कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज Chapter 4 solutions

(अभ्यास-प्रश्न)

प्रश्न 1. कविता में कुछ पंक्तियां कोष्ठकों में रखी गई है- आपकी समझ से इसका क्याऔचित्य हैं?

कोष्ठकों में रखी गई पंक्तियों के माध्यम से संयोजक अपनी भावनाओं और विचारों की अभिव्यक्ति करता है। कवि ने दूरदर्शन कार्यक्रम संचालक तथा दर्शकों का आपसी संबंध स्थापित करने के लिए ऐसा किया है। इन्हीं पंक्तियों से कविता के पूरे अर्थ की अभिव्यक्ति संभव हुई है क्योंकि कवि कार्यक्रम संचालक के मन में अपने उद्देश्य की सफलता को लेकर उत्पन्न हुई चिंता को इन पंक्तियों के माध्यम से स्पष्ट करना चाहता है।

प्रश्न 2. कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज करुणा की मुखौटे में छिपी क्रूरता की कविता है- विचार कीजिए।

कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज कार्यक्रम में जिस करुणा को दिखाने का प्रयास किया गया है, वह कृत्रिम है। उसका उद्देश्य चैनल के लिए एक लोकप्रिय तथा बिकाऊ कार्यक्रम तैयार करना है। कार्यक्रम संचालक अपाहिज से बड़े बेहूदे तथा अस्वाभाविक प्रश्न पूछता है जिसमें करुणा लेश मात्र भी नहीं है। अपाहिज से यह बार-बार कहना कि वह अपने दुख के बारे में जल्दी-जल्दी बताएँ, नहीं तो वह इस अवसर को खो देगा; क्रूरता ही है।

प्रश्न 3. हम समर्थ शक्तिमान और हम एक दुर्बल को लाएँगे- पंक्ति के माध्यम से कवि ने क्या व्यंग्य किया है?

‘हम समर्थ शक्तिमान’ के माध्यम से कवि ने यह व्यंग्य किया है कि दूरदर्शनकर्मी स्वयं को समर्थ और शक्तिशाली समझते हैं। वह सोचते हैं कि वह किसी को भी ऊपर उठा सकते हैं और किसी को भी नीचे गिरा सकते हैं।

‘हम दुर्बल को लाएँगे’ के माध्यम से कवि ने यह व्यंग्य किया है कि दूरदर्शनकर्मी किसी अपंग व्यक्ति को दूरदर्शन पर्दे पर दिखाकर उसका फायदा उठाने का प्रयास करते हैं। उनके मन में अपाहिज के प्रति न ही सहानुभूति है और न ही वे उसकी सहायता करना चाहते हैं। वे तो केवल एक असहाय व्यक्ति को पर्दे पर दिखाकर धन कमाना चाहते हैं।

प्रश्न 4. यदि शारीरिक रूप से चुनौती का सामना कर रहे व्यक्ति और दर्शक दोनों एक साथ रोने लगेंगे तो उससे प्रश्नकर्ता का कौन सा उद्देश्य पूरा होगा?

यदि अपाहिज और दर्शक एक साथ रोने लगेंगे तो प्रश्न कर्ता को यह लगने लगेगा कि उनका कार्यक्रम सफल रहा क्योंकि उसने अपने कार्यक्रम में करुणा की स्थिति को उत्पन्न कर दिया है। वह यह चाहता है कि अपंग व्यक्ति का दुख दर्द छलक कर दर्शकों के सामने आए और दर्शकों की आँखें नम हो जाए। ऐसा करने से उनका कार्यक्रम लोकप्रिय होगा। उसे खूब वाहवाही मिलेगी और मीडिया को अधिक से अधिक विज्ञापन मिलेंगे। इससे उनकी अच्छी कमाई हो जाएगी।

प्रश्न 5. पर्दे पर वक्त की कीमत है- कहकर कवि ने पूरे साक्षात्कार के प्रति अपना नजरिया किस रूप में रखा है?

पर्दे पर वक्त की कीमत है। इस कथन से कार्यक्रम संचालक की सच्चाई का पता चलता है। उनके लिए कार्यक्रम दिखाने के बदले में मिलने वाले पैसे का महत्त्व है। दूरदर्शन पर एक-एक मिनट में भारी आय होती है। दूरदर्शनकर्मी धन कमाने के लिए ही दुःखियों और अपंगों के दुख को दिखाने का प्रयास करते हैं। कवि यहाँ पर यह व्यंग्य करना चाहता है कि दूरदर्शनकर्मी व्यवसायी लोग हैं। उनके मन में दुखी लोगों के प्रति कोई सहानुभूति नहीं है। पर्दे पर दिखाई जा रही करुणा और वेदना से उन्हें कोई सरोकार नहीं है। उनका एकमात्र लक्ष्य अधिक धन कमाना है और अपने व्यवसाय को चमकाना है।

कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज

(अति महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रश्न)

प्रश्न 1:

कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज कविता के व्यंग्य पर टिप्पणी कीजिए।

उत्तर –

इस कविता में कवि ने मीडिया की ताकत के बारे में बताया है। मीडिया अपने कार्यक्रम के प्रचार में धन कमाने के लिए किसी की करुणा को भी बेच सकता है। वह ऐसे कार्यक्रमों का निर्माण समाज सेवा के नाम पर करता है परंतु उसे इस कार्यव्यापार में न तो अपाहिज से सहानुभूति होती है और न ही उनके मान सम्मान की चिंता। वह सिर्फ अपने कार्यक्रम को रोधक बनाना जानता है। रोधक बनाने के लिए वह ऊट-पटांग प्रश्न पूछता है और पीड़ित की पीड़ा को बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर बताता है।

प्रश्न : 2

कैमरे में बद अपाहिज’ कविता को आप करुणा की कविता मानते हैं या क्रूरता की? तकसम्मत उत्तर दीजिए।

उत्तर –

इस कविता को हम कुरता की कविता मानते हैं। यह कविता मीडिया के व्यापार व कार्यशैली पर व्यंग्य करती है। दूरदर्शन कमजोर व अशक्त वर्ग के दुख को बढ़ा चढ़ाकर समाज के सामने प्रस्तुत करता है। वह कमजोर वर्ग की सहायता नहीं करता, अपितु अपने कार्यक्रम के जरिये वह सायं को समाज-हितैषी सिद्ध करना चाहता है। अतः यह कविता पूर्णतः मीडिया की क्रूर मानसिकता को दर्शाती है।

प्रश्न 3:

कार्यक्रम को सफल बनाने के लिए प्रश्नकत की मानसिकता कैसी होती हैं?

उत्तर –

कार्यक्रम को सफल बनाने के लिए प्रश्नकर्ता की मानसिकता अपाहिज को रुलाने की होती है। वह सोचता है कि अपंग के साथ-साथ यदि दर्शक भी रोने लगेंगे तो उनकी सहानुभूति चैनल को मिल जाएगी। इससे उसे धन व प्रसिद्ध का लाभ मिलेगा।

प्रश्न 4:

यह अवसर खो देंगे?’ पक्ति का क्या तात्पर हैं?

उत्तर –

प्रश्नकर्ता विकलांग से तरह-तरह के प्रश्न करता है। वह उससे पूछता है कि आपको अपाहिज होकर कैसा लगता है? ऐसे प्रश्नों के उत्तर भकता को तुरंत चाहिए। यह दिव्यांग के लिए सुनहरा अवसर है कि वह अपनी पीड़ा को समाज के सम५५ व्यक्त करे। ऐसा करने से से लोगों की सहानुभूति व सहायता मिल सकती है। यह पंक्ति मीडिया की कार्यशैली व व्यापारिक मानसिकता पर करारा व्यंग्य है।

प्रश्न : 5

दूरदर्शन वाले कैमरे के सामने कमजोर को ही क्यों लाते हैं।

उत्तर –

दूरदर्शन वाले जानते हैं कि समाज में कमजोर व अशक्त लोगों के प्रति करुणा का भाव होता है। लोग दूसरे के दुख के बारे में जानना चाहते हैं। दूरदर्शन वाले इसी भावना का फायदा उठाना चाहते हैं तथा अपने लाभ के लिए ऐसे कार्यक्रम बनाते हैं।

प्रश्न 6

अपाहिज अपने दुख के बारे में क्यों नहीं बता पाता?

उत्तर –

प्रश्नकर्ता अपाहिज से उसके विकलांगपन व उससे संबंधित कों के बारे में बार-बार पूछता है, परंतु अपाहिज उनके उत्तर नहीं दे पाता। वास्तविकता यह है कि उसे अपाहिजपन से उतना कष्ट नहीं है जितना उसके कष्ट को बढ़ाचढ़ाकर बताया जाता है। प्रश्नकर्ता के प्रश्न भी अस्पष्ट होते हैं तथा जितनी शीघ्रता से प्रश्नकर्ता जवाब चाहता है, उतनी तीव्र मानसिकता अपाहिज की नहीं है। उसने इस कमी को स्वीकार कर लिया है लेकिन वह अपना प्रदर्शन नहीं करना चाहता।

प्रश्न 7:

कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज’ शीर्धक की उपयुक्तता सिद्ध कीजिए।

उत्तर –

यह शीर्षक कैमरे में बंद यानी कैमरे के सामने लाचार व बेबस अपाहिज की मनोदशा का सार्थक प्रतिनिधित्व करता है। वस्तुतः यह दूरदर्शन के कार्यक्रम संचालकों की मानसिकता पर व्यंग्य है। कार्यक्रम बनाने वाले अपने लाभ के लिए अपाहिज को भी प्रदर्शन की वस्तु बना देते हैं। वे दूसरे की पीड़ा बेचकर धन कमाते हैं। अतः यह शीर्षक सर्वथा उपयुक्त है।

प्रश्न 8:

वैमरे में बद अपाहिज’ कविता के प्रतिपाद्य के विषय में अपनी प्रतिक्रिया प्रस्तुत कीजिए।

उत्तर –

कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज’ कविता में शारीरिक अक्षमता की पीड़ा झेल रहे व्यक्ति की पीड़ा को जिस अमानवीय ढंग से दर्शकों तक पहुँचाया जाता है वह कार्यक्रम के निर्माता और प्रस्तोता की संवदेनहीनता की पराकाष्ठा है। वे पीड़ित व्यक्ति की भावनाओं को ठेस पहुँचाते हुए उसे बेधने का प्रयास करते हुए दिखाई देते हैं। यहाँ भी उनकी पैसा कमाने की सोच दिखती है, जो उनी मानवता के पर हावी हो चुकी हैं।

प्रश्न : 9

प्रश्नकर्ता अपाहिज की कूली हुई आँखों की तसवीर बड़ी क्यों दिखाना चाहता हैं?

