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Class 12 Geography – Fundamentals of Human Geography Quick Revision notes Chapter 9 International Trade

History of International Trade

• In ancient times, trade was restricted to local markets. Slowly long distance trade developed; of which Silk Route is an example. The route was 6000 km long connecting Rome to China and traders transported Chinese silk, Roman wool, metals, etc through this route. Later, sea and ocean routes were discovered and trade grew.
• The Slave Trade emerged in 15th century in which the Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards and British captured African natives and sold to plantation owners in America. After Industrial Revolution, industrialised nations imported raw materials and exported finished products to non-industrial nations.
• International trade is the result of specialisation in production and division of labour. It is based on the principle of comparative advantage that is mutually beneficial to trading partners.

Basis of International Trade
The factors on which international trade depends are as follows:

• Difference in National Resources The resources are unevenly distributed in the world. These differences mainly refer to geology, mineral resources and climate.
• Geological Structure This means the relief features, type of land such as fertile, mountainous, lowlands, that support agriculture, tourism and other activities.
• Mineral Resources The regions rich in minerals will support industrial development that leads to trade.
• Climate It influences the type of flora and fauna that is found in a region, such as wool production in cold regions. Cocoa, rubber, Bananas can grow in tropical regions.
• Population Factors The size, distribution and diversity of population between countries affect the trade in respect of type and volume of goods. Large volume of internal trade than external trade takes place in densely populated areas due to consumption in local markets.
• Cultural Factors Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures and give rise to trade e.g. porcelain and brocades of China, carpets of Iran, Batik cloth of Indonesia, etc.
• Stage of Economic Development
  Industrialised nations export machinery, finished products and import foodgrains and raw materials. The situation is opposite in agriculturally important countries.
• Extent of Foreign Investment Developing countries lack capital so foreign investment can boost trade in developing countries by developing plantation agriculture.
• Transport Lack of transport in older time restricted trade only to local areas. The expansion of rail, ocean and air transport, better means of refrigeration and preservation, trade has experienced spatial expansion:***’

Aspects of International Trade
There are three very important aspects of international trade:

• Volume of Trade It is measured simply as the total value of goods and services traded. However, actual tonnage of traded goods makes up the volume but services traded cannot be measured in tonnage.
• Composition of Trade Earlier primary’ goods were more in total traded goods, then there was dominance of manufactured goods and now there is dominance of service sector which includes transportation and other commercial services.
• Direction of Trade Earlier valuable goods and artefacts were exported to European countries by the developing countries. Later in the 19th century, manufactured goods from European countries were exchanged with foodstuffs and with raw materials from their colonies.

Types of International Trade
There are two types of international trade:

• Bilateral trade It is between two countries when they enter into an agreement to trade certain goods in which they are specialised.
• Multilateral trade It is conducted with many trading countries at the same time at goods which the countries are specialised in. The country may also grant the status of Most Favoured Nation (MNF) on some of trading partners.

Balance of Trade

• It refers to the volume of goods and services imported and exported by one country to other countries. Favourable balance of trade means the value of exports is more than its imports.
• Unfavourable balance of trade means that imports are more than exports. Balance of payments affects a country’s economy as negative balance means country’s expenses are more than its income.

Case for Free Trade

• Free trade or trade liberalisation is the act of opening up of economics so that more trade takes place. This is done by bringing down trade barriers like tarrifs. But trade liberalisation causes competition and can cause dumping.
• Dumping is the selling of a commodity in two countries at a price that differs for reasons not related to costs. Countries need to be cautious about dumped goods.

World Trade Organisation [WTO]

• General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was formed in 1948 to make the world free from tariffs as well as non-tariff barriers.
• On 1st January, 1995, the GATT was transformed into the World Trade Organisation to set-up an institution for the promotion of free and fair trade amongst different countries of the world.
• The WTO sets the rules for the global trading system. The headquarters of WTO is located in Geneva, Switzerland and 164 countries are its members.
• However, WTO has been criticised and opposed by those who are worried about the effects of free trade and economic globalisation. They argued that free trade is not beneficial to the ordinary people as it is widening the gap between rich and poor.
• They also argued that issues of health, workers’ rights, child labour and environment are ignored.

Regional Trade Blocs
These are developed as a response to the failure of global organisations. There are 120 regional trade blocs that generate 52% of the world’s trade.
Some of the trade blocs are as follows:

Concerns Related to International Trade
This can be summarised as merits and demerits of international trade.

• Merits of International Trade International trade is beneficial if it promotes regional specialisation, higher level of production, better standard of living, worldwide availability of goods and sendees, equalisation of price and wages and diffusion of knowledge and culture.
• Demerits of International Trade The demerits are, it leads to dependence on other countries, uneven levels of development, exploitation and commercial rivalry.

Gateways of International Trade
Harbours and ports are the chief gateways of international trade. These ports facilitate the passage of cargos and travellers as well as provide facilities of docking, loading, unloading and storage.

Types of Ports
Ports are generally, classified according to the types of traffic which handle. Types of ports on the basis of cargo handled are:

• Industrial Ports The ports that handle bulk cargo like grain, ores, oil, chemicals are called industrial ports.
• Commercial Ports Ports handling packaged products, manufactured goods, passengers are commercial ports.
• Comprehensive Ports Ports that handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes are called comprehensive ports. Most of the world’s great ports are classified as comprehensive ports.

Types of Ports on the basis of Location

• Inland Ports Ports located away from the sea coasts and linked to the sea through a river or a canal are inland ports, e.g. Mannheim on Rhine river.
• Out Ports Ports in deep waters built away from the actual ports and serving big ships are called out ports, e.g. Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece.

Types of Ports on the basis of Specialised Functions

• Oil Ports Ports that deal in the processing and shipping of oil are known as oil ports. These are tanker ports like Tripoli in Lebanon and refinery’ ports like Abadon on the Gulf of Persia.
• Ports of Call Ports which originally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships used to anchor for refuelling, watering and taking food items are called ports of call, e.g., Honolulu and Aden.
• Packet Station Also known as ferry ports, these are exclusively concerned with the transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies covering short distances, e.g., Dover in England and Calais in France.
• Entrepot Ports These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export, e.g., Singapore is an entrepot for Asia.
• Naval Ports These ports serve worships and have repair workshops for them, e.g., Kochi, Karwar in India.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 8 Transport and Communication

Transport
Transport is a facility or a service for the carriage of persons and goods from one place to another using humans, animals and different kinds of vehicles. It is an organised service industry that handles loading, unloading and delivery.

Modes of Transportation

• The main modes of transportation are land, water, air and pipelines. These are used for inter-regional and intra-regional transport, and each one (except pipelines) carries both passengers and goods.
• Several places (nodes) join together by a series of routes (links) to form a pattern is called transport network.

Land Transport
This includes movement of goods and services over land i.e. roads and rails. Earlier humans themselves were carriers such as in palanquin (palki or doli), later pack animals such as mules, horses, camels were used. Dogs and reindeers were used in North America. In India, bullocks were used to pull carts. The revolution came after invention of steam engine in 18th century that started railways and roadways with the invention of internal combustion engines.
Among the new means of land transport are pipelines, ropeways and cableways. Rope and cableways are generally found on steep mountain slopes and mines, which are not suitable for building roads.

