Answer: (d) All of these

Answer: (a) Kaveri

Answer: (b) Thanjavur

Answer: (d) Thanjavur

Answer: (d) Pushkar

Answer: (b) Mandi

Answer: (c) Nenadesi

Answer: (c) guilds

Answer: (a) Vijayanagara

Answer: (a) it was the Gateway to West Asia

Answer: (c) Surat

Answer: (d) trading port

Answer: (d) black town

Answer:

Answer: Hampi

Answer: Ajmer

Answer: tin

Answer: Devdasi

Answer: Surat

Answer: Vasco De Gama

Question 1.
What kind of towns existed during medieval period in India?
Answer.
During medieval period India had temple towns, administrative towns, commercial or port towns. Many towns combined multiple functions and were administrative centres or temple towns as well as commercial or craft centres.

Administrative Centres

Question 1.
Briefly write about the Chola capital.
Answer:
Thanjavur, situated on the Kaveri river delta was the capital of Chola Empire.

• Rajarajeshvara temple was situated in this beautiful town.
• It was designed by Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan. It had a massive Shiva linga inside.
• Besides the temple there were other architectural splendours also.

Question 2.
Why was Thanjavur so famous?
Answer:
Thanjavur was an example of temple town and was regarded as a great town:

• It represented a pattern of urbanization and was central to Chola economy.
• It was the capital city on the delta of Kaveri with the most important temple Rajarajeshvara. It had tanks and wells for water supply and army barracks.
• It had the mandapas or pavilions for royal court.
• It had huge markets selling grains, spices, clothes and jewellery.
• Many communities like the Sthapatis or sculpture makers, Saliya weavers related to temple activities lived here.
• It was a great pilgrim town of the period.

Question 3.
Name the communities involved in temple activities.
Answer:
Various communities were involved with the temples like: Saliya weavers of Thanjavur and Uraiyur for producing cloth for flags. Sthapatis of Svamimalai for bronze idols and metal lamps.

Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres

Question 1.
Describe the temple towns as commercial centres.
Answer:
Temple towns were important as centres of urbanization.

• Rulers built temples to show their devotion to deities.
• These temples became central to the economy and society.
• Rulers endowed these temples with grants of land, money to carry out rituals, feed pilgrims, celebrate festivals.
• Temple authorities got donations from pilgrims also. This wealth was used to finance trade and banking.

Question 2.
How was wealth of the temples used? How did temple towns grow?
Answer:

• Temple authorities used temple’s wealth to finance trade and banking.
• In course of time a large number of priests, workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled near the temple. In this way temple towns grew.
• Towns emerged around temples like Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), and Somnath in Gujarat.
• Other important temple towns are:
• Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
• Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.

Question 3.
Which pilgrimage centres develop into townships?
Answer:

• Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships.
• Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh) and Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu) are such towns.
• Ajmer (Rajasthan) was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the twelfth century and later became the sub headquarters under the Mughals.
• It provides an excellent example of religious coexistence.
• Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, the celebrated Sufi saint settled there in the twelfth century. He attracted devotees from all creeds.
• Near Ajmer is a lake, Pushkar. It attracts pilgrims from ancient times.

Question 4.
What is the difference between bronze and bell metal?
Answer:
Bronze is an alloy of Copper and Tin Bell metal contains lager amount of Tin than Bronze and produces bell like sound.

Question 5.
Explain the “lost wax” technique.
Answer:
Chola bronze statues were made using the “lost wax” technique.
First, an image was made of wax. This was covered with clay and allowed to dry. Next it was heated, and a tiny hole was made in the clay cover. The molten wax was drained out through this hole. Then molten metal was poured into the clay mould through the hole. Once the metal cooled and solidified, the clay cover was carefully removed, and the image was cleaned and polished.

A network of Small Towns

Question 1.
Describe the functions of small towns.
Answer:

• From the eighth century onwards the Indian subcontinent had several small towns.
• They probably emerged from large villages.
• They usually had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) to which nearby villagers brought their produce to sell.
• They also had market streets called hatta (haat of later time) lined with shops.
• There were also streets for different kinds of artisans like potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths, stone-masons, etc.
• Some of the traders lived in the town.
• Others travelled from town to town.
• Many came from far and near to these towns to buy local articles and sell products of distant places like horses, salt, camphor, saffron, betel nut and spices like pepper, cloves, cardamom.

Question 2.
Who administered the small towns and how?
Answer:
The small towns were generally managed by a Samanta or a Zamindar. They built a fortified palace in or near the towns.