उत्तर –

प्रश्नकर्ता अपाहिज की फूली हुई आँखों की तस्वीर इसलिए दिखाना चाहता है ताकि दर्शक इसके दुख से दुखी हों। दर्शकों के मन में उसके प्रति सहानुभूति उत्पन्न हो सके। ऐसे में शायद दर्शकों की आँखों में आँसू भी आ जाएँ जिससे उसका कार्यक्रम लोकप्रिय हो जाए। अतः वह दिव्यांग के दुख को बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर दिखाना चाहता है।

प्रश्न 10:

कैमरे में बद अपाहिज कविता कुछ लोगों की संवेदनहीनता प्रकट करती हैं, कैसे?

उत्तर –

वैमरे में बंद अपाहिज’ कविता कुछ लोगों की संवेदनहीनता इसलिए प्रकट करती है क्योंकि ऐसे लोग धन कमाने एवं अपने कार्यक्रम के प्रचार-प्रसार के लिए दूसरों की भावनाओं को ठेस पहुँचाते हैं और किसी की करुणा बेचकर अपनी आय बढ़ाना चाहते हैं। ऐसे लोग अपाहिजों से सहानुभूति नहीं रखते बल्कि वे अपने कार्यक्रम को रोचक बनाने के लिए उलटे-सीधे प्रश्न पूछते हैं।

कैमरे में बंद अपाहिज

(पठित काव्यांश)

निम्नलिखित काव्यांशों को ध्यानपूर्वक पढ़कर नीचे दिए प्रश्नों के उत्तर दीजिए-

प्रश्न 1.

हम दूरदर्शन पर बोलेंगे

हम् समर्थ शक्तिवान

हम एक दुर्बल को लाएँगे

एक बंद कमरे में

उससे पूडेंगे तो आप क्या अपाहिज हैं।

तो आप क्यों अपाहिज हैं।

आपका अपाहिजपन तो दुख देता होगा

देता है।

(कैमरा दिखाओ इसे बड़ा-अड़

हाँ तो बताइए आपका दुख क्या हैं।

जल्दी बताइए वह दुख बताइए

बता नहीं पाएगा।

प्रश्न

(क) हम दूरदर्शन पर बोलेंगे में आए ‘हम’ शब्द से क्या तात्पर्य हैं?

(ख) हम अपाहिज से क्या प्रश्न पूछेगा?

(ग) प्रश्न पूछने वाला अपने उद्देश्य में कितना सफल हो पाता हैं और क्यों?

(घ) प्रश्नकर्ता कैमरे वाले को क्या निर्देश देता है और क्यों?

उत्तर –

(क) दूरदर्शन पर हम बोलेगा कि हम शक्तिशाली हैं तथा अब हम किसी कमजोर का साक्षात्कार लेगे। यहाँ हम’ समाज का ताकतवर मीडिया है।

(ख) जिसैतापूण-क्या आ अहित है?आपाअर्जिकइस आकबहताहण? आपाक दुख क्या है?

(ग) अपाहिज से पूछे गए प्रश्न बेतुके व निरर्थक हैं। ये अपाहिज के वजूद को झकझोरते हैं तथा उसके स्वाभिमान को ठेस पहुँचाते हैं। फलस्वरूप वह चुप हो जाता है। इस प्रकार प्रश्न पूछने वाला अपने उद्देश्य में सफल नहीं हो पाता। उसकी असफलता का कारण यह है कि उसे अपंग व्यक्ति की व्यथा से कोई वास्ता नहीं है। वह तो अपने कार्यक्रम की लोकप्रियता बढ़ाना चाहता है।

(घ) प्रश्नकर्ता कैमरे वाले को अपंग की तस्वीर बड़ी करके दिखाने के लिए कहता है ताकि आम जनता की सहानुभूति उस व्यक्ति के साथ हो जाए और कार्यक्रम लोकप्रिय हो सके।

प्रश्न 2.

सोचिए

बताइए

आपको अपाहिज होकर कैसा लगता है।

वैसा

यानी कैसा लगता हैं।

(हम खुद इशारे से बताएँगे कि क्या ऐसा

सोचिए

बताइए

थोड़ी कोशिश करिए

यह अवसर खो देंगे?

आप जानते हैं कि कायक्रम रोचक बनाने के वास्ते

हम पूल पूछकर उसको रुला देंगे

इंतजार करते हैं आप भी उसके रो पड़ने का

करते हैं?

प्रश्न

(क) कवि ने दूरदर्शन के कार्यक्रम-संचालकों को किस मानसिकता को उजागर किया हैं?

(ख) संचालकों द्वारा अपाहिज को संकेत में बताने का उद्देश्य क्या हैं?

(ग) दर्शकों की मानसिकता क्या है।

(घ) दूरदर्शन वाले किस अवसर की प्रतीक्षा में रहते हैं?

उत्तर –

(क) कवि ने दूरदर्शन के कार्यक्रम संचालकों की व्यावसायिकता पर करारा व्यंग्य किया है। वे अपाहिज के कष्ट को कम करने की बजाय उसे बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर बताते हैं। वे क्रूरता की तमाम हदें पार कर जाते हैं।

(ख) संचालक संकेत द्वारा अपाहिज को बताते हैं कि वह अपना दर्द इस प्रकार बताए जैसा वे चाहते हैं। यहाँ दर्द किसी का है और उसे अभिव्यक्त करने का तरीका कोई और बता रहा है। किसी भी तरह उन्हें अपना कार्यक्रम रोचक बनाना है। यहीं उनका एकमात्र उद्देश्य है।

(ग) दर्शकों की मानसिकता है कि वे किसी की पीड़ा के चरन रूप का आनंद लेते हैं। वे भी संवेदनहीन हो गए हैं क्योंकि उन्हें भी अपंग व्यक्ति के रोने का इंतजार रहता है।

(घ) दूरदर्शन वाले इस अवसर की प्रतीक्षा में रहते हैं कि उनके सवालों से सामने बैठा अपाहिजरो पड़े, ताकि उनका कार्यक्रम रोचक बन सकें।

प्रश्न 3.

फिर हम परदे पर दिखलाएँगे

फूली हुई आँख की एक बड़ी तसवीर

बहुत बड़ी तसवीर

और उसके होंठों पर एक कसमसाहट भी

आशा है आप उसे उसकी अपगता की पीड़ा मानेंगे,

एक और कोशिश

दकि

चीज़ रञ्जिए

देखिए

हमें दोनों को एक संग रुलाने हैं।

आप और वह दोनों

कैमरा

इस को

नही हुआ

रहने दो

परदे पर वक्त की कीमत है,

अब मुसकराएंगे हम

आप देख रहे थे सामाजिक उद्देश्य से युक्त कार्यक्रम

(बस थोड़ी ही कसर रह गई।)

धन्यवाद

प्रश्न

(क) कार्यक्रम संचालक परदे पर फूली हुई आँख की तसवीर क्यों दिखाना चाहता हैं?

(ख) एक और कोशिश’ इस पंक्ति का वया तात्पर्य है?

(ग) कार्यक्रम-संचालक दोनों को एक साथ रुलाना चाहता है, क्यों?

(घ) संचालक किस बात पर मुस्कराता हैं? उसकी मुस्कराहट में क्या छिपा हैं।

उत्तर –

(क) कार्यक्रम संचालक परदे पर पूली हुई आँख की बड़ी तसवीर इसलिए दिखाना चाहता है ताकि वह लोगों को इसके कष्ट के बारे में बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर बता सके। इससे जहाँ कार्यक्रम प्रभावी बनेगा, वहीं संचालक का वास्तविक उद्देश्य भी पूरा होगा।

(ख) एक और कोशिश’ कैमरामैन व कार्यक्रम संचालक कर रहे हैं। वे अपाहिज को रोती मुद्रा में दिखाकर अपने कार्यक्रम की लोकप्रियता बढ़ाना चाहते हैं, इस प्रकार वे अपाहिज से मनमाना व्यवहार करवाना चाहते हैं, जिसमें वे अभी तक सफल नहीं हो पाए।

(ग) कार्यक्रम संचालक अपाहिज व दर्शकों-दोनों को एक साथ रुलाना चाहता था। ऐसा करने से उसके कार्यक्रम का सामाजिक उद्देश्य पूरा हो जाता तथा कार्यक्रम भी रोचक व लोकप्रिय हो जाता।

(घ) संचालक कार्यक्रम खत्म होने पर मुस्कराता है। उसे अपने कार्यक्रम के सफल होने की खुशी है। उसे अपाहिज की पीड़ा से कुछ लेना-देना नहीं। इस मुस्कराहट में मीडिया की संवेदनहीनता छिपी है। इसमें पीड़ित के प्रति सहानुभूति नहीं, बल्कि अपने व्यापार की सफलता छिपी है।

कविता के बहाने, बात सीधी थी पर Class 12 Hindi Aroh NCERT Books Solutions

कविता के बहाने, बात सीधी थी पर

(अभ्यास-प्रश्न)

प्रश्न 1. इस कविता के बहाने बताएँ कि ‘सब घर एक कर देने के माने’ क्या है?

सब घर एक कर देने का तात्पर्य है कि आपसी भेदभाव तथा ऊँच नीच के भेद को समाप्त कर देना और एक दूसरे के प्रति आत्मीयता का अनुभव करना। गली मोहल्ले में खेलते हुए बच्चे अपने-पराए के भेद को भूल जाते हैं। अन्य घरों को अपने घर जैसा मानने लगते हैं। इस प्रकार कवि भी काव्य रचना करते समय सामाजिक भेदभाव को भूलकर कविता के माध्यम से अपनी बात कहता है।

प्रश्न 2. ‘उड़ने’ और ‘खिलने’ का कविता से क्या संबंध बनता है?