Roads
It is most economical for short distance and gaining importance for freight transport due to its door to door service. Metalled roads are all weather roads while unmetalled roads are not serviceable in all seasons due to their simple construction. Though heavy rains and floods make both the roads unserviceable. The quality, construction and maintenance of roads is better in developed countries than in developing countries as it requires heavy expenditure.

Road Density

• The total motorable road length of the world is only about 15 million km, in which North America separately accounted 33%. Although, North America in compare to Western Europe registered highest number of vehicles as well as highest road density.
• Road density is the total length of roads per hundred square kilometre of area.

Countries and their Road Density

Traffic Flows
It refers to traffic on roads that has increased dramatically in recent years. As the road network cannot cope with the demands of traffic, so congestion occurs.

Highways

• They are metalled roads connecting distant places for unobstructed vehicular movement. These are 80m wide with separate traffic lanes, bridges, flyovers and dual carriageways
• In North America, there is dense network of highways. Pacific coast is linked to Atlantic coast, Vancouver is connected to Newfoundland by Trans-Canadian highway and Edmonton is connected to Anchorage through Alaskan highway.
• Trans-continental Stuart highway connects Darwin, Melbourne to Alice springs in Australia. Europe has well developed highway network. Moscow-Vladivostok highway is important for Russia. Highways criss-cross the country in China.
• In India, National Highway No.7 (NH7) connecting Varanasi and Kanyakumari is the longest highway of the country. (The golden quadrilateral or super expressway is under construction). Now, NH-44 became the longest running highway in India. It connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari. NH-7 is renamed as National Highway 44. In Africa, Algiers in North is connected to Guinea and Cairo connected to Capetown in South.

Border Roads
These are roads laid along international boundaries. These roads help in transport of goods to border areas and military camps.

Railways
Railways are best suited for the transportation of bulky goods and passengers over long distances. Highly industrialised areas, urbanised regions and mineral rich areas are linked to railways for the transportation of ores, grains, timber and machinery. All the continents have dense network while Europe is having the highest density of railways. The railway network of Africa, Asia and South America connects the mineral rich and fertile areas and is developed primarily to utilise the natural resources.

Trans-Continental Railways
The railway line that runs across the continent and links its two ends is called a trans-continental railway line. They are constructed for economic and political reasons.
The following are the most important of these:

Trans-Siberian Railway
It is in Russia and the longest railway in the world. It runs between St. Petersburg in West to Vladivostok in East, passing through Moscow, Irkutsk, Chita, etc. It links important agro centre with fur centre connecting rail routes to important cities of Asia.

Trans-Canadian Railway
Constructed in 1886, it is 7050 km long railway in Canada that links Halifax in East to Vancouver in West. It passes through the industrial region connecting the wheat belt of Prairies and the coniferous forest area so it is considered economic artery of Canada. Wheat and meat are the important exports on this route.

The Union and Pacific Railway
This rail line connects New York on the Atlantic coast to San Francisco on the Pacific coast passing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The most valuable exports on this route are ores, grain, paper, chemicals and machinery.

The Australian Trans-Continental Railway
This rail line runs West-East across the southern part of the continent from Perth on the West coast to Sydney on the East coast passing through Kalgoorlie broken hill and port Augusta. Another North-South line connects Adelaide and Alice spring and to be joined later to the Darwin-Birdum link.

The Orient Express
This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, Budapest and Belgrade. It has reduced the 10-day journey to only 4 days. Cheese, wine, bacon, oats, fruits and machinery are chief exports on this rail route.

Water Transport
This is the cheapest mode of transport as no construction cost is there and very little maintenance cost. The linking of oceans have brought greater navigation with ships of various sizes. Water transport is divided into sea routes and inland waterways.
1. Sea Routes
Sea and oceans provide smooth highway traversable in all directions with no maintenance costs. Modem passenger ships and cargo ships are equipped with various navigation aids. The important sea routes are as follows:

• North Atlantic Sea Route It links North-Eastern USA and North-Western Europe. It is the busiest in the world and also called Big Trunk route.
• Mediterranean-Indian Ocean Sea Route This route connects industrialised Western Europe with West Africa, South Africa, South-East Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Natural resources such as gold, diamond, copper, tin, groundnut, oil palm, coffee and fruits are transported through it.
• Cape of Good Hope Sea Route This route links West Europe and West African countries with Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South America. Traffic is less on this route because the countries falling in this route have similar products and resources.
• The North Pacific Sea Route This route connects the ports on the West coast of North America with those of Asia. These are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco and Los Angeles of American side with Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila and Singapore of Asian side.
• The South Pacific Sea Route This route is used for reaching Hong Kong, Philippines and Indonesia and also links Western Europe and North America with Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islands via the Panama Canal. Panama is 12000 km far from Sydney. Honolulu is an important port on this route.
• Coastal Shipping Coastal shipping is a convenient mode of transportation with long coastlines, e.g. USA, China and India. This type of shipping can reduce congestion on land routes.

Shipping Canals
There are two canals that serve as gateways of commerce for both the Eastern and Western worlds. They are:

• The Suez Canal Constructed in 1869, it is a man-made canal linking the Mediterranean sea and the Red sea. It is 160 km long and 11 -15 m deep without any locks and sea water flows freely through it.
• The Panama Canal It is a man-made canal linking Atlantic ocean with Pacific ocean. It is 72 km long and involves a deep cutting for a length of 12 km and has 6 locks. It shortens the distance between New York and San Francisco by 13000 km by sea.

2. Inland Waterways
Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas are inland waterways for the transportation of cargo and passengers. The development of inland waterways depends on navigability, water flow and transport technology. The important inland waterways are: The

• Rhine Waterways This waterway links the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands with the North Atlantic sea routes. The river Rhine flows through Germany and Netherlands. It flows through a rich coal field, Dusseldorf is an important port in this region. This waterway is the world’s most heavily used. More than 20,000 ocean-going ships and 200,0 inland vessels move from this waterways every year.
• The Danube Waterway The Danube river which is navigable upto Tauma Severin, emerges in the Black Forest. It is used mainly for the export of wheat, maize, timber and machinery.
• The Volga Waterway Volga is one of the developed waterways of Russia. It is navigable upto 11,200 km and drains into the Caspian Sea.
  It is connected to Moscow region and the Black Sea through Volga-Moscow canal and Volga-Don canal respectively.
• The Great Lakes-St Lawrence Seaway The Great Lakes alongwith estury of St Lawrence river form a waterway in North America. Duluth and Buffalo are two important ports on this route.
• The Mississippi Waterways The Mississippi-Ohio waterway links the interior part of USA with the Gulf of Mexico in the South. Large steamers can move upto Minneapolis.

Air Transport
It is the fastest means of transport but it is very costly. Air transport has brought connectivity revolution in inhospitable deserts, mountainous regions and snow fields where other means of transport are not reachable. Due to high construction and maintenance cost, air transport is more developed in highly industrialised countries. Supersonic aircrafts cover the distance in very short time.

Inter- Continental Air Routes
USA accounts for 60% of airways of the world. Important cities are nodal points where air routes converge or radiate to all continents. Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and South America lack air services, sparser population or limited landmass or low economic development.

Pipelines
These are used to transport water, petroleum, natural gas, liquidified coal for an uninterrupted flow. Milk is supplied through pipelines in New Zealand. USA has dense network of pipelines. Big Inch is famous pipeline of USA that transports petroleum from the oil wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-Eastern states. In Europe, Russia,
West Asia and India, oil wells are linked to refineries through pipelines.