• They levied taxes on traders, artisans and sometimes donated the right to collect revenue to the local temples.
• These temples were built by these rich merchants themselves. These ‘rights’ were recorded in inscriptions.

Question 3.
What types of taxes were collected by the temple authorities?
Answer:
The temple authorities collected the following taxes as per 10th century inscription from Rajasthan: Taxes in kind on: sugar, jaggery, dyes, thread, cotton, coconut, salt, nuts, butter, sesame oil and cloth.

Taxes were collected from traders of gold, distillers, oil, cattle fodder and grain. Only some of the taxes were taken in cash.

Traders Big and Small

Question 1.
Describe big and small traders of the medieval period.
Answer:
Traders Big and Small

• There were many kinds of traders.
• They included the Banjaras.
• Several traders, especially horse traders, formed associations, with headmen who negotiated on their behalf with warriors who bought horses.

Question 2.
Why were guilds formed?
Answer:
Traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests. Hence they usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests.

• There were several such guilds in south India from the eighth century onwards.
• The most famous were:
• Manigramam
• Nanadesi
• These guilds traded extensively both within the peninsula and with South-east Asia and China.

Question 3.
Which were the other business communities?
Answer:

• There were also communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal. They went on to become the principal trading groups of the country.
• Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, South-east Asia and China.
• They sold textiles and spices in these ports.
• In exchange they brought gold and ivory from Africa.
• They also bought spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver from South-east Asia and China.

Question 4.
What brought European traders to India?
Answer:
West’coast of India was the home to Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish and Syrian Christian traders. Indian spices and cloth were sold in the Red Sea ports. This reached European markets through Italian traders.
This trade was profitable. Spices like cinnamon, pepper etc. became important part of European cooking. This along with attractive cotton cloth drew the European traders to India.

Question 5.
How did Kabul become commercially important from 16th century onwards?
Answer:
Kabul became commercially and politically important from 16th century onwards because along with Kandhar it was linked to the “Silk Route”.

• Trade in horses was mainly carried through this route which was amounted to be around ? 30,000 annually, as horse trade was estimated to be about ? 30,000 annually. Slaves were brought here for sale.
• Camels carried dry fruits, carpets, dates, silk and even fruits from Kabul to Subcontinent.
• Horse trade was estimated to be about Rs. 30,000/- annually slaves were brought here for sale.

Question 6.
Briefly write about the growth of crafts and craftpersons during this period. .
Answer:

• The craftspersons of Bidar (Karnataka) were so famous for their inlay work in copper and silver that this craft was called Bidri.
• The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisted of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters.
• They were essential to the building of temples.
• They also played an important role in the construction of palaces, big buildings, tanks and reservoirs.
• Weavers like the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities, making donations to temples.
• Some aspects of cloth making like cotton cleaning, spinning and dyeing became specialised and independent crafts.

A Closer Look: Hampi, Masulipatnam and Surat

Question 1.
Which cities gained and lost importance during 16th and 17th century?
Answer:
Some cities like Ahmedabad became major commercial towns and cities like Murshidabad on the banks of Bhagirathi became important as silk centre and became capital of Bengal in 1704. It gradually declined due to competition from cheap mill made cloth from England.

Hampi founded in 1336 fell to ruins by 1565 due to defeat of Vijayanagara by Deccani rulers.

Surat became important as a port city but began to decline in late 17th century.
Masulipatnam was centre of activity in 17th century but gradually declined during the course of 18th century.

The Architectural Splendour of Hampi

Question 1.
Why was Hampi considered magnificent?
Answer:
Hampi established in 1336, was the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire. Its magnificent ruins reveal a fortified city with a distinctive architecture.

In the 15th-16th century Hampi was a bustling commercial and cultural centre. Moors (Muslim Merchants), Chettis and European trading agents came to markets of Hampi.

Question 2.
Describe Hampi as a fortified city.
Answer:
Hampi was situated in the Krishna Tungabhadra region. The architecture of Hampi was distinctive:

• No mortar or cementing agent was used in walls, the technique used was wedge together by interlocking.
• The buildings in the royal complex had arches, domes and pillared halls with sculptures.
• They had well planned orchards, pleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as lotus and corbels.

Question 3.
Describe Hampi as hub of Cultural activities.
Answer:

• Temples were the hub of cultural activities and Devdasis performed before the deity,
  royalty and masses in Virupaksha temple.
• Mahanavami festival or Navaratri of today was celebrated in Hampi. A special platform has been found where king received his guests.
• King accepted tribute from subordinate chiefs. He watched dance and music performances as well as the wrestling bouts.