‘उड़ने’ और ‘खिलने’ से कवि का गहरा संबंध है। कवि कल्पना की उड़ान द्वारा नए-नए भावों की अभिव्यंजना करता है परंतु कविता की उड़ान पक्षियों की उड़ान से अधिक ऊँची होती है। उसकी उड़ान अनंत तथा असीम होती है। जिस प्रकार फूल खिलकर अपनी सुगंध और रंग को चारों ओर फैलाता है। उसी प्रकार कवि भी अपनी कविता के भावों के आनंद को सभी पाठकों में बाँटता है। कवि की कविता सभी पाठकों को आनंद-अनुभूति प्रदान करती है।

प्रश्न 3. कविता और बच्चों को समानांतर रखने के क्या कारण हो सकते हैं?

कवि कल्पना के संसार की सृष्टि करके आनंद प्राप्त करता है और बच्चे आनंद प्राप्त करने के लिए खेलते हैं। खेलते समय सभी बच्चे छोटे बड़े तथा अपने पराए के भेद को भूल जाते हैं। कवि भी भेदभाव को भूलकर सब के कल्याण के लिए कविता की रचना करता है। खेल खेलते समय बच्चों का संसार बड़ा हो जाता है और साहित्य रचना करते समय कवि का। इसलिए कविता और बच्चों को समानांतर रखा गया है।

प्रश्न 4. कविता के संदर्भ में ‘बिना मुरझाए महकने के माने’ क्या होते हैं?

फूल कुछ समय अपनी सुगंध और रंग का सौंदर्य बिखेरता है। फिर वह मुरझा जाता है। उसकी कोमल पत्तियाँ सूख कर बिखर जाती है। लेकिन कविता एक ऐसा फूल है जो कभी नहीं मुरझाता। कविता की महक अनंत काल तक पाठकों को आनंद-विभोर करती रहती है। हम हजारों साल पूर्व रचे गए साहित्य का आनंद आज भी ले सकते हैं।

प्रश्न 5. ‘भाषा को सहूलियत’ से बरतने का क्या अभिप्राय है?

भाषा को सहूलियत से बरतने का अभिप्राय है- सहज, सरल तथा बोधगम्य भाषा का प्रयोग करना ताकि श्रोता भावाभिव्यक्ति को आसानी से ग्रहण कर सके। कवि को कृत्रिम तथा चमत्कृत करने वाली भाषा से बचना चाहिए। सरल बात सरल भाषा में कहीं गई ही अच्छी लगती है।

प्रश्न 6. बात और भाषा परस्पर जुड़े होते हैं, किंतु कभी-कभी भाषा के चक्कर में सीधी बात भी टेढ़ी हो जाती है। कैसे?

बात और भाषा का गहरा संबंध होता है। मानव अपने मन की भावनाएँ शब्दों के द्वारा ही व्यक्त करता है। यदि हम अपनी अनुभूति को सहज और सरल भाषा में व्यक्त करते हैं तो किसी प्रकार की बाधा उत्पन्न नहीं होती। परंतु कवि प्रायः अपनी बात को कहने के लिए सुंदर और चमत्कृत करने वाली भाषा का प्रयोग करने लगता है। कवि जो कुछ कहना चाहते हैं, ठीक से कह नहीं पाते। जिससे उनकी कविता के भाव अस्पष्ट होकर रह जाते हैं।

प्रश्न 7. बात (कथ्य) के लिए नीचे दी गई विशेषताओं का उचित बिंबो/मुहावरों से मिलान करें।

कविता के बहाने

(अति महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रश्न)

प्रश्न 1:

‘कविता के बहाने कविता का प्रतिपाद्य बताइए।

उत्तर –

कविता एक यात्रा है जो चिड़िया, फूल से लेकर बच्चे तक की है। एक ओर प्रकृति है दूसरी ओर भविष्य की ओर कदम बढ़ाता बच्चा। कवि कहता है कि चिड़िया की उड़ान की सीमा है, फूल के खिलने के साथ उसकी परिणति निश्चित है, लेकिन बच्चे के सपने असीम हैं। बच्चों के खेल में किसी प्रकार की सीमा का कोई स्थान नहीं होता। कविता भी शब्दों का खेल है और शब्दों के इस खेल में जड़, चेतन, अतीत, वर्तमान और भविष्य सभी उपकरण मात्र हैं। इसीलिए जहाँ कहीं रचनात्मक ऊर्जा होगी, वहाँ सीमाओं के बंधन खुद ब खुद टूट जाएँगे। वह सीमा चाहे घर की हो, भाषा की हो या समय की ही क्यों न हो।

प्रश्न 2:

“कविता के बहाने कविता के कवि की क्या अश्याका हैं और क्यों?

उत्तर –

इस कविता में कवि को कविता के अस्तित्व के बारे में संदेह है। उसे आशंका है कि औद्योगीकरण के कारण मनुष्य यांत्रिक होता जा रहा है। उसके पास भावनाएँ व्यक्त करने या सुनने का समय नहीं है। प्रगति की अंधी दौड़ से मानव की कोमल भावनाएँ समाप्त होती जा रही हैं। अत कवि को कविता का अस्तित्व खतरे में दिखाई दे रहा है।

प्रश्न 3:

फूल और चिड़िया को कविता की क्या-क्या जानकारियाँ नहीं हैं। ‘कविता के बहाने’ कविता के आधार पर बताइए।

उत्तर –

फूल और चिड़िया को कविता की निम्नलिखित जानकारियाँ नहीं हैं।

1. फूल को कविता के खिलने का पता नहीं है। फूल एक समयावधि में मुरझा जाते हैं, परंतु कविता के भाव सदा खुशबू बिखेरते रहती है।

2. विक कविताक उनक पता नाह है कवता मेंजना कल्याणक डनहेज विड़याक उनसे व्यापक हैं।

प्रश्न 4;

‘कविता के बहाने के आधार पर कविता के असीमित अस्तित्व को स्पष्ट कीजिए।

उत्तर =

‘कविता के बहाने में कविता का असीमित अस्तित्व प्रकट करने के लिए कवि ने चिड़िया की उड़ान का उदाहरण दिया है। वह कहता है कि चिड़िया की उड़ान सीमित होती है किंतु कविता की कल्पना का दायरा असीमित होता है। चिड़िया घर के अंदर-बाहर या एक घर से दूसरे घर तक उड़ती है, परंतु कविता की उड़ान व्यापक होती है। कवि के भावों की कोई सीमा नहीं है। कविता घर घर की कहानी कहती है। वह पंख लगाकर हर जगह उड़ सकती है। उसकी उड़ान चिड़िया की उड़ान से कहीं आगे है।

बात सीधी थी पर …

(अति महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रश्न)

प्रश्न 1:

‘बात सीधी थी पर का प्रतिपाद्य स्पष्ट कीजिए।

अथवा

‘बात सीधी थी पर… कविता का संदेश स्पष्ट कीजिए।

उत्तर –

इस कविता में कवि ने कथ्य और माध्यम के द्वंद्व को उकेरा है तथा भाषा की सहजता की बात कही है। हर बात के लिए कुछ खास शब्द नियत होते हैं, ठीक वैसे ही जैसे हर पेंच के लिए एक निश्चित खाँचा होता है। अब तक हम जिन शब्दों को एक-दूसरे के पर्याय के रूप में जानते रहे हैं, उन सबके भी अपने विशेष अर्थ होते हैं। अच्छी बात या अच्छी कविता का बनना सही बात का सही शब्द से जुड़ना होता है। और जब ऐसा होता है तो किसी दबाव या मेहनत की जरूरत नहीं होती, वह सहूलियत के साथ हो जाता है।

प्रश्न 2:

कवि के अनुसार कोई बात पेचीदा कैसे हो जाती हैं?

उत्तर –

कवि कहता है कि जब अपनी बात को सहज रूप से न कहकर तोड़-मरोड़कर या घुमा-फिराकर कहने का प्रयास किया जाता है तो बात । उलझती चली जाती है। ऐसी बातों के अर्थ श्रोता या पाठक समझ नहीं पाता। वह मनोरंजन ती पा सकता है, परंतु कवि के भावों को समझने में असमर्थ होता है। इस तरीके से बात पेचीदा हो जाती है।

प्रश्न 3:

प्रशंसा का व्यक्ति पर क्या प्रभाव पड़ता हैं? बात सीधी थी पर’ ‘कविता के आधार पर बताइए।

उत्तर –

प्रशंसा से व्यक्ति स्वयं को सही व उच्च कोटि का मानने लगता है। वह गलत-सही का निर्णय नहीं कर पाता। उसका विवेक कुंठित हो जाता है। कविता में प्रशंसा मिलने के कारण कवि अपनी सहज बात को शब्दों के जाल में उलझा देता है। फलतः उसके भाव जनता तक नहीं पहुँच पाते।

प्रश्न 4;

कवि को पसीना अाने का क्या कारण था?

उत्तर –

कवि अपनी बात को प्रभावशाली भाषा में कहना चाहता था। इस चक्कर में वह अपने लक्ष्य से भटककर शब्दों के आडंबर में उलझ गया। भ#2366;षा के चक्कर से वह अपनी बात को निकालने की कोशिश करता है, परंतु वह नाकाम रहता है। बार बार कोशिश करने के कारण उसे पसीना आ जाता है।

प्रश्न 5

कवि ने कथ्य को महत्व दिया है अथवा भाषा को ‘बात सीधी थी पर” के आधार पर तक सम्मत उत्तर दीजिए।

उत्तर –

‘बात सीधी थी पर कविता में कवि ने कथ्य को महत्व दिया है। इसका कारण यह है कि सीधी और सरल बात को कहने के लिए जब कवि ने चमत्कारिक भाषा में कहना चाहा तो भाषा के चक्कर में भावों की सुंदरता नष्ट हो गई। भाषा के उलट-फेर में पड़ने के कारण उसका कथ्य भी जटिल होता गया।”

प्रश्न 6:

‘बात सीधी थी पर” कविता में भाषा के विषय में व्यग्य करके कवि क्या सिद्ध करना चाहता है?