Communications
Long distance communication in the form of telegraph and telephone are important. In mid-19th century, American Telegraph and Telephone company (AT&T) enjoyed monopoly. In developing countries the use of cell phones has gained importance for rural connectivity.
Latest technology developments have resulted in Optical Fibre Cables (OFC). They allow large quantities of data to be transmitted that are virtually error free. Now the telecommunication merged with computers to form integrated networks termed as Internet.

Satellite Communication in India
Artificial satellites are deployed in Earth’s orbit to enhance communication and improve connectivity. This is satellite communication which has reduced the per unit cost and time of communication also.
India developed its own satellite Aryabhatta and launched it on 19th April, 1979, Bhaskar -I in 1979 and Rohini in 1980. Bhaskar, Challenger and INSAT-IB satellites are used for long distance communication and weather forecasting.

Cyber Space-Internet
This is the latest technology in which there is instant connectivity by accessing the electronic computerised space. It is called cyber space or Internet and is encompassed by the World Wide Web (www).
Majority of Internet users are in USA, UK, Germany, Japan, China and India. The social and economic space has expanded through e-mail, e-commerce, e-leaming and e-governance.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 7 Tertiary and Quaternary Activities

Types of Tertiary Activities
There are four types of tertiary activities. They are trade, transport, communication and services. These include provision of services in exchange of payments.

Trade and commerce
Trade and commerce is essentially buying and selling of items produced elsewhere. The collection and distribution points where trading takes place are called trading centres. These centres are divided into:

• Rural Marketing Centres They are quasi urban and cater to local needs and areas. Most of these have mandis (wholesale markets) and retail markets. In rural areas, there are periodic markets that may be weekly or bi-weekly and people from the nearby areas meet their demands. These markets are held on specified dates and shopkeepers move from one place to another.
• Urban Marketing Centres These markets sell ordinary as well as specialised goods and services, e.g. markets for labour, housing, semi or finished products. Services of educational institutions and professionals like teachers, doctors, lawyers also develop.
• Retail Trading In this type of trading, goods are directly sold to consumers. This trading is done through fixed establishments or stores, small shops, consumer cooperatives, big departmental stores and chain stores. The chain stores buy commodities in bulk and then hire skilled specialists for executive tasks. Street peddling, handcarts, trucks, door-to-door, mail order, telephone and Internet are examples of non-store retail trading.
• Wholesale Trading Here bulk buying takes place directly from the manufacturer by numerous intermediary merchants. The merchants/ wholesalers extend credit to retailers.

Transport
Transport is a tertiary activity in which people, materials and manufactured goods are physically carried from one place to another. While selecting the mode of transport, distance, time and cost are seen.. Distance can be measured as km distance, time taken to travel particular route as time distance, expense of travelling on a route as cost distance.

Factors Affecting Transport
Demand and routes are two major factors which affect transport services.

• Demand Transport depends on the size of population and standard of living of people. The larger the population size, the greater is the demand for transport.
• Route It refers to the transport network depend on location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centres, availability of raw materials, nature of landscape, type of climate, availability of funds, etc.

Network
A network is a well developed transport system that is made up of nodes and links. A node is a meeting point of two or more routes and every road that joins any two nodes is called a link.

Communication
Communication services involve in the transmission of words, messages, facts and ideas. The development of transport facilitated communication as messages were carried by hand, animals, boat, road, rail and air. But new technology has made communication independent of transport, such as mobiles, telephony and satellites. Some of the communication services are discussed below:

• Telecommunications The development of modem technology has revolutionised communication and it has become direct and instantaneous, e.g. telegraph, morse code and telex in last century and now satellites, mobile, telephony, etc are used.
• Mass Media Communication means through which messages could be sent to vast audiences around the world are called mass media, e.g. radio, television, newspapers, etc. The Internet has revolutionised the global communication.

Services
There are different levels at which services are provided and availed. Some are meant for industry, some for people, and some for both industry and people i.e., transport. Services can be divided into three sub-categories. They are:

• Low Order Services It includes common and widespread services like grocery shops, laundries, etc.
• Domestic Services It includes housekeepers, cooks and gardeners which migrate from rural areas in search of employment.
• High Order Services These are specialised and less common like accountants, consultants and physicians. Some services are supervised and/or regulated by government like making, maintaining highways, bridges, fire fighting departments, education, healthcare, etc.

Thus, services are present in organised sector that is government owned or big corporations. Some are present in unorganised sector like low order and domestic services. Mumbai’s dabbawala in India is one such service of unorganised sector.

People Engaged in Tertiary Activities
Earlier more number of people were employed in t he primary and secondary sector as these sectors provided more jobs. But, now there has been a shift of jobs to tertiary or service sector. In developed countries, a higher percentage of workers are employed in providing services as compared to less developed countries.

Some Selected Examples
Some of the selected examples that are related to the people engaged in tertiary activities are as follows: %

Tourism
Tourism is part of service sector that refers to travel undertaken for purpose of recreation rather than business. This industry generates jobs as people are engaged in providing accommodation, meals, transport, entertairment, infrastructure retail trading and crafts.

Tourist Regions

• Tourism can be seasonal or throughout the year like warmer places around the Mediterranean coast, West coast of India during winters, mountains in summers or winter spots regions found mainly in mountainous areas.
• Historic towns, religious places, heritage sites offer tourism throughout the year. Factors Affecting Tourism
• The rise in tourism industry is due to increased demand for it which is thus influenced by improvement in standard of living and increased leisure time.
• Another factor is improvement in transportation that has made travel easier and destinations reachable.

Tourist Attractions
Tourist attractions are specific features of a place that attract people. These are as follows:

• Climate In winter holidays, areas having warm sunny weather is preferred like beaches in Southern Europe, so it attracts more number of tourists there.
• Landscape Mountains, lakes, spectacular sea coasts and landscapes not completely altered by man are good tourist attractions.
• History and Art Ancient or picturesque towns, archaeological sites, historically important places having castles and palaces attract tourists.
• Culture and Economy Areas having rich cultures attract people as they go their to experience ethnic and local customs. Places giving economic benefits are also attractions such as cheap home stays in Goa, Madikere and Coorg in Karnataka.

Medical Services for Overseas Patients in India
Medical services or tourism takes place when medical treatment is combined with international tourism activity. People from developed countries like US are visiting India for medical tourism or services. This brings economic benefits to India and other countries where medical tourism is taking place like Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia.
Other medical related activities such as outsourcing of medical tests, data interpretation, reading radiology images, interpreting Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs) and ultrasound tests are taking place in India, Australia and Switzerland.

Quaternary Activities
The activities related to knowledge oriented, involving collection, production and dissemination of information come under quaternary activities. They centre around research development and may involve specialised knowledge and technical skills.
Software developers, mutual fund managers, doctors, accounting, brokerage firms are some examples of quaternary activities. They can be outsourced even as these are not tied to resources or affected by the environment or markets. This sector has replaced primary and secondary sector and absorbs half of the population in developed economies.

Quinary Activities
The activities that are highly specific and specialised are placed under it. These include high level decision-makers, administrators, government officials, research scientists, etc. They are also known as gold collar professions.

Outsourcing

• It means contracting out or giving work to an outside agency to improve efficiency and to reduce cost. It is termed as off-shoring when work is transferred to overseas location.
• Outsourcing provides employment in developing Countries of India, China, Botswana, etc. Information technology, human resources, customer support, call centres, data processing and other IT related services are examples of outsourcing.