Question 4.
Who were Devdasis?
Answer:
Devdasis were the temple dancers who performed in front of the deity, royalty and masses in the many pillared hall of Virupaksha temple.

Question 5.
What led to decline of Hampi?
Answer:
Hampi fell into ruin due to the defeat of Vijayanagara by Deccani Sultans—the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar.

A Gateway to the West: Surat

Question 1.
Describe Surat as a gateway to the West.
Answer:
Surat – A Gateway to the West

• Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade.
• Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz.
• Surat is also called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.
• The city was cosmopolitan.
• People of all castes and creeds lived there.
• In the seventeenth century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories and warehouses at Surat.
• There were also several retail and wholesale shops selling cotton textiles.
• The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari).
• They had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.
• The state built numerous rest-houses to take care of the needs of people from all over the world.
• There were magnificent buildings and innumerable pleasure parks.
• The Kathiawad seths or mahajans (moneychangers) had huge banking houses at Surat.
• Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.

Question 2.
What did Ovington, English chronicler wrote about Surat?
Answer:
As per English chronicler Ovington there were about hundred ships from different nations anchored at Surat port.

Question 3.
What were the reasons of decline of Surat?
Answer:
Surat began to decline towards the end of the seventeenth century.
The factors responsible for it were:

• The loss of markets and productivity as a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire.
• Control of the sea routes by the Portuguese.
• Competition from Mumbai where the English East India Company shifted its headquarters in 1668.

Today, Surat is a bustling commercial centre.

Fishing in Troubled Waters: Masulipatnam

Question 1.
Describe Masulipatnam as a trading town.
Answer:
The town of Masulipatnam lay on the delta of Krishna river. In the 17th century it was the centre of trading activity:

• Dutch and East India company tried to control it as it was the important port on Andhra coast.
• The trade of spices, textiles and other items offered incentives and all the companies wanted to control it.
• Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed monopolies over various trade items and put restrictions on European trading companies.
• There was a stiff competition among trading companies—the Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telegu Komati and European traders. This made the city populous and prosperous.
• Mughals annexed Golconda in 1686-87. This made Europeans look elsewhere for alternatives. They moved towards Bombay, Kolkata and Chennai. Thus Masulipatnam lost its rfierchants and prosperity.

Question 2.
How did the Mughals extend their control over Golconda?
Answer:
Mughals begem to extend their control over Golconda. Their representative Mir Jumla, a merchant began to play off Dutch and the English against each other. In 1686-87 Aurangzeb annexed Golconda. This made European trading companies look for alternatives.

Question 3.
What was policy of English East India Company during this period?
Answer:
For English East India Company it wasn’t enough to have port connection with the production centre. They wanted to have political, commercial and administrative control over their trading areas.

Question 4.
How did Willian} Methwold describe Masulipatnam?
Answer:
William Methwold described Masulipatnam as main port of Golconda. He described it as a small but populous, unwalled, ill built town. As per him it was a poor fisher town with brackish springs. A road made it a residence for merchants who came to this coast.

New Towns and Traders

Question 1.
How did the English traders emerge as most successful commercial and political power of the subcontinent? t
Answer:

• In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, European countries were in search of spices and textiles.
• These commodities had become popular both in Europe and West Asia.
• The English, Dutch and French formed East India Companies to expand their commercial activities in the East.
• The great Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji Vora owned a large number of ships.
• In the beginning they competed with them.
• The European companies used their naval power to gain control of the sea trade and forced Indian traders to work as their agents.
• In the last, the English emerged as the most successful commercial and political power in the subcontinent.

Question 2.
Explain the changes that occurred in the craftsmanship in the 17th – 18th centuries.
Answer:

• Increase in demand for goods like textiles led to a great expansion of the crafts of spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing.
• More and more people took them up.
• Indian textile designs became increasingly refined.

This period also saw the decline of independent craftspersons.

• They now began to work on a system of advance orders.
• Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving then- own patterns.
• They had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the company agents.

Question 3.
How did Bombay, Calcutta and Madras see rise in the 18th century?
Answer:

• The eighteenth century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
• Crafts and commerce underwent major changes as merchants and artisans like
  weavers were moved into the Black Towns established by the European Companies within these new cities.
• The ‘blacks’ or native traders and craftspersons were confined here.
• The ‘white’ rulers occupied the superior residencies of fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in Calcutta.