उत्तर –

‘बात सीधी थी पर ” कविता में कवि ने भाषा के विषय में व्यंग्य करके यह सिद्ध करना चाहा है कि लोग किसी बात को कहने के क्रम में । भाषा को सीधे, सरल और सहज शब्दों में न कहकर तोड़ मरोड़कर, उलटपलटकर, शब्दों को घुमा फिराकर कहते हैं, जिससे भाषा क्लिष्ट होती जाती है और बात बनने की बजाय बिगड़ती और उलझली चली जाती है। इससे हमारा कथ्य और भी जटिल होता जाता है क्योंकि बात सरल बनने की जगह पेचीदी बन जाती है।

कविता के बहाने

(पठित काव्यांश)

निम्नलिखित काव्यांशों को ध्यानपूर्वक पढ़कर नीचे दिए प्रश्नों के उत्तर दीजिए

प्रश्न 1.

कविता एक उड़ान हैं चिड़िया के बहाने

कविता की उड़ान भला चिडिया क्या जाने

बाहर भीतर

इस धर उस घर

कविता के पंख लया उड़ने के माने

चिडिया क्या जाने?

प्रश्न

(क) ‘कविता एक उड़ान हैं चिड़िया के बहाने-पक्ति का भाव बताइए।

(ख) कविता कहाँ कहाँ उड़ सकती हैं?

(ग) कविता की उड़ान व चिडिया की उडान में क्या अंतर हैं?

(घ) कविता के पंख लगाकर कौन उड़ता है।

उत्तर –

(क) इस पंक्ति का अर्थ यह है कि चिड़िया को उड़ते देखकर कवि की कल्पना भी ऊँची ऊँची उड़ान भरने लगती है। वह रचना करते समय कल्पना की उड़ान भरता है।

(ख) कविता पंख लगाकर मानव के आंतरिक व बाहय रूप में उड़ान भरती है। वह एक घर से दूसरे घर तक उड़ सकती है।

(ग) चिड़िया की उड़ान एक सीमा तक होती है, परंतु कविता की उड़ान व्यापक होती है। चिड़िया कब्रिता की उड़ान को नहीं जान सकती।

(घ) कविता के पंख लगाकर कवि उड़ता है। वह इसके सहारे मानव-मन व समाज की भावनाओं को अभिव्यक्ति देता है।

प्रश्न 2.

कविता एक खिलना हैं फूलों के बहाने

कविता का खिलना भला कूल क्या जाने

बाहर भीतर

इस पर उस घर

बिना मुरझाए महकने के माने

फूल क्या जाने

प्रश्न

(क) कविता एक खिलन हैं, फूलों के बहाने ऐसा क्यों?

(ख) कविता रचने और फूल खिलने में क्या साम्यता हैं?

(ग) बिना मुरझाए कौन कहाँ महकता हैं।

(घ) ‘कविता का खिलना भला कूल क्या जाने। ‘-पंक्ति का आशय स्पष्ट कीजिए।

उत्तर –

(क) कविता फूलों के बहाने खिलना है क्योंकि फूलों को देखकर कवि का मन प्रसन्न हो जाता है। उसके मन में कविता फूलों की भॉति विकसित होती जाती है।

(ख) जिस प्रकार पूल पराग, मधु व सुगंध के साथ खिलता है, उसी प्रकार कविता भी मन के भावों को लेकर रची जाती है।

(ग) बिना मुरझाए कविता हर जगह महका करती है। यह अनंतकाल तक सुगंध फैलाती हैं।

(घ) इस पंक्ति का आशय यह है कि फूल के खिलने व मुरझाने की सीमा है, परंतु कविता शाश्वत है। उसका महत्त्व फूल से अधिक है।

प्रश्न 3.

कविता एक खेल हैं बच्चों के बहाने

बाहर भीतर

यह घर रह घर

न घर एक कर देने के माने

बच्चा ही जाने।

प्रश्न

(क) कविता को क्या संज्ञा दी गई हैं? क्यों?

(ख) कविता और बच्चों के खेल में क्या समानता हैं?

(ग) कविता की कौन-कौन-सी विशेषताएँ बताई गई हैं।

(घ) बच्चा कौन-सा बहाना जानता है?

उत्तर –

(क) कविता को खेल की संज्ञा दी गई है। जिस प्रकार खेल का उद्देश्य मनोरंजन व आत्मसंतुष्टि होता है, उसी प्रकार कविता भी शब्दों के माध्यम से मनोरंजन करती है तथा रचनाकार को संतुष्टि प्रदान करती है।

(ख) बच्चे कहीं भी, कभी भी खेल खेलने लगते हैं। इस तरह कविता कहीं भी प्रकट हो सकती है। दोनों कभी कोई बंधन नहीं स्वीकारते।

(ग) कविता की निम्नलिखित विशेषताएँ हैं

1. यह सर्वव्यापक होती है।

2. इसमें रचनात्मक ऊर्जा होती है।

3. यह खेल के समान होती है।

(घ) बच्चा सभी घरों को एक समान करने के बहाने जानता है।

बात सीधी थी पर …

(पठित काव्यांश)

प्रश्न 1.

बात सीधी थी पर एक बार

भाषा के चक्कर में

जरा टेडी कैंस गई।

उसे पाने की कोशिश में

भाषा की उलट-पालट

तोडा मरोड़ा

घुमाया फिराया

कि बात या तो अने

या फिर भाषा से बाहर आए

लेकिन इससे भाषा के साथ साथ

बात और भी पेचीदा होती चली गई।

प्रश्न

(क) ‘भाषा के चक्कर का तात्पय बताइए।

(ख) कवि अपनी बात के बारे में क्या बताता है?

(ग) कवि ने बात को पाने के चक्कर में क्या-क्या किया?

(घ) कवि की असफलता का क्या कारण था?

उत्तर –

(क) ‘भाषा के चक्कर से तात्पर्य है भाषा को जबरदस्ती अलंकृत करना।

(ख) कवि कहता है कि उसकी बात साधारण थी, परंतु वह भाषा के चक्कर में उलझकर जटिल हो गई।

(ग) कवि ने बात को प्राप्त करने के लिए भाषा को घुमाया-फिराया, उलट-पलटा, तोड़-मरोड़ा। फलस्वरूप वह बात पेचीदा हो गई।

(घ) कवि ने अपनी बात को कहने के लिए भाषा को जटिल व अलंकारिक बनाने की कोशिश की। इस कारण बात अपनी सहजता खो बैठी और वह पेचीदा हो गई।

प्रश्न 2.

सारी मुश्किल को धैर्य से समझे बिना

में फेंच को खोलने की बजाय

उसे बेतरह कसता चला जा रहा था

क्योंकि इस करतब पर मुझे

साफ सुनाई दे रही थी

तमाशबीनों की शाबाशी और वाह वाह!

प्रश्न

(क) कवि की क्या कमी थी।

(ख) पेंच को खोलने की बजाय कसना-पक्ति का अर्थ स्पष्ट करें।

(ग) कवि ने अपने किस काय को करतब कहा है?

(घ) कवि के करतब का क्या परिणाम हुआ?

उत्तर –

(क) कवि ने अपनी समस्या को ध्यान से नहीं समझा। वह धैर्य खो बैठा।

(ख) इसका अर्थ यह है कि उसने बात को स्पष्ट नहीं किया। इसके विपरीत, वह शब्दजाल में उलझता गया।

(ग) कवि ने अभिव्यक्ति को बिना सोचे समझे उलझाने व कठिन बनाने को करतब कहा है।

(घ) कवि ने भाषा को जितना ही बनावटी ढंग और शब्दों के जाल में उलझाकर लाग-लपेट करने वाले शब्दों में कहा, सुनने वालों द्वारा उसे उतनी ही शाबाशी मिली।

प्रश्न 3.

आखिरकार वही हुआ जिसका मुझे डर था

जोर जबरदस्ती से

बात की चूडी मर गई।

और वह भाषा में बेकार चूमने लगी

हारकर मैंने उसे कील की तरह

उसी जगह ठोंक दिया!

ऊपर से ठीकठाक

परअंदर से

न तो उसमें कसाव था

बात ने जो एक शरारती बच्चे की तरह

मुझसे खेल रही थी

मुझे पसीना पोंछते देखकर पूछा-

क्या तुमने भाषा को

सहुलियत से अतना कभी नहीं सीखा

प्रश्न

(क) बात की चूड़ी मर जाने और बेकार घूमने के माध्यम से कवि क्या कहना चाहता हैं?

(ख) काव्यांश में प्रयुक्त दोन आयामों के प्रयोग सौंदर्य पर टिप्पणी कीजिए।

(ग) भाष को सहूलियत से बरतने का क्या अभिप्राय हैं?

(घ) बात ने कवि से क्या पूछा तथा क्यों?