BPO

• BPO stands for Business Process Outsourcing which involves customer support services, call centres and similar other processes.
• The developed countries transfer these jobs as overhead costs are much lower making it profitable to get job work carried out.

KPO
KPO stands for a Knowledge Process Outsourcing which involves skilled workers and enables companies to create additional business opportunities, e.g. e-leaming, business research, etc.

The Digital Divide

• Development emerging from the information and communication technology is unevenly spread across the globe. Some regions have prospered while others are lagged behind. This is known as digital divide.
• In developing countries, this kind of divide is seen more than developed countries. Here, the metropolitan cities are developed more than rural areas.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 6 Secondary Activities

Manufacturing
The literally meaning of manufacturing is to make by hand, but in the present context, the manufacturing means the conversion of raw material into more useful and valuable fabricated articles with the help of machines.

Manufacturing Industries
These are geographically located manufacturing units that transform raw materials into finished goods of higher value for sale in local or distant markets. The term industry is comprehensive and can also be used in many secondary activities which are not carried on in factories like entertainment industry, tourism industry, etc.
The manufacturing industries are characterised by the following:

• Specialisation of Skills In industries, one task is done repeatedly that gives specialisation of doing that task. This involves high cost of manufacturing. On the other hand, mass production involves production of large quantity of standardised parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.
• Mechanisation The industries use automated processes or machines which does the major production. Human thinking is not required in mechanisation.
• Technological Innovation Latest technology is used and constant innovation is done to eliminate waste, quality control, combat pollution and bring efficiency.
• Organisational Structure and Stratification Modern manufacturing is characterised by complex machine technology, extreme specialisation, division of labour, vast capital, large organisations and executive bureaucracy.
• Uneven Geographic Distribution The industries are concentrated in regions that are rich in mineral and other resources. These areas cover less than 10% of the world’s land area. These regions have become the major centres of economic and political power.

Location of industry
The location of industry at a particular place is governed by a large number of geographical and non-geographical factors. Industries maximise profits by reducing costs. Thus, industries should be located at points where the production costs are minimum. Following factors influence the location of industry at particular places:

• Access to Market Areas that provide large markets for finished industrial goods like developed areas of Europe, America, Japan, Australia, South Asia have huge concentration of industries.
• Access to Sources of Energy Coal, petroleum and hydroelectricity are main sources of energy. Industries using more power are located close to these sources.
• Access to Raw Material Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing materials (ores) like steel, sugar are based close to sources of raw materials. Similarly, processing of dairy products, perishable foods and agro based are done near the sources of raw materials.
• Access to Labour Supply Industries are located where there is availability of skilled labour. Some types of manufacturing still require skilled labour.
• Acccess to Source of Energy Industries which use more power are located nearer to the source of energy supply such as iron and steel industries. Energy is most essential to run machines in industries. The main power resources are coal, petroleum, hydroelectricity, natural gas and nuclear energy.
• Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities Industries are located in places that have efficient transportation facilities and communication services for the exchange and management of information.
• Access to Agglomeration Economies Agglomeration economies refer to the benefits derived from the linkages that exist between different industries. The small industries or ancillary units like to operate near leader industries to benefit from nearness to big or basic industries.
• Government Policy For the balanced economic development, governments promote various regions by setting up industries in a particular link between industrial areas.

Classification of Manufacturing Industries
Industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/ raw materials, output/ products and ownership.

Industries Based on Size
Based on amount of capital invested, a number of workers employed and volume of production, industries are classified into the following:

Household Industries or Cottage Manufacturing It is the smallest manufacturing unit. Artisans use local raw materials, simple tools and production is done with the help of family members. Production is done for local consumption and local markets. There is not much capital needed, e.g. mats, baskets, pottery, jewellery, artefacts and crafts.

Small Scale Manufacturing These type of industries employ semi-skilled labour, operate by power driven machines, use local raw materials and manufacture products in workshops. It provides employment and raises local purchasing power. India, China, Indonesia and Brazil have developed labour intensive small scale manufacturing units.

Large Scale Manufacturing Here mass production takes place, involves large market, many raw materials, huge energy requirements, specialised workers, advanced technology and large capital. Large scale manufacturing industries are divided into two parts i.e. Traditional large scale industrial regions and Higlr technology large scale industrial regions.

Industries Based on Inputs/Raw Materials
On the basis of raw materials used, industries are classified as follow:

• Agro based Industry This involves processing of raw materials from the fields and farms into finished products like sugar, fruit juices, beverages, oils and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
• Food Processing This is part of agro based industry and includes processes like canning, producing cream, fruit processing, confectionery, drying, fermenting and pickling.
• Agri Business This is commercial farming on an industrial scale. The farms are mechanised, very large and highly structured, like tea plantation and tea factories near the plantations.
• Mineral based Industry These are industries that use minerals as raw materials such as ferrous like iron and steel and non-ferrous like aluminium, copper, etc. Mineral based non-metallic industries are of cement and pottery.
• Chemical based Industry These industries use natural chemical minerals like salts, sulphur, potash, mineral oil in petrochemical industry and chemicals obtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fiber and plastics are other examples of chemical based industry.
• Forest based Industry Industries that use forest products such as timber, wood, bamboo, grass, lac, etc come under forest based industry.
• Animal based Industry Industries that use animal products such as leather, woollen textiles, ivory are grouped under animal based industry.

Industries based on Output/ Product
This refers to industries based on the finished products or output. These are:

1. Basic Industries These are the industries that produce raw material to be used in other industries such as iron and steel.
2. Consumer Goods Industries These are the industries which produces what is consumed by consumers directly such as tea, biscuits, toiletries, etc.

Industries based on Ownership
Based on the ownership, the industries are grouped as:

• Public Sector Industry This refers to industries that are owned and managed by government. In India, it is called public sector undertakings. Socialist economies have all state owned industries.
• Private Sector Industry This refers to industries that are owned by private individuals and also managed by them. Capitalist economies have mostly private owned industries.
• Joint Sector Industry Industries that are jointly owned and managed by joint stock companies or established by private and government sector are called joint sector industries.

Foot Loose Industries
These industries do not depend on any specific raw material so they can be located at any place. They largely depend on component parts, employ small labour force and produce in small quantity.

Traditional Large Scale Industrial Regions
Traditional large scale industries are mostly heavy industries located near coal fields and involved in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacturing or textile production. Their features are high employment, high density of housing but poor services, unattractive environment, pollution and waste heaps. Due to these problems, many industries are closed leading to unemployment, emigration and wastelands.

The Ruhr Coal Field, Germany

• This area was a major industrial region due to coal and iron-ore deposits. But the industry started shrinking as demand of coal declined, iron-ore exhausted, industrial waste and pollution increased.
• Now a New Ruhr landscape has emerged that focusses on other products like Opel car assembly plant, new chemical plants, universities and out of town shopping centres.

High Technology Industry

• Also called high-tech industry, it is highly technical and incorporates advanced scientific and engineering research and development strategy.
• The workforce are highly skilled specialists, professionals (known as white collar) who outnumber the production labour (blue collar).
• Robotics, computer aided design and manufacturing, electronics, new chemicals and pharmaceuticals are examples of these industries.

Iron and Steel Industry

• It is known as basic industry as it provides raw materials or base to other industries. It is also called heavy industry due to its bulky raw material and heavy finished products.
• These industries are located near the source of raw materials i.e. iron ore, coal, manganese and limestone or near ports where it could be early brought.

