well
3. Feather are act as water proofing with reflection of UV rays as well
4. Body is light weighted and in streamline to overcome resistance
   Plant Life:
   Aerial plant have root system above ground.
5. Plants evolved with aerial root system in order to absorb more sunlight as in
   evergreen rain forest lack in direct fall of sunlight on ground
6. They may grow on the trunks, leave and branches of host plant.
7. Epiphytes are orchids and bromeliads
8. Epiphytes absorbs moisture from air or moisture laden pockets of the host plant.
9. They are autotrophic in nature.
   Acclimatization:
   This includes the certain changes occur in organism for shorter period of time to help them
   to adjust with periodic changes.
   Example include the growth of thick wool during winter season only in case of sheep.
   o Adaptation refers to the changes in organism for longer period of time
   o Acclimation refers to the changes occur in an organism a short period of time.

There are different types of plants in our surroundings. They are of different sizes varying
from microscopic forms to complex tall trees. They are different in shape, size and colour of
flowers. Some common features seen in all plants are root, stem and leaf.
We know that a plant mainly consist of two systems –

1. Root system – It is the underground part of the plant which develops from the
   radicle body. Radicle is the embryonic root contained in the seed of the plant. Roots
   grow towards the ground and absorb water and minerals from the soil.
2. Shoot System – It consists of a stem, the part which is above the ground. It bears
   braches, leaves, flowers, buds, and fruits.
   LEAF – It is thin, flat and green part of the shoot system.
   It is also known as food factory of a plant.
   It arises from nodes of stem and grows up to a certain size.
   External Structure of a leaf – The leaf constitutes of following parts –
3. Lea Lamina – The green, flat and expanded part of the leaf is known as leaf lamina or
   leaf blade. The tip of lamina is called apex.
4. Leaf Stalk (Petiole) – The basal by which the leaf is attached to the node of stem is
   called petiole.
5. Midrib – The petiole enters the lamina forming the midrib. The midrib branches out
   to form veins which bear branches to form veinlets. Vein provides supportive
   framework to the leaves

Functions of leaf –

1. The primary function is to perform photosynthesis which means to prepare food
   with the help of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and
   chlorophyll.
2. It also helps in transpiration i.e. loss of water through stomata.
   

3. It also stores food like in spinach.
4. Leaves give rise to new plants like in Bryophyllum.
5. Leaves get modified into spines in desert plants which help the plant to reduce water
   loss by transpiration.
   Kinds of leaves –
   There is a variety of leaves around us. They can be rectangular, circular, needle-shaped,
   tapered in shape. They may differ in terms of leaf margin which may be complete
   (Peepal), toothed (rose), wavy (mango), spinous (prickly poppy). These leaves can be
   classified into two categories.
6. Simple leaf – In this type of leaf lamina of leaf has a single blade without cuts or
   incisions. If present, do not reach the midrib. Example – mango, radish etc.
7. Compound leaf – In this type of leaf lamina has divided into a number of leaflets. In
   this, the margin has incisions which reach down to the midrib leading to formation of
   small leaflets. Therefore, the leaf appears as a group of leaflets. Example – rose and
   neem.
   To differentiate between leaf and leaflet, we must locate the axillary bud. It is always
   present at the base of the leaf petiole but not at the base of laflet.
   Types of venation –
   The fine lines running through within the lamina forming different patterns are called
   veins. Veins distribute water and minerals to various parts of leaf blade.
   The arrangement of veins and their veinlets within a leaf bade is called venation. There
   are two types of venation.
8. Parallel venation – In this type of venation, the veins run parallel to each other and
   join the midrib. This type of venation can be seen in the leaves of monocotyledonous
   plants like maize, rice and sugarcane etc.
9. Reticulate venation – In reticulate venation, the veins divide and redivide into a
   number of veinlets. This pattern can be observed in the leaves of dicotyledonous
   plants such as mango and peepal.
   Arrangement of leaves – The arrangement of leaves on branches or stem is called
   phyllotaxy. This prevents the leaves from overlapping so that every leaf may get
   sufficient sunlight. There are three types of leaf arrangements.
10. Alternate – In this arrangement, only one leaf is arises from at a node. The next
    arising on the following node is opposite to the previous. Example – mustard and
    sunflower.
11. Opposite – In this arrangement, two leaves are arranged one node but these are
    opposite to each other. Example – jasmine and guava. But in some plants, leaves
    show opposite arrangement with each pair of leaves arising at right angle to each
    other. Example – calotropis.
12. Whorled – In this arrangement, three or more leaves arise from a node and form
    a whorl around it. Example – oleander.
    