उत्तर –

(क) जब हम पेंच को जबरदस्ती कसते चले जाते हैं तो वह अपनी चूड़ी खो बैठता है तथा स्वतंत्र रूप से घूमने लगता है। इसी तरह जब किसी बात में जबरदस्ती शब्द ढूंसे जाते हैं तो वह अपना प्रभाव खो बैठती है तथा शब्दों के जाल में उलझकर रह जाती है।

(ख) बात के उपेक्षित प्रभाव के लिए कवि ने पेंच और कील की उपमा दी है। इन शब्दों के माध्यम से कवि कहना चाहता है कि निरर्थक व अलंकारिक शब्दों के प्रयोग से बात शब्द-जाल में घूमती रहती है। उसका प्रभाव नष्ट हो जाता है।

(ग) भाषा को सहूलियत से बरतने का अभिप्राय यह है कि व्यक्ति को अपनी अभिव्यक्ति सहज तरीके से करनी चाहिए। शब्द-जाल में उलझने से बात का प्रभाव समाप्त हो जाता है और केवल शब्दों की कारीगरी रह जाती है।

(घ) बात ने शरारती बच्चे के समान कवि से पूछा कि क्या उसने भाषा के सरल, सहज प्रयोग को नहीं सीखा। इसका कारण यह था कि कवि ने भाषा के साथ जोर-जबरदस्ती की थी।

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Hindi Aroh Chapter 2 पतंग

पाठ्यपुस्तक के प्रश्न-अभ्यास

कविता के साथ

प्रश्न 1.
सबसे तेज़ बौछारें गयीं, भादो गया’ के बाद प्रकृति में जो परिवर्तन कवि ने दिखाया है, उसका वर्णन अपने शब्दों में करें।
उत्तर:
प्रकृति में परिवर्तन निरंतर होता रहता है। जब तेज़ बौछारें अर्थात् बरसात का मौसम चला गया, भादों के महीने की गरमी भी चली गई। इसके बाद आश्विन का महीना शुरू हो जाता है। इस महीने में प्रकृति में अनेक परिर्वन आते हैं –

1. सुबह के सूरज की लालिमा बढ़ जाती है। सुबह के सूरज की लाली खरगोश की आँखों जैसी दिखती है।
2. शरद ऋतु का आगमन हो जाता है। गरमी समाप्त हो जाती है।
3. प्रकृति खिली-खिली दिखाई देती है।
4. आसमान नीला व साफ़ दिखाई देता है।
5. फूलों पर तितलियाँ मँडराती दिखाई देती हैं।
6. सभी लोग खुले मौसम में आनंदित हो रहे हैं।

प्रश्न 2.
सोचकर बताएँ कि पतंग के लिए सबसे हलकी और रंगीन चीज़, सबसे पतला कागज़, सबसे पतली कमानी जैसे विशेषणों का प्रयोग क्यों किया है?
उत्तर:
कवि ने पतंग के लिए अनेक विशेषणों का प्रयोग किया है। पतंग का निर्माण रंगीन कागज़ से होता है। इंद्रधनुष के समान यह अनेक रंगों की होती है। इसका कागज़ इतना पतला होता है कि बूंद लगते ही फट जाता है। यह बाँस की पतली कमानी से बनती है। कवि इनके माध्यम से बाल सुलभ चेष्टाओं का अंकन करता है। पतंग भी बालमन की तरह कल्पनाशील, कोमल व हलकी होती है।

प्रश्न 3.
बिंब स्पष्ट करें –

सबसे तेज़ बौछारें गयीं भादो गया सवेरा हुआ। खरगोश की आँखों जैसा लाल सवेरा शरद आया पुलों को पार करते हुए। अपनी नयी चमकीली साइकिल तेज़ चलाते हुए

घंटी बजाते हुए ज़ोर-जोर से चमकीले इशारों से बुलाते हुए और आकाश को इतना मुलायम बनाते हुए कि पतंग ऊपर उठ सके।

उत्तर:
कवि ने इस कविता में दृश्य बिंब का सार्थक व स्वाभाविक प्रयोग किया है। उन्होंने बच्चों के भावानुरूप बिंब का प्रयोग किया है। पाठक भी कवि की संवेदनाओं को शीघ्र ग्रहण कर लेता है। इस अंश के निम्नलिखित बिंब हैं –

• तेज बौछारें – गतिशील दृश्य बिंब
• सवेरा हुआ – स्थिर दृश्य बिंब
• खरगोश की आँखों जैसा लाल सवेरा – स्थिर दृश्य बिंब
• पुलों को पार करते हुए – गतिशील दृश्य बिंब
• अपनी नयी चमकीली साइकिल तेज़ चलाते हुए – गतिशील दृश्य बिंब
• घंटी बजाते हुए जोर – जोर से – श्रव्य बिंब
• चमकीले इशारों से बुलाते हुए – गतिशील दृश्य बिंब
• आकाश को इतना मुलायम बनाते हुए – स्पर्श दृश्य बिंब
• पतंग ऊपर हठ सके – गतिशील दृश्य बिंब

प्रश्न 4.
जन्म से ही वे अपने साथ लाते हैं कपास – कपास के बारे में सोचें कि कपास से बच्चों का क्या संबंध बन सकता है?
उत्तर:
कपास से बच्चों को गहरा संबंध है। दोनों में काफ़ी समानताएँ हैं। कपास जैसे सफ़ेद होती है, वैसे ही बच्चे भी सफ़ेद अर्थात् गोरे होते हैं। कपास की तरह ही बच्चे भी कोमल और मुलायम होते हैं। कपास के रेशे की तरह ही उनकी भावनाएँ। होती हैं। वास्तव में बच्चों की कोमल भावनाओं का और उनकी मासूमियत का प्रतीक है।

प्रश्न 5.
पतंगों के साथ-साथ वे भी उड़ रहे हैं – बच्चों का उड़ान से कैसा संबंध बनता है?
उत्तर:
जिस तरह पतंग ऊपर और ऊपर उड़ती जाती है, ठीक उसी तरह बच्चों की आशाएँ भी बढ़ती जाती हैं। पतंगों के साथ साथ उनकी भावनाएँ भी उड़ती जाती हैं अर्थात् उनके मन में नई-नई इच्छाएँ और उमंगें आती हैं। वे भी आसमान की अनंत ऊँचाई तक पहुँच जाना चाहते हैं ताकि अपनी हर इच्छा पूरी कर सकें।

प्रश्न 6.
निम्नलिखित पंक्तियों को पढ़ कर प्रश्नों का उत्तर दीजिए।
(अ) छतों को भी नरम बनाते हुए
दिशाओं को मृदंग की तरह बजाते हुए ।
(ब) अगर वे कभी गिरते हैं छतों के खतरनाक किनारों से
और बच जाते हैं तब तो
और भी निडर होकर सुनहले सूरज के सामने आते हैं।
1. दिशाओं को मृदंग की तरह बजाने का क्या तात्पर्य है?
2. जब पतंग सामने हो तो छतों पर दौड़ते हुए क्या आपको छत कठोर लगती है ?
3. खतरनाक परिस्थितियों का सामना करने के बाद आप दुनिया की चुनौतियों के सामने स्वयं को कैसा महसूस करते हैं?
उत्तर:

1. दिशाओं को मृदंग की तरह बेजाने का तात्पर्य है कि जब बच्चे ऊँची पतंगें उड़ाते हैं तो वे दिशाओं तक जाती लगती है। तब ऐसा प्रतीत होता है मानो बच्चों की किलकारियों से दिशाएँ मृदंग बजा रही हैं।
2. जब पतंग सामने हो तो छत कठोर नहीं लगती क्योंकि पैरों में अनजानी थिरकन भर जाती है। छत पर दौड़ते हुए। ऐसा लगता है मानो हम किसी मुलायम घास पर दौड़ रहे हों।
3. यदि जीवन में खतरनाक परिस्थितियों का सामना कर लिया हो तो दुनिया की चुनौतियों का सामना करने में कोई कठिनाई नहीं होती। मुझे बहुत सहजता महसूस होती है। खतरनाक परिस्थितियों के आगे दुनिया की चुनौतियाँ स्वयं ही छोटी पड़ जाती है।

कविता के आसपास

प्रश्न 1.
आसमान में रंग-बिरंगी पतंगों को देखकर आपके मन में कैसे खयाल आते हैं? लिखिए।
उत्तर:
आसमान में रंग-बिरंगी पतंगों को देखकर मन खुशी से भर जाता है। मन करता है कि जीवन में भी इतने ही रंग होने चाहिए ताकि जीवन को सहजता से जिया जा सके। सारी इच्छाएँ पूरी हों। जिस प्रकार पतंग अधिक से अधिक ऊँची उड़ती है, वैसे ही मैं भी जीवन में ऊँचा मुकाम हासिल करना चाहता हूँ।

प्रश्न 2.
‘रोमांचित शरीर का संगीत’ का जीवन के लय से क्या संबंध है?
उत्तर:
यदि शरीर रोमांचित है अर्थात् उसमें खुशियाँ भरी हैं तो आनंद रूपी संगीत बजता रहता है। यही आनंद जीवन को नई दिशा देता है। जीवन रूपी लय अपने आप ही सफलता प्राप्त कर लेती है।

प्रश्न 3.
‘महज़ एक धागे के सहारे, पतंगों की धड़कती ऊँचाइयाँ’ उन्हें ( बच्चों को ) कैसे थाम लेती हैं? चर्चा करें।
उत्तर:
बच्चे जब छतों के किनारों से गिरने वाले होते हैं तो पतंग की डोर उन्हें गिरने से बचा लेती है। बच्चों को डोर से भी उतना प्यार होता है जितना की पतंग से। वे पतंग को उड़ते हुए देखते हैं। साथ ही यह भी देखते हैं कि चक्के में डोर कितनी है। इन पतंगों की ऊँचाइयों से बच्चे संभल जाते हैं।

आपकी कविता

प्रश्न 1.
हिंदी साहित्य के विभिन्न कालों में तुलसी, जायसी, मतिराम, विजदेव, मैथिलीशरण गुप्त आदि कवियों ने भी शरद ऋतु का सुंदर वर्णन किया है। आप उन्हें तलाश कर कक्षा में सुनाएँ और चर्चा करें कि पतंग कविता में शरद ऋतु वर्णन उनसे किस प्रकार भिन्न है?
उत्तर:
विद्यार्थी स्वयं करें।

प्रश्न 2.
आपके जीवन में शरद ऋतु क्या मायने रखती है?
उत्तर:
जीवन में प्रत्येक ऋतु का अपना महत्त्व है। समय के अनुसार सभी ऋतुएँ आती हैं और जाती हैं। इनमें से शरद ऋतु का अपना अलग ही महत्त्व है। इस ऋतु में प्रकृति नई-नई लगने लगती है। हर कोई इस प्राकृतिक खूबसूरती का आनंद लेना चाहता है।

अन्य महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्नोत्तर

प्रश्न 1.
‘पतंग’ कविता का प्रतिपाद्य बताइए।
उत्तर:
‘पतंग’ एक लंबी कविता है। इस कविता में कवि ने पतंग के बहाने बाल सुलभ इच्छाओं एवं उमंगों का सुंदर चित्रण किया है। बाल क्रियाकलापों एवं प्रकृति में आए परिवर्तनों को अभिव्यक्त करने के लिए सुंदर बिंबों का उपयोग किया गया है। पतंग बच्चों की उमंगों का रंग-बिरंगा सपना है। आसमान में उड़ती पतंग ऊँचाइयों की वे हदें है जिन्हें बालमन छूना चाहता है और उसके पार जाना चाहता है।