Distribution
This industry is spread in developed and developing countries such as America, UK, Germany, France, Belgium, Ukraine, Japan, China and India (Jamshedpur, Durgapur, Raurkela, etc.)

Cotton Textile Industry
This industry has three sub-sectors:

1. Handloom This is labour intensive, employs semi-skilled workers, requires small capital and involves processes like spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics.
2. Powerloom This is less labour intensive, uses of machines and production is more.
3. Mill Sector This is highly capital intensive, requires good quality raw cotton and produces in bulk.
   India, China, USA, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Egypt produce more than half of world’s raw cotton. Now the cotton textile industry is shifting to less developed countries due to labour cost.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 5 Primary Activities

Hunting and Gathering

• Hunting and gathering are the oldest primitive activities of man. Early man lived in forests and sustained his life by hunting animals. He has also been gathering various products from the forests to satisfy his needs in early days. Thus, early men sustained on edible plants which they hunted and edible plants which they gathered from the forests.
• Early human beings practised these activities with the help of primitive tools, made of stones, twigs or arrows, so the number of animals killed was limited. But now modem equipments led to the widespread poaching of animals due to which hunting is declared illegal.
• Gathering is practised in high latitude zones oi North Canada, Northern Eurasia and Southern Chile, low latitude zones of Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, interiors of South-East Asia. This activity requires small capital investment and low level of technology. Valuable plants, leaves, bark, etc are collected and after simple processing they are sold in local markets. These products cannot compete the world market as synthetic products are lower in price and of better quality.

Pastoralism

• This means domestication and rearing of animals on pastures. This is carried either at subsistence level known as nomadic herding or at commercial level known as commercial livestock rearing.

Nomadic Herding

• Also called pastoral nomadism, it is a primitive activity where herders move with their livestock from one place to another in search of food and water. They rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
• Depending on geographical factors different animals are reared in different regions like cattle in tropical Africa, sheep, goat and camel in Sahara, Asiatic deserts, Yak, llamas in Tibet and Andes, reindeer in Arctic and Sub-Arctic areas. Other areas include Mongolia, Central China, Eurasia, South-West Africa and Madagascar.

Commercial Livestock Rearing

• This practise is associated with western culture, it is more organised and capital intensive. This activity is done on vast ranches that are permanent.
• Modem scientific technology with emphasis on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care is done. Production of meat, wool, hides is done and exported to different world markets.
• Sheep, cpttle, goat and horses are reared in the ranches. Australia, New- Zealand, Argentina, Uruguay, South-West Africa, Western United States and Central Asia are major centers of commercial livestock rearing.

Agriculture
Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio- economic conditions, which gives rise to different types of agriculture systems.
Based on methods of farming, different type of crops are grown and livestock raised. The following are the main agricultural systems:

Subsistence Agriculture
In this type of agriculture, farmers consume all or nearly all of the produce as the size of the farm is very small. It can be divided into primitive subsistence agriculture and intensive subsistence agriculture.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture This is widely practised in tropical areas of Africa/South, Central America and South-East Asia. Different names are given to it in different places like Milpa, Jhuming, Ladang. It is also called slash and bum agriculture or shifting agriculture. Cultivation is done through primitive tools by clearing a patch of land. After 3 to 5 years, when the soil loses its fertility then new land is cleared for cultivation.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture This type of agriculture is practised in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia. This type of cultivation is either dominated by wet paddy cultivation and crops other than paddy. The per unit area is high but productivity is low as land holdings are small due to high density of population, less use of machines, family labour involved and farm yard manures are used. Crops other than paddy are wheat, soybean, barley, sorghum grown in Northern China, Manchuria, North Korea and Japan. In India, it is practised in Indo-Gangetic plains, dry parts of Western and Southern India.

Plantation Agriculture
This type of agriculture was introduced by the Europeans like cocoa and coffee in West Africa by French, Tea in India and Sri Lanka, rubber in Malaysia, sugarcane and banana in West Indies by British, coconut, sugarcane in Philippines by Spanish, etc.
Here, agriculture is done on large estates or plantations, requires huge capital investment and scientific methods of cultivation.

Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

• This is practised in the interiors of semi-arid parts of mid latitudes like Eurasian steppes, Canadian and American Prairies, Pampas of Argentina, velds of South Africa, Australian Downs and Canterbury plains of New Zealand.
• Crops like wheat, corn, barley, oats and rye are grown. Agriculture is mechanised as farms are very large. There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.

Mixed Farming

• This is practised in North-Western Europe, Eastern-North America, parts of Eurasia and temperate latitudes of Southern continents. Here crop cultivation along with animal husbandry is practised. Crops like wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops along with the rearing of farm animals like cattle, sheep, pig, poultry is done to provide extra income.
• There is crop rotation and inter cropping along with high capital expenditure on farm inputs.

Dairy Farming

• It is practised near urban and industrial centers of North-Western Europe, Canada, South-Eastern Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania. It is highly capital intensive due to cost of feeding, milching machines, animal sheds, storage facilities, veterinary services, etc.
• It is also labour intensive as rigorous care of I animals is also needed. There is no off seasonr during the year as in case of crop raising.

Mediterranean Agriculture
It is practised on either side of Mediterranean in Europe, North Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, Southem-Califomia, some i parts of Chile, South-Western parts of South Africa and South-Western parts of Australia. It is highly specialised commercial agriculture and important supplier of citrus fruits.

Viticulture
This refers to cultivation of grapes in the Mediterranean regions. Inferior grapes are made into raisins and currants while superior grapes are processed into wines. Figs and olives are also cultivated.

Market Gardening and Horticulture

• It is practised in highly developed and
  industrial regions of North-West Europe, North-East United States and Mediterranean regions. Netherlands specialises in cultivation of Tulip flowers.
• This type of cultivation refers to high value crops like vegetables, fruits and flowers solely for urban markets. Farms are small and mechanised. It is both capital and labour intensive.

Truck Farming
This refers to the specialisation in the cultivation of vegetables only. The distance between the farms and urban markets can be covered through trucks overnight, hence its name is known as ‘truck farming.’

Factory Farming
This refers to livestock rearing mainly poultry and cattle. This is capital intensive, requires maintenance, supervisation and scientific breeding. It is practised in industrial regions of Europe and North America.

Co-operative Farming
Under this farming group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. There is help from societies in buying and selling farm products. Individual farms remain intact. It is practised in Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden and Italy.

Collected Farming

• It is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour. Here farmers pool their resources, though they are allowed to keep a small part with themselves.
• Produce is sold to state at prefixed prices. Members paid according to the nature of work done. It was practised first in Kelkhoz in erstwhile Soviet Union.

Mining
It refers to the extraction of mineral resources from the Earth. Its development began with the industrial revolution.

Factors affecting Mining Activity
There are two factors that affect the mining activity. These are:

1. Physical factors related to size, grade and mode of occurrence of the deposits.
2. Economic factors related to demand for mineral, technology, capital to develop infrastructure, labour and transport cost.

Methods of Mining
It is of two types i.e. surface and underground mining. Surface of open cast mining occurs close to the surface, it is easiest and cheapest. The other is underground mining in which minerals are extracted from very deep mines using vertical shafts. It requires lifts, drills and very efficient technology.
The developed economies are retreating from mining due to high labour cost while developing economies are becoming major exporters of minerals due to their large labour force and striving for better standard of living.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 4 Human Development

Growth and Development

• Growth and development refers to changes over a period of time but the difference between growth and development is that growth is quantitative but development is qualitative. Therefore, development is always positive.
• Development cannot take place unless there is an increment or addition to the existing conditions, but growth can be positive, negative or neutral, positive growth does not always led to development.
• Development occurs when there is a positive change in qualities. Earlier economic growth and development of country was seen as one but now they are studied separately.