Modification in leaves – It means a structural change is required to perform specific
functions. Some of the modifications are –

1. Leaf tendrils – The modification of leaves in thin thread-like coiled strand is called
   leaf tendrils. They are sensitive to touch. They coil around a support in order to
   give support to weaker stems. Thus, help in climbing.
2. Leaf spines – The modification of leaved of desert plant into pointed spines, it is
   called leaf spines. They help to reduce water loss. They also perform defensive
   role as they keep away grazing animals.
3. Scale leaves – In this leaves get modified into scale leaves. They help to protect
   buds. They also store food and water. They may be dry (garlic) or fleshy (onion).
   Modification of leaves in insectivorous plants –
   Insectivorous plants are also known as carnivorous plants as they feed on insects. As
   most of these plants are green, they can prepare their food by photosynthesis. Poor
   environmental soil supplements their diet by carnivorous habits. These plants are
   adapted to trap, capture and digest insects. These traps are mostly the modification
   of leaves.
4. Pitcher plant – The leaf is modified in pitcher shape to trap and capture insects.
   The front part of petiole is coiled like a tendril that holds the pitcher in erect
   position. The leaf tip forms the lid. Its leaf is filled with a liquid to collect and
   digest insects.
5. Bladderwort – In this plant, the leaves are highly segmented and modified into
   sacs called bladders. The bladder has a trap door in which the minute organisms
   can only go but cannot come out. It can be observed in aquatic plants.
6. Venus flytrap – In this plant, the edge of leaf has long pointed stiff hair. The leaf
   blade is divided into two parts and the midrib acts as hinge of the door. When
   any insects touch the leaf, the edge of leaf interlocks and prevents the escape of
   insect.
   Vegetative Propagation –
   It is an asexual method of reproduction in plants. In this method, new plants are
   produced from the parts of a plant like roots, stems, and leaves. This process is
   known as vegetative propagation. It usually involves the growth and development of
   one or more buds on the vegetative parts of an old plant. After providing suitable
   conditions to the bud, it grows to form a new plant. Example – rose and champa.
   Vegetative propagation in leaves –
   In this method, plant grows from leaves. Leaves of some plants develop buds on
   them. Such leaves having buds are used for vegetative reproduction. Example –
   Bryophyllum.
   

Artificial Vegetative Propagation –
The methods of vegetative propagation which are developed by man are called
artificial vegetative propagation. Some of the methods are –

1. Cutting – In this method, the stems of the plants are cut into small pieces. Each
   stem is kept in moist soil. After some time, roots develop at the base and new
   plant develops. Example – rose and sugarcane.
2. Grafting – This method is used to obtain a plant by combining two different
   plants. Thus, it produces a variety with the features of two different plants. In
   this method, a stem cutting called scion (without roots) from one plant is
   attached to the other stem cutting part of stock (with roots). After few days,
   both fuses and new cells develop having characteristics of both plants. Example –
   mango and lemon.
3. Layering – In this method, a branch of a plant is pulled and its part is covered
   with moist soil leaving the top part outside in the air. After some time, new roots
   develop from buried part and it grows to become a new plant. Example –
   layering is done in jasmine.
4. Tissue culture – It involves growing of plants in test tubes. A small piece of plant
   is grown in suitable conditions in the test tube. An organized mass of cell is called
   callus develops from it. It is put in hormone containing medium which include
   cell differentiation and formation of plantlets. These plantlets grow into an
   independent plant when transferred to the soil. Example – orchid.
   Advantages of Vegetative propagation –
5. It is faster method to grow new plants.
6. There is no difference between produced plant and parent plant.
7. It is very useful for production of seedless plants.
8. The plants produced by this method bear flowers and fruits earlier than the
   plants produced by seeds.
   Disadvantages of Vegetative propagation –
9. All the plants produced by this method have same features. Thus, they are likely
   to be infected by the same infections.
10. It can results in destruction of entire crop. As there is no dispersal of plants,
    there are chances of overcrowding