प्रश्न 2.
बच्चे पतंग उड़ाकर कैसा महसूस करते हैं?
उत्तर:
बच्चे पतंग उड़ाकर बहुत खुशी महसूस करते हैं। वे अपनी इच्छाओं को पतंग की तरह विस्तार देते चलते हैं। वे भी चाहते हैं कि उनकी आशाएँ इसी पतंग की तरह विस्तार पाती रहें। बच्चे किसी भी अन्य चीज़ को उस समय महत्त्व नहीं देते।

प्रश्न 3.
कवि ने बच्चों के लिए ‘कपास’ शब्द का प्रयोग किया है, क्यों ?
उत्तर:
कपास मुलायम और सफ़ेद होती है। बच्चे भी कपास की तरह कोमल व गोरे होते हैं। दूसरे कपास परिस्थितिनुसार परिवर्तित होती रहती है। बच्चे भी माहौल के अनुसार अपना व्यवहार बदलते हैं।

प्रश्न 4.
पृथ्वी का प्रत्येक कोना बच्चों के पास अपने आप कैसे आ जाता है?
उत्तर:
बच्चे पतंग उड़ाते हुए चाहते हैं कि उनकी पतंग सबसे ऊँची जाए अर्थात् वे पतंग के माध्यम से सारे ब्रह्मांड में घूम लेना चाहते हैं। वे कल्पना की रंगीन दुनिया में खो जाते हैं। इसलिए उनके लिए पृथ्वी का प्रत्येक कोना अपने आप चला आता है अर्थात् पतंग उड़ाने के लिए बच्चों को जमीन की कमी पड़ जाती है।

प्रश्न 5.
कठोर छत बच्चों को कैसे मुलायम लगती है?
उत्तर:
छत यद्यपि कठोर होती है, लेकिन बच्चों को यह कठोर नहीं लगती। उन्हें छत मुलायम लगती है क्योंकि वे अपने कोमल पैरों से इधर-उधर भागते रहते हैं, फिर कोमल पैरों में एक थिरकन-सी भर जाती है।

प्रश्न 6.
‘पतंग’ कविता में चित्रित यादों के बीत जाने के बाद के प्राकृतिक परिवर्तनों का वर्णन अपने शब्दों में कीजिए।
उत्तर:
यादों के महीने में तेज वर्षा होती है, बौछारें पड़ती हैं। बौछारें के जाते ही यादों का महीना समाप्त हो जाता है। इसके बाद क्वार (आश्विन) का महीना शुरू हो जाता है। इसके आते ही प्रकृति में कई तरह के परिवर्तन आते हैं। प्रकृति में चारोंतरफ हरियाली है। सूर्य भी नया दिखाई देता है। आसमान नीला व साफ़ है। हवा तेज़ चलने लगी है। सूर्य की प्रातःकालीन लालिमा बढ़ गई है।

प्रश्न 7.
किशोर और युवा वर्ग समाज के मार्गदर्शक हैं’-पतंग कविता के आधार पर स्पष्ट कीजिए। (All Iindia- 2010)
उत्तर:
किशोर और युवा वर्ग में क्षमता वे इच्छाशक्ति चरम सीमा पर होती है। वे स्वयं अपना लक्ष्य निर्धारित करते हैं और उसको पाने की हर संभव कोशिश करते हैं। इनकी आँखों में आसमान की ऊँचाइयों को पाने के सपने होते हैं। बड़ों की बच्चों की क्षमता व उनकी सलाह को भी ध्यान में रखना चाहिए।

प्रश्न 8.
‘पतंग’ के माध्यम से कवि ने किस प्रकार के मनोविज्ञान का चित्रण किया है?
उत्तर:
‘पतंग’ कविता के माध्यम से कवि ने बाल मनोविज्ञान का चित्रण किया है। इस कविता में कवि ने बाल सुलभ इच्छाओं और उमंगों का मनोरम चित्रण किया है। बाल क्रियाओं का इतना सूक्ष्म चित्रण करके कवि ने अपनी प्रतिभा का परिचय दिया है।

प्रश्न 9.
कवि ने एक काव्यांश में सबसे’ शब्द का प्रयोग किया है। क्या यह सार्थक है?
उत्तर:
कवि ने हलकी, रंगीन चीज, कागज, पतली कमानी के लिए सबसे’ शब्द का प्रयोग सार्थक ढंग से किया है। वास्तव में कवि ने इस शब्द के माध्यम से यह बताने की कोशिश की है कि इस दुनियाँ में इनसे पतली, रंगीन और हलकी चीज कोई हो ही नहीं सकती। अतः ‘सबसे’ शब्द का सार्थक प्रयोग हुआ है।

प्रश्न 10.
‘पतंग’ कविता में कवि ने बच्चों की तुलना किससे की है और क्यों? उदाहरण सहित समझाइए।
उत्तर:
कवि ने बच्चों की तुलना कपास से की है। बच्चे कपास की तरह लचीले, नरम व कोमल होते हैं। इससे उन्हें चोट नहीं पहुँचती। पृथ्वी भी उनका स्पर्श करने को लालायित रहती है।

प्रश्न 11.
बच्चों को कपास की तरह कोमल और उनके पैरों को बेचैन’ क्यों कहा गया है? ‘पतंग’ कविता के आधार पर उत्तर दीजिए।
उत्तर:
कवि ने बच्चों को कपास के समान नाजुक व कोमल होते हैं। वे निष्कपट होते हैं। उनके पैर बेचैन होते हैं तथा पतंगों के पीछे भागते हैं। पृथ्वी भी उनके पास घूमती हुई प्रतीत होती है

आत्म-परिचय, एक गीत NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Hindi Aroh Chapter 1

आत्म-परिचय, एक गीत Questions and Answers Class 12 Hindi Aroh Chapter 1

कविता के साथ

प्रश्न 1.
कविता एक ओर जग-जीवन का भार लिए घूमने की बात करती है और दूसरी ओर “मैं कभी न जग का ध्यान किया करता हूँ–” विपरीत से लगते इन कथनों का क्या आशय है?
उत्तर :
कवि ने इस ‘कविता में एक ओर जग-जीवन का भार लिए घूमने की बात करता है तो दूसरी ओर कभी न जग का ध्यान करने की बात
करता है। दोनों ही विपरीत कथन प्रतीत होते हैं। इन कथनों से यह आशय है कि मनुष्य एक सामाजिक प्राणी है। समाज से मनुष्य का नाता खट्टा-मीठा होता है। उसके जीवन में दुख-सुख दोनों ही आते हैं।

दुनिया अपने व्यंग्य-बाण और शासन-प्रशासन से मनुष्य को अनेक कष्टों के रूप में जीवन-भार प्रदान करती है। चाहकर भी मनुष्य इस जीवन-भार से अलग नहीं हो सकता। इस जीवन-भार को उसे आजीवन ढोना ही पड़ता है। लेकिन दूसरी ओर कवि का यह कहना है कि मैं जीवन इस जग को देकर नहीं जीता, क्योंकि वह इसे हृदयहीन और स्वार्थी मानता है। वह तो केवल संसार के वैभव से अलग अपनी मस्ती में मस्त होकर जीवन जीना चाहता है। इसलिए वह कहता है कि मैं कभी भी जग का ध्यान नहीं करता।

प्रश्न 2.
जहाँ पर दाना रहते हैं, वहीं नादान भी होते हैं-ऐसा क्यों कहा होगा?
उत्तर :
‘जहाँ पर दाना रहते हैं, वहीं पर नादान भी होते हैं।’ इसका आशय है कि जहाँ अक्लमंद या समझदार रहते हैं, वहीं पर नासमझ या
मूर्ख भी होते हैं। ऐसा इसलिए कहा गया होगा कि यह नश्वर संसार रंगीन है जिसमें भाँति-भाँति के जीव-जंतु और पदार्थ हैं। इस सृष्टि में अनेक तत्वों का समावेश है। प्रकृति के भी विभिन्न रूप हैं।

इस जहाँ से सुख-दुख, नर-नारी, स्थूल-सूक्ष्म, अच्छा-बुरा, मूर्ख-विद्वान आदि सभी का अनूठा संगम है। यहाँ सुख हैं तो दुख भी हैं, नर है तो नारी भी, अच्छाई है तो बुराई भी। इस प्रकार एक अच्छे व बुरे का या एक के विपरीत दूसरे का अटूट संबंध है। इसीलिए कहा गया है कि जहाँ पर बुद्धिमान रहते हैं, वहीं पर नादान भी होते हैं।

प्रश्न 3.
‘मैं और, और जग और, कहाँ का नाता’ पंक्ति में ‘और’ शब्द की विशेषता बताइए।
उत्तर :
‘मैं और, और जग और, कहाँ का नाता’ पंक्ति में ‘और’ शब्द कवि और संसार के संबंधों के अलगाव का चित्रण करता है। यह कवि की प्रकृति और प्रवृत्ति तथा संसार की प्रकृति और प्रवृत्ति के भेद का ज्ञान कराता है तथा संसार की संवेदनहीनता का चित्रण भी करता है।

प्रश्न 4.
शीतल वाणी में आग के होने का क्या अभिप्राय है? (C.B.S.E. 2011, Set-I)
उत्तर :
शीतल वाणी में आग के होने का अभिप्राय यह है कि कवि अपनी वाणी की शीतलता में वियोग की आग लिए जीवन जी रहा है। यहाँ आग से अभिप्राय कवि की आंतरिक पीड़ा से है। कवि प्रिया से वियोग होने पर उस विरह-वेदना को अपने हृदय में दबाए फिर रहा है। अतः जहाँ उनकी संवेदनाओं में शीतलता का भाव है तो वहीं विराग और क्रोध का भाव भी निहित है। यही वियोग उसके हृदय को निरंतर जलाता रहता है जिससे उनके हृदय में आग पैदा होती है।

प्रश्न 5.
बच्चे किस बात की आशा में नीड़ों से झाँक रहे होंगे? )
उत्तर :
बच्चे अपने माता-पिता की आशा में नीड़ों से झाँक रहे होंगे। माँ-बाप से बिछुड़कर बच्चे अपने-अपने घोंसलों में यही आशा मन में लिए
रहते होंगे कि उनके माता-पिता लौटकर कब आएँगे? कब उनकी माँ उनको लाड़-प्यार करेगी? कब उनको भोजन कराकर उनकी भूख शांत करेगी। इस प्रकार बच्चे अपने नीड़ों से ऐसी आशाएँ लेकर झाँक रहे होंगे।