Human Development

• This concept was introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq in 1990. Human development is described as that which enlarges people’s choices and improves their lives, thus creating conditions where people can lead meaningful lives.
• This means that people develop talent, participate in society and be free to achieve their goals. According to Prof. Amartya Sen, the main objective of development is an increase in freedom. Freedom to make choices brings development, and social and political institutions play a major role in increasing freedom.
• Building people capabilities in health, education and equal access to resources increases freedom and enlarges choices.

Four Pillars of Human Development

The idea of human development is supported by the concepts of the following four pillars of development:
Equity It refers to equal access to opportunities available to everybody irrespective to their gender, race, income and caste.
Sustainability It means continuity in the availability of opportunities so that future generations can even use the present resources.
Productivity It means human labour which must be enriched by building capabilities in people.
Empowerment It means having the power to make choices which is possible by increasing freedom and capability.

Approaches to Human Development

There are four ways of looking at or approach the problems of human development. Some of the important approaches are:
Income Approach This approach links the development to incomes as it believes that income determines the level of freedom that one enjoys.
Welfare Approach Under this approach, government is responsible for providing basic facilities like health, education and amenities to people.
Basic Needs Approach In this approach, emphasis is on providing six basic needs i.e. health, education, food, water supply, ” sanitation and housing.
Capability Approach This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen and aims to build human capabilities in health, education and-access to resources in order to increase human development.

Measuring Human Development

Following are the ways of measuring human development

Human Development Index

• Human development is measured through Human Development Index (HDI) which ranks the countries between 0 to 1 based on their performance in the key areas of health, education and access to resources.
• It is the sum total of the weights assigned to health, education and access to resources. Indicator to access health is life expectancy at birth, to access knowledge it is adult literacy rate and gross enrollment ratio and resources are measured in terms of purchasing power

Human Poverty Index

This index measures the shortfall in human development. The index is based on the probability of not surviving till 40, adult literacy rate, people not having access to clean drinking water and number of underweight children.

United Nations Development Programme

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) since 1990, publishes the Human Development Report by measuring the Human Development Index and Human Poverty Index.

Gross National Happiness

This is Gross National Happiness (GNH) which is another measure of accessing human development and Bhutan is the only country in the world to measure the country’s progress through GNH. The GNH encourages the qualitative aspect of development.

International Comparisons

• On comparing the human development of different countries, it is revealed that the size of the territory and per capita income are not directly related to human development.
• For comparisons, the countries are classified into four groups on the basis of human development scores earned by them.

Very High Level of Human Development

• The countries scoring above 0.802 are categorised under it. There are 49 countries in this group.
• Top ten countries with very high value index are Norway, Australia, Netherlands, United States, New Zealand, Canada, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Germany and Sweden.
• The countries in this group provide education and healthcare which is an important government priority as well as invest a lot in the social sector.

High Level of Human Development

• Countries scoring between 0.702 and 0.801 are grouped under it. They are 56 in number.
• Good governance and lot of investment in social sector has led to high level of human development in these countries.

Medium Level of Human Development

• Countries scoring between 0.555 and 0.701 are grouped under it and there are 39 countries in this group. ‘
• Many of these countries were former colonies and are facing political instability as well as high social diversity.

Low Level of Human Development

• Countries scoring below 0.554 are grouped under it and there are 44 countries in it. These countries are going through political turmoil, social instability, civil war, famine or high incidence of diseases.
• Internal comparisons reveal that the culture, religion or community are non-determinants of human development. Rather, pattern of government expenditure on the social sector, political environment, amount of freedom people have and the distribution of resources play a decisive role in the level of human development.

Class 12 Geography – Fundamentals of Human Geography Quick Revision notes Chapter 3 Population Composition

• Place of origin,
• Place or destination,
• it is the spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between population and resources
• It may be permanent, temporary, / seasonal, it may be rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban, urban-rural
• Types, immigration, emigration

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE
PUSH FACTORS:

• Unemployment,
• Poor living,
• Political turmoil,
• Unpleasant climate,
• Natural disasters,
• Epidemics, and
• Social- economics backwardness

PULL FACTORS:  

• More attractive jobs,
• Good living conditions,
• Peace,
• Stability,
• Security of life,
• Pleasant climate

TRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTH: POP growth is due to

• Agricultural development,
• industrial revolution,
• transportation,
• sanitation and medical facilities,
• biotechnology,
• information and computers technological revolution.
• Discovery of machines,
• medicines
• Pop. Increased 10 times during last 500 years,
• 4 times in 20th century,
• 80 million people are added each year.

DOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATION

1. More than one million to become one billion pop
2. It took 12 years to become from 5 billion to 6 billion
3. Developed countries take more time than developing countries
4. Liberia highest growth rate: 8.2% Latvia lowest gr : -1.5%

Spatial pattern of population Change when it is small change applied to large population it is large  GROWTH RATE DECLINES BUT POP STILL INCREASE
IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGE

1. Depletion of resources
2. Spread of epidemics
3. Reduced life expectancy
4. Increase in social crime rate
5. Health problems

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

1. Predict the future pop. Of any area
2. Any region changes from high BR & DR to low BR& DR
3. progress from rural to urban
4. Illiterate to literate
5. These are collectively known as demographic cycle

STAGE-I ;

• High fertility,
• High mortality,
• Low growth,
• More epidemics,
• Variable food supply ,
• Agriculture is occupation,
• Low life expectancy,
• Illiteracy,
• Low level of technology –
• Rain forest tribes, Bangladesh

STAGE -II

• Fertility remains high ,but decline with time,
• Reduced mortality,
• Improved sanitation,
• Medical facilities
• High growth rate
• Ex. Peru, Sri Lanka, Kenya

STAGE -III:

• Low birth rate and
• Death rate
• Slow GR .
• Stable growth rate

URBANISED POP. HIGH TECHNOLOGY. SMALL FMALIES. FLEXIBLE FAMILIES EX. CANADA JAPAN USA
POPULATION CONTROL MEASURES:

• Limiting the population growth,
• improving women‟s health,
• access to family planning services
• Free availability of contraceptives,
• tax disincentives for large families,
• Government incentives for small families.