प्रश्न 6.
‘दिन जल्दी-जल्दी ढलता है’ की आवृत्ति से कविता की किस विशेषता का पता चलता है?
उत्तर :
‘दिन जल्दी-जल्दी ढलता है’ की आवृत्ति से कविता की विशेषता का पता चलता है कि समय परिवर्तनशील है, जो सतत चलायमान है। यह कभी भी नहीं रुकता, न ही यह किसी की प्रतीक्षा करता है। जीवन क्षणभंगुर है, अत: कब जीवन समाप्त हो जाए किसी, – को नहीं पता। इसलिए मनुष्य को अपने लक्ष्य को अतिशीघ्रता से प्राप्त कर लेना चाहिए। मनुष्य में वह विश्वास होना चाहिए कि वह कम-से-कम समय में अपनी मंजिल को प्राप्त कर लेगा।

कविता के आस-पास

प्रश्न 1.
संसार में कष्टों को सहते हुए भी खुशी और मस्ती का माहौल कैसे पैदा किया जा सकता है?
उत्तर
कष्ट तो हर व्यक्ति के जीवन में आने वाला अनिवार्य भाग है। लोग कष्टों के आने पर सदा ही घबरा जाते हैं, पर इन्हें सहते हुए भी खुशी और मस्ती का माहौल पैदा किया जा सकता है। साहसपूर्वक काम करते हुए, समाज के प्रति निष्ठावान बनकर और ईश्वर के प्रति विश्वास रखकर खुशी और मस्ती का माहौल पैदा किया जा सकता है।

आपसदारी

जयशंकर प्रसाद की आत्मकथा कविता की कुछ पंक्तियाँ दी जा रही हैं। क्या पाठ में दी गई आत्म-परिचय कविता से इस कविता का आपको कोई संबंध दिखाई देता है ? चर्चा करें।

आत्मकथ्य

मधुप गुन-गुना कर कह जाता कौन कहानी यह अपनी,
उसकी स्मृति पाथेय बनी है थके पथिक की पंथा की।
सीवन को उधेड़ कर देखोगे क्यों मेरी कंथा की?
छोटे से जीवन की कैसे बड़ी कथाएँ आज कहूँ ?
क्या यह अच्छा नहीं कि औरों की सुनता मैं मौन रहूँ?
सुनकर क्या तुम भला करोगे मेरी भोली आत्म-कथा?
अभी समय भी नहीं, थकी सोई है मेरी मौन व्यथा। – जयशंकर प्रसाद

Social Movements class 12 Notes Sociology

Facts That Matter

Introduction

• Where a group of people come together in order to bring about change in society in regard to certain social issues with the aim of changing people’s perspectives about that aspect.
  Dissent (dissatisfaction)
  
  Protest (where it comes out openly)
  
  Social Movement (may or may not lead).
• Dissent is a form of dissatisfaction that people feel about a certain issue and when it comes out openly it is in the form of a protest.

During colonial rule
There were many social reformers who wanted to change the life of the depressed class
and few social evils.

• Now social movements are present today also but the issues have changed.
• They have become global and have a difference there e.g. environment, domestic
• violence etc.

Features of Social Movement

• Requires sustained collective action over time. Such action is often directed against the state and takes the form of demanding changes in state policy or practice.
• Collective action must be marked by some degree of organisation. This organisation may include a leadership and a structure that defines how members relate to each other, make decisions and carry them out.
• Those participating in a social movement also have shared objectives and ideologies. A social movement has a general orientation or way of approaching to bring about (or to prevent) change.
• These defining features are not constant. They may change over the course of a social movement’s life.
• Social movements cannot change society easily. Since it goes against both entrenched interests and values, there is bound to be opposition and resistance. But over a period of time changes do take place.

Counter Movement

• Counter movements sometimes arise in defence of status quo. There are many instances of counter movements.
• When Raja Rammohun Roy campaigned against sati and formed the Brahmo Samaj, defenders of sati formed Dharma Sabha and petitioned the British not to legislate against sati.
• When reformers demanded education for girls, many protested that this would be disastrous for society.
• When reformers campaigned for widow remarriage, they were socially boycotted. When the so called ‘lower caste’ children enrolled in schools, some so called ‘upper caste’ children were withdrawn from the schools by their families.
• Proposals for extending reservation in educational institutions have led to counter movements opposing them.

Acts of social movement

• While protest is the most visible form of collective action, a social movement also acts in other, equally important, ways.
• Social movement activists hold meetings to mobilise people around the issues that concern them. Such activities help shared understanding, and also prepare for a feeling of agreement or consensus about how to pursue the collective agenda.
• Social movements also chart out campaigns that include lobbying with the government, media and other important makers of public opinion.
• Social movements also develop distinct modes of protest. This could be candle and torch light processions, use of black cloth, street theatres, songs, poetry.
• Gandhi adopted novel ways such as ahimsa, satyagraha and his use of the charkha in the freedom movement.

Difference between social change and movement

Social Change	Social Movement
Ongoing process	Keeps changing not ongoing
Effects eco, social, political, Cultural aspect society	Effects a certain aspect of society

Sociology and Social Movement
1. In an country, social movements aims at changing some aspect of society.

• French revolution against monarchy when people were suffering, depressed and wanted freedom and equality.
• Industrial Revolt (Britain) – protest by common man paid low wages and treated badly.

2. According to Emile Durkheim, social movement can lead to disintegration/disorder of
society. Society is more important than individual.

• Spoke about division of labour, social facts, suicide and religion.

3. Social movements usually aim at improving the life of depressed class and sociology is
the study of society.

• Poor people/depressed section express themselves through protests as they have no other way of doing so.

Theories of Social Movements
(1) Theory of Relative Deprivation

• Everyone is deprived of something but every deprivation does not lead to social movements.
• However this theory states that when a particular, group is deprived by any basic necessity it will lead to a social movement. The basis of this theory is that the individual
  (i) Feels resentful (unhappy with situation)
  (ii) Has a psychological factor which convinces them that they are deprived.

Limitations

• Every deprivation should not or will not lead to a social movement.
• Deprivation is not enough for a social movement.
• Many other factors are involved.

Theory of collective action

• Given by Olson who states that every individual who is part of a social movement have a self-interest. As soon as their self-interest is fulfilled they leave the social movement.
• The basis of this theory is humans rational thinking why should 1 be part of a social movement if I don’t benefit.

Theory of Resource Mobilisation

• Given by McCarthy and Zald.
• They said everyone in a social movement need not have self interest.
• They said social movement is successful if one is able to mobilise resources (people, good leaders, economic resources, political support), e.g Anna Hazare (2011), did not have self interest.

Limitations

• According to Sociologists people can create resources. They don’t have to mobilise them. A social movement need not depend on existing resources, new identities, new resources etc are created.
  e.g. Freedom struggle – no money, political power but generated resources in man power, good leader etc.

Types of Social Movements

• Three ways to classify social movements

Reformist Movement is a movement where the reformers try to change the mindset of the people regarding a particular issue.
Revolutionary Movement is a movement where radical or violent methods are used to bring about change in society. (Could use weapons),
e.g Subash Chandra Bose – Indian National Army, Bhagat Singh
Redemptive Movement is formed to reduce actions done in the past. It lies to change the thinking of the people.
e.g. Anti Brahmin Movement started by Shree Narayan

	Old Movement		New Movements
1.	Most have links with political parties and they were very imp. e.g freedom struggle  INC	1.	Do not have links to politics parties. May sometimes oppose the practices of govt., e.g workers movement.
2.	Main aim Saw the reorganization of power relationships.	2.	Main aimaddress social issues, no change in power relationships.
3.	Usually to do with economic inequality.	3.	Involves economic, social, political and cultural inequality.
4.	Usually concerned with the lower or depressed class like women and dalits e.g Arya Samaj.	4.	To do with all classes and all castes e.g workers movement. Tribal movement

Ecological Movement

• Any movement to do with the environment.
• It is a new problems.
• It was not there in the past.
• Have come up in the last 2-3 decades.
  Chipko Movement – is a movement which was not ordy economic aspect, it affected all aspect.

Economic

• When contractors from cities came to cut down the trees, the women and children went and hugged the trees.
  Reason being they were dependent on the forest for their livelihood (grazing, fodder, firewood, food and gathering).

Political

• Villagers were unhappy that politicians sitting in the cities were dictating terms and they knew politicians were not concerned about their livelihood.
• It became popular, mass media was important in spreading the news and people started their own movements in their own states.

Class Based Movement
Peasant Movement
1. Pre-Colonial: There were movements, but they were not localised so we did not know
about them as peasants were too scared to form their own movements. They were poor
and could not mobilise people.
2. Colonial
(i) 19th Century – Some revolts did become quite popular.
(ii) Bengal Revolt – Indigo plantations by Gandhi during 1917 – 1920 when he came
back from South Africa he traveled all across India helping people.
There were 2 important movements.
(i) Champaran
(ii) Bardoli
1920 there were a lot of revolts to do with forest.
Organisations formed: All India Kissan Sabha (AlKS), Bihar Provincial Kissan Sabha
After Independence

• Telangana Movement (West Bengal).
• Farmers had to give 50% profit to government.
• They wanted 2/3 (60%) profit and give remairdng 1/3 to the govt sharecroppers (supported by CPI and AIKS).

Telangana Movement (Andhra Pradesh).

• They were against the Feudal System.
• Peasants protested against the Nizams rule.
• They wanted proper working system.
• It was supported by CPI.
• Naxalbari – in West Bengal it started off as peasant movement and slowly became New Farmers Movement
• Started off by farmers in a few places like Tamil Nadu, Punjab.
• Farmers put money together and built roads etc as they were tired of the politicians faked promises and they did all the work and they did not let the government vehicles pass.
• No support from government parties.
• Anti urban and anti government.
• Worked for years for administration to help them but since they got no help they did it on their own. Mainly connected with market.
• Prices reduced more support from government reduce taxes, subsidiaries, support price, easy loans, stop exploitation, methods they used to show their displeasure.
• Bandhs, blocked roads and railways. No politicians, administrators on the road. New farmers movements slowly took under its wings women issues and ecological issues.