POPULATION COMPOSITION
PEOPLE ARE DIFFERENT IN DIFFERENT WAYS  

• Age.
• Sex.
• Place of residence,
• Occupation,
• Education,
• Life expectancy

SEX COMPOSITION  
The ratio between number of men and women is called SEX RATIO
SEX RATIO 
IN INDIA IT IS CALCULATED AS
SEX RATIO 

• It shows the status of women in the country
• It is unfavorable to women
• Lower socio economic status
• due to female feticide, female infanticide, domestic violence against women
• Sometimes men might have migrated so women no. Is more
• Natural advantages of women: they are more resilient, more resistant power, more patience
• Sex ratio of the world is: 990 females/ 1000 males
• Latvia highest 1187 lowest is 468/1000 males
• It is favorable in 139 countries
• Unfavorable in 72 countries
• Asia has low sex ratio Europe has highest
• Europe has better status of women
• Male dominated out migration

AGE STRUCTURE

• No. of people in different age groups.
• It is an important indicator of pop. Composition
• A large group of population is in age group of 15-59 years
• Large group of pop. Is above 60 years is called aged population
• More expenditure on medical facilities
• High 5 of young pop. Shows high birth rate
• AGE- SEX PYRAMID
• Number of females and males in different age groups
• Pop. Pyramid is used to show age sex structure
• Shape of pyramid shows the characteristics of population
• Left side male and right side female
• Types of age sex pyramid

I-EXPANDING POPULATION
1. triangular shape , 2. Less developed countries , 3. young pop. is more, 4. ex. Bangladesh, Mexico, Nigeria
II-CONSTANT POPULATION
1. A bell shaped, 2. Birth and death rates are equal, 3. Ex Australia
III-DECLINING POPULATION
1.narrow base , 2. Low birth and death , 3. Shows developed countries , 4. Growth is negative or zero ex. Japan
RURAL-URBAN COMPOSITION

1. It is based on residence
2. They differ from each other
3. The criteria for rural and urban varies from country to country
4. Rural population engaged in primary activities where as urban other than primary activities
5. ural and urban composition of west European countries is different from African countries
6. Sex ratio is also different in European countries than African countries
7. In west European countries males are more in rural areas and females are more in urban areas
8. in Asian countries female is more in rural areas
9. In Asian countries female is less in urban areas due to shortage of housing, high cost of living, paucity of jobs, lack of security in cities

LITERACY

• Literacy indicated the socio economic development
• Standard of living
• Social status of women
• Availability of facilities
• Policies of government
• In India literate means: pop above 7 years age who is able to read write and have the ability to do arithmetic calculations with understanding.

OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE
I. The working population take part in various occupations such as primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary activities.
II. each category refers to the level of economic development of the country.
III. developed countries only show the job opportunities more in secondary activities
IV. developing countries show more people under primary activity

Class 12 Geography – Fundamentals of Human Geography Quick Revision notes Chapter 2 The World Population

GENERAL:

• At the beginning 21st century the total population is over 6 billion
• Population of the world is unevenly distributed
• “ ASIA HAS MANY PEOPLE WHERE PEOPLE ARE FEW AND FEW PLACES WHERE PEOPLE ARE VERY MANY”-GEORGE B. CRESSEY

PATTERNS OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

• Patterns of population distribution and density help us to understand the demographic
  characteristics of any area.
• Pop. Distribution refers to “the way the people are spaced over the earth surface”
• 90 percent of the world population lives in 10% of its land area
• 10 countries of the world contribute 60% of the world’s population
• Out of 10 populous countries, 6 are in Asia ( China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Russia and Indonesia), Japan, Brazil, USA

DENSITY OF POPULATION

• . To understand the ratio between the number of population to the size of land
• . This ratio is the density of population
• . It is measured in persons per SQ. km

• High density areas ( more than 200 persons/sq km)- North eastern part of USA, North western part of Europe, south ,south east and East Asia
• Medium density areas(11-50 persons/sq km)- Western China, Southern India in Asia, Norway, Sweden (Europe)
• Low density areas(less the 1 person / sq km)- North and South poles, hot and cold deserts and high rainfall zones near Equator.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

1. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS

• Availability of water- resides in those area where fresh water can be easily available, used for drinking, bathing and cooking, for cattle,crops, industries and navigation. These river valleys are densly populated
• land forms- prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. Because areas are favourable for the crops production and to build roads and industries, for example, Ganga plains. Whereas mountainous and hilly regions are less populated due to lack of transport, agricultural and industrial development, for example Himalayan region
• climate- Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low population, for example Mediterranean regions.Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not
  much seasonal variation attract more people.
• soils- Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. Therefore,
  areas which have fertile loamy soils have dense population. Eg. Northern plains of India

2. ECONOMIC FACTORS

• Minerals- Areas with mineral deposits attract industries and therefore generate employment. Skilled and semi-skilled workers move to these areas and make them densely populated. Example Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa
• urbanization- Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better means of transport and communication and good civic aminities which attract more population.
• industrialization-Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large
  numbers of people. Example The Kobe-Osaka region of Japan

3. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS

• Attract more people due to religious and cultural significance
• People also move away from places due to political and social unrest
• Many a times governments offer incentives to people to live in sparsely
  populated areas or move away from overcrowded places

POPULATION GROWTH

• Change in number of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time.
• Change may be both positive and negative.
• It may be represented in absolute numbers /percentage.
• Change in population is an indicator of economic development, social upliftment and historical and cultural background of the region.

Components of population change-

1. Birth rate
CRUDE BIRTH RATE: number of live births in a year per thousand of women
CBR 
CBR= CRUDE BIRTH RATE
Bi:live births P = mid-year population
CDR=NUMBER OF DEATHS IN A PARTICULAR YEAR PER THOUSAND POPULATION.

2. Death rate–

Crude death rate- No. of death in particular year per 1000 of population.
CDR
CDR= CRUDE DEATH RATE
D= NO. OF DEATHS
P= ESTIMATED MID YEAR POPULATION

• . Mortality rate are affected by demographic structure, social advancement and economic development.

3. Migration

• People move from one place to another
• Place of origin- place they move from
• Place of destination- place they move in
• Migration can be permanent, temporary and seasonal
• Types of migration- Rural- Rural, Rural- Urban,Urban-Rural, Urban-Urban.
• Immigration : Migrants who move into a new place
  Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place
• Factors that influence migration-

Push factors- unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters,epidemics and socio-economic backwardness
Pull factors- better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and property and pleasant climate.

Trends in population growth

• Eart h’s population is more than 6 billion
• After the evolution and introduction of agriculture about 8,000 to 12,000 years
  ago, the size of population was 8 million
• In the first century A.D. it was below 300 million
• In the 16th and 17th century the population growth rate increased due to expanding world trade.
• Around 1750, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution,the world population was 550 million.
• In the 18th century, after the industrial revolution , world population exploded

Doubling time of world population

•  It took more than a million years for the human population to attain the one billion mark
• But it took only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion
• developed countries are taking more time to double their population as compared to developing countries
• Population growth rate is taking place in developing countries
• Example Yemen, Liberia, Somalia, Saudi Arabia, Oman

Spatial patterns of population change

• Annual population rate change i.e. 1.6% in 1990-95 to 1.4% in 2004-05
• This is due to when a small annual rate is applied to a very large population, it will lead to a large population change
• Another main reason due to increase in infant mortality rate and increase in death rate during childbirth

Impact of population change

• Death rate increase in Africa and some parts of the CIS and Asia due to deadly HIV/AIDS epidemics
• Population rate increase due to growing economy

Demographic transition

Theory used to describe and predict the future population of any area.

• Population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and low deaths as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society
• Three stages in demographic transition theory-
• First stage- high fertility and high mortality; high fertility because people reproduce more to
  compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply. And high mortality because of illiteracy and low level of technology.
• Second stage- fertility remains high but declines with time; Improvements in sanitation and health conditions lead to decline in mortality
• Third stage- Both fertility and mortality decline.Population becomes urbanised, literate and has high high technical know how and deliberately controls the family size

​​​​​​Population control measure

• Family planning
• Easy and cheap availability of contraceptive
• Education
• Eradicate poverty
• Women empowerment
• Delayed marriages
• Tax disincentives for large families

Class 12 Geography – Fundamentals of Human Geography Quick Revision notes Chapter 1 Human Geography nature and scope

GIST OF THE LESSON:

·   Geography is a field of study is integrative, empirical and practical
·   it studies each and every event on the earth over the space and time
·   human geography studies the relationship between man and nature
·   Geo. can be studied through law making or descriptive

There are two approaches of geography

1. systematic approach
2. Regional approach
Vi physical and human phenomena are described in metaphors using symbols from the human anatomy
Vii definition of human geography
Human Geography Defined
• “Human geography is the synthetic study of relationship between human societies and earth‟s surface”. Ratzel
Synthesis has been emphasized in the above definition.
•“Human geography is the study of “the changing relationship between the un-resting man and the unstable earth.”Ellen C. Semple
Dynamism in the relationship is the keyword in Semple‟s definition.
• “Conception resulting from a more synthetic knowledge of the physical laws governing our earth and of the relations between the living beings which inhabit it”. Paul Vidal de la Blache

NATURE OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

1. Human geography studies the inter relationship between the physical environment and socio-cultural environment created by man. 2. Elements of physical are land, water, soil, climate, vegetation, fauna 3. Elements of cultural are transport and communication, settlements, crops NATURALISATION OF HUMANS a. Man interact with nature with the help of technology b. It is not important that what he creates but with what tools he used to create c. Technology indicates the level of cultural development of society d. Understanding the nature helps to create technology 1. understanding of friction and heat helped to discover fire
2. understanding DNA helped to eradicate diseases
3. laws of thermodynamics helped to develop fast planes
4. knowledge about nature is extremely important to develop technology and technology loosens the shackles of environment on human being .
5. the interaction between primitive society and nature is called ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM.

HUMANISATION OF NATURE

1. With the development of technology people understood the nature well
2. They move from state of necessity to state of possibilities
3. Human activities created cultural landscape
4. so it is called as possibilism

NEODETERMINISM/ STOP AND GO DETERMINISM

1.Developed by Griffith Taylor
2.It is a middle path between environmental determinism and possibilism
3. the concept shows that neither is there a situation of absolute necessity nor is there a condition of absolute freedom.
4. sustainable development is the main aim
5. The Neo determinism maintains balance between development and nature

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE CORRIDORS OF TIME 

Schools of human geography
WELFARE SCHOOL
Concerned with social well being of the people a. housing b. Health c. Education RADICAL SCHOOL
Concerned with causes of poverty, deprivation and social Inequality BEHAVIOURAL SCHOOL
Given importance to lived experience, perception of space by Social categories STAGES THROUGH CORRIDORIES OF TIME.

Class 12 Political Science Quick Revision notes Chapter 18 Recent Developments in Indian Politics

Context of the 1990s

• After the assassination of Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister and he led the Congress to a massive victory in the Lok Sabha elections held in 1984.
• The decade of the eighties witnessed five developments that left a long-lasting impact on our politics. These were:
  • The defeat of the Congress party in the elections held in 1989.
  • Rise of the ‘Mandal Issue’ in national politics.
  • The economic policy (also known as new economic policy) followed by various governments.
  • A number of events culminated in the demolition of the disputed structure at Ayodhya (known as BabriMasjid) in December, 1992.
  • The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to a change in leadership of the Congress party.

Decline of Congress

• During late sixties, the dominance of the Congress party was challenged, but the Congress under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, managed to re-establish its predominant position.
• After elections of 1989 political development in India initiated an era of coalition governments at the centre in which regional parties played a crucial role in forming ruling alliances.

Alliance Politics

• Elections in 1989 led to the new development in Indian politics and era of coalition government started.
• Regional parties played an important role in the United Front government that came to power in 1996.
• The BJP continued to consolidate its position in the elections of 1991 and 1996 and it emerged as the largest party in the 1996 election and was invited to form government.
• With the elections of 1989, a long phase of coalition politics began in India. Since then, there have been nine governments at the centre, all of which have either been coalition governments or minority governments supported by other parties.

Political Rise of Other Backward Classes

• When the support for the Congress among many sections of the ‘backward castes’ had declined, this created a space for non-Congress parties to get their support.
• Many of the constituents of the Janata party, like the Bhartiya Kranti Dal and the Samyukta party, had a powerful rural base among some sections of the OBC.

‘Mandal’ Implemented

• The period of 1980s-90s saw the emergence of many parties that sought better opportunities for OBCs in education and employment and also raised the question of the share of power enjoyed by the OBCs.
• The mandal commission was set-up to investigate the extent of educational and social backwardness among various sections of Indian society.
• After investigation the commission recommended reserving 27 per cent of seats in educational institutions and government jobs for these groups.
• In August 1990, the national front government implemented the recommendations of the commission.

Political Fallouts
1980 onwards the caste based politics dominated Indian politics. In 1989 and 1991, this was the first time in independent India that a political party (BSP) supported by Dalit voters had achieved a landmark political success.
In Many Parts of India, Dalit politics and OBC politics have developed independently and often in competition with each other.
Communalism, Secularism, Democracy

• During 1990s the politics based on religious identity emerged in India and debate about secularism and democracy came in currency. After Shah Bano case of 1985 BJP emerged as a ‘Hindutva Party’.
• The Babri Masjid was a 16th century mosque in Ayodhya and was built by Mir Baqi -Mughal emperor Babur’s General.
• Some Hindus believe that it was built after demolishing a temple for Lord Rama.
• The dispute took the form of a court case and has continued for many decades.
• The Babri Masjid was demolished on 6th December,
  1992. After demolition, the news led to clashes between the Hindus and Muslims in many parts of the country.
• In February-March, 2002, large-scale violence against Muslims took place in Gujarat. The violence began from Godhra.
• This incident alert us to the dangers involved in using religious sentiments for political purposes.

Emergence of a New Consensus

• Analysis shows that since 1989 election, the votes polled by the two parties-Congress and BJP do not add upto more than 50 per cent.
• The political competition during the nineties is divided between the coalition led by BJP and the coalition led by the Congress.

Lok Sabha Elections 2004
In 2004 elections, the coalition led by BJP National Democratic Alliance was defeated and new coalition led by the Congress, known as the United Progressive Alliance came to power.
Growing Consensus

• After 1990 a consensus appears to have emerged among most parties which consists of following elements
  • Agreement on new economic policies.
  • Acceptance of the political and social claims of the backward castes.
  • Acceptance of the role of state level parties in governance of the country.
  • Emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than ideological positions and political alliances without ideological agreement.
  • They also work as a pressure groups in Indian politics.
  • Sometimes regional parties influence the Central Government to divert more annual budget funds to their states at the expense of other states.

FACTS THAT MATTER
1. During the decade of eighties, five developments took place in country with long lasting impact i.e. End of Congress system in 1980, Mandal Issues in 1990, New Economic Reforms in 1991, Ayodhya dispute in 1992 and Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in 1991.
2. Elections in 1989 led an era of coalitions with the defeat of Congress Party and it emerged several parties when no single party secured a clear majority of seats in any Lok Sabha election held since 1989 and in this era, regional parties played a crucial role in forming ruling alliances.
3. The nineties also saw the emergence of powerful parties and movements to represent the Dalits and backward castes as well as regional assertions. Now, there have been nine governments at the centre which have either been coalition government or minority governments supported by other parties or regional parties only.
4. The Mandal Issue started with the national front government’s decision to implement the recommendation of Mandal Commission that jobs in central government should be reserved for other backward classes leading to violent anti-mandal protest in country between supporters and opponents of OBC reservations.