Workers Movement

• During the colonial period, the workers had their own problems.
• Chennai, Bombay, Calcutta
• Initially problems were to do with wages, working conditions.
• Trade unions – consists of workers themselves,
• They form an association.
• Initially the protest was localised but national movement picked up momentum and so the workers movement picked up momentum.
• bi the early 20th Century there were textile strikes, workers strikes
• Calcutta – Jute mill
• Chennai & Bombay – Textile mill
• Trade unions were established
• TLA (textile labour association) – Gandhi ji
• AITUC (all India trade union congress) – B.P. Wadia
• Old movements were supported by a political party. Some supported by radicals and modulate. ‘
• When ATTUC was formed, the Britishers became very cautious.
• Many laws were passed by the Britishers which had its own rules and regulations as Trade Union Act.
• Slowly AITUC became very powerful and were supported by the communists.
  They formed – Indian National Trade Union Congress
• The Radicals and Congress moved away AITUC became very powerful at local, regional, national level.

1960’s

• During recession period many became jobless.
  There was inflation and protests

1970’s

• There were many railway strikes main urban of transport.
• Demanding better wages and working conditions.
• During emergency no protests allowed.

Caste Based Movement
Dalit Movement
They are different from other movements as they were fighting for self-respect and dignity.

• They wanted to be touched. It was not only Dalits fighting but also some Brahmins and Gandhi ji.
• It was a struggle against discrimination. The concept of untouchability was to be abolished.
• Concept of untouchability had connections with destiny and pollution purity.
• Dalit movement took place all over India and each dalit movement had a different issue/ agenda (wages/employment) but they also fought for dignity and self-respect.
• Not only started by Dalits but other castes also (Sri Narayan Guru)
• Satnami Movement – Chattisgarh
• Mahar Movement – Maharashtra
• Adi Dharma Movement – Punjab
• Anti Brahman Movement – Kerala.
• Dalit Panther Movement.
• Dalit movement could be ignored in the past but not now due to media.
• Dalit literature became popular because it was poems, dramas, songs, stories about their lives and sufferings etc.
• This led to the change in the mindset of people and emphasized the fighting for self dignity by Dalits and to bring about change in all aspects of life.
• Reservations are a result of dalit movement.

OBC Movement

• Other backward classes
• Economically backward but are part of the forward caste.
• Don’t suffer from untouchability.
• OBC was first used in Madras and Bombay for those who were economically backward
• AIBCL/F – All India Backward classes League/Federation.

Class 12 Sociology Quick Revision notes Chapter 13 Mass Media and communications

Facts That Matter
Mass Media

• Include a wide variety of forms, including television, newspapers, films, magazines, radio, advertisements, video games and CDs.
• They are referred to as ‘mass’ media because they reach mass audiences – audiences comprised of very large numbers of people. They are also sometimes referred to as mass communications.
• It has become a very integral part of our lives e.g. Newspapers, TV, radio etc especially after globalisation.
• Keeps in touch with reality and what is happening around the world.
• Mass media also includes telecommunications inter-connectivity through cell phones and advertisements.

Mass Media and Sociology (Expansion of mass communication)
There are many aspects to the expansion of mass communication:

• First, the structure and content of mass media is shaped by changes in the economic, political and socio-cultural contexts. For instance, we see how centre and the state and its vision of development influenced the media in the first decades after independence. And how in the post 1990 period of globalisation the market has a key role to play.
• Second, the relationship between mass media and communication with society is dialectical. Both influence each other. The nature and role of mass media is influenced by the society in which it is located. At the same time the far reaching influence of mass media on society cannot be over-emphasised.
• Third, mass communication is different from other means of communication as it requires a formal structural organisation to meet large-scale capital, production and management demands. The state and/or the market have a major role in the structure and functioning of mass media. Mass media functions through very large organisations with major investments and large body of employees.
• Fourth, there are sharp differences between how easily different sections of people can use mass media.

Mass Media Before Globalisation
(1) Beginning of Mass Media

• The first modern mass media institution began with the development of the printing press. The first attempts at printing books using modern technologies began in Europe. This technique was first developed by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. Initial attempts at printing were restricted to religious books.
• With the Industrial Revolution, the print industry also grew. The first products of the press were restricted to an audience of literate elites.
• In the mid 19th century, with further development in technologies, transportation and literacy that newspapers began to reach out to a mass audience.
• People living in different corners of the country found themselves reading or hearing the same news. This was in many ways responsible for people across a country to feel connected and develop a sense of belonging or ‘we feeling’.
• The well known scholar Benedict Anderson has thus argued that this helped the growth of nationalism, the feeling that people who did not even know of each other’s existence feel like members of a family.
• It gave people who would never meet each other a sense of togetherness. Anderson thus suggested that we could think of the nation as an ‘imagined community’.

(2) During Colonial Rule

• Newspapers in different languages came up (vernacular, newspaper) of Matrabhumi, Amrita Bazaar, Kesari.
• Through these newspapers they tried to promote the freedom struggle, national movement to instigate people to fight the British but the British disliked this censoring.
• Hence even though newspapers were not under the British government they monitored them through censorship.
• There were not many literate people. Hence many did not read the papers.
• Because of monocular languages, their influence was widespread among the people.
• The underlying news was to fight for the freedom of the people.

(3) All Independent India

• Nehru called media the ‘watchdog of democracy’ Why?
• It observes as well as we expect of democracy in society.
• He wanted the media to inform the public of the developmental projects being taken by the government.
• Focused on the development of the country e.g. Metro dams.
• He wanted the media to inform the public/promote jobs so that everyone can be self sufficient.
• He wanted people to be aware of all the social evils that are present.

Radio

• In 1920 developed in India
• Started in Kolkata and Chennai

Colonial Rule

• 1940 during the World War II, radio became worldwide in India.

After Independence

• There were 6 broadcasting stations of AIR.
• They broadcasted. News, Entertainment (Bollywood songs). Current affairs. Sports news. Announcements for farmers, Task slower.
• The early years of independence, AIR had to tell the people about the government activities pertaining to development.
• Farmer’s were told about new techniques (Insecticides, pesticides etc.)
• Popular channel-Vividh Bharati (purely entertainment radio channel).
• Film songs, interviews, film quotes
• Vividh Bharati started advertising in Radio.
• The government decided that radio broadcasting has to exist in all major cities, towns and important districts (border areas).
• Spread all over India.
• Present at three levels—National, Regional – local language and Local – city radio.
• All programmes cater to the diversity of India in terms of language, region and culture
• and specially national and regional.
• By the end of the 20th Century it was broadcasted in 24 languages and 146 dialects.

Globalization and Mass Media

• Till globalization in 1990’s each industry in mass media was separate
• After globalization. Radio, TV, newspapers came together,
  e.g music & film industry
  National  international

(A) Print Media
Advantages

• Despite coming up of TV and radio, newspapers was popular because it was easily accessed, cheaper, monocular.

Changes

• Using modem technology, attractive advertisements, separate sections/ categories. Supplements

Disadvantage

• Only literate people could read.
• Different states have regional newspapers.
• Information and Entertainment, Edutainment (newspapers cater to this)
• Once upon a time newspapers used to values, but now they are purely commercial.

(B) Television

• In 1991 there was one state controlled TV channel Doordarshan in India. By 1998 there were almost 70 channels came into existence.
• Star TV -Caters to different demands and Categories of people, Zee TV and Sony too.
• Regional networking started e.g. STAR Bengali, Sony TV in Tamil Nadu.
• Z also started regional networking.
• The 1990’s cable operators were popular and catered to people of their area.
• One of the reasons for popularity – English serials dubbed in regional languages.
• One major channel became 24 x 7 news channel
• TV changed a lot

(C) Radio

• FM came after globalisation in the beginning of the 20th Century.
• Privately owned radio channels started and are purely for entertainment purposes.
• They cannot broadcast any political views and cannot speak against the government.
• Each FM has their own tagline

Class 12 Sociology Quick Revision notes Chapter 12 Globalization and Social Change

Facts That Matter

• No one definition of globalisation and only one way of understanding it. Different subjects or academic disciplines may focus on different aspects of globalisation.
• Economics may be dealing more with the economic dimensions such as capital flows. Political science may focus on the changing role of governments.
• The process of globalisation is so far-reaching that disciplines have to increasingly borrow from each other to understand both the causes and consequences of globalisation.

Sociological understanding of globalisation
Globalisation is the inter-relationship and interlinking between the local and global
(international) market.

• Not only economic aspect but all aspects (political, economic, sociological and cultural).
• It is a very broad term, includes all aspects of the society.
• Economic dimension, liberalisation.
• Political laws/rules of trade etc.
• Social-interaction with people
• Ecological-global warming.
• Cultural-dances, traditions etc.
• Faces to globalisation;
  (1) We have fruits, vegetables/products from other countries which are easily available. We had no choices before.
  (2) One farmers and traders have stiff competition that they are facing which isn’t good for the.
• They have to raise their prices to compete.
• There has been a debate whether globalisation is good for us or not.
• On one hand they feel it is necessary as we need to develop and increase GDP so we need science and technology. We have to be part of the global village.
• Some feel the gap between the rich and the poor are increasing.

Effects of globaliastion
The effect of globalisation is far reaching. It affects us all but affects us differently. Thus, while for some it may mean new opportunities, for others it is the loss of livelihood. For instance:

• Women silk spinners and twisters of Bihar lost their jobs once the Chinese and Korean silk yarn entered the market. Weavers and consumers prefer this yarn as it is somewhat cheaper and has a shine.
• Similar displacements have come with the entry of large fishing vessels into Indian waters. These vessels take away the fish that used to be earlier collected by Indian fishing vessels. The livelihood of women fish sorters, dryers, vendors and net makers thereby get affected.
• In Gujarat, women gum collectors, who were picking from the ‘julifera’ (Baval trees), lost their employment due to the import of cheaper gum from Sudan.
• In almost all cities of India, the rag pickers lost some of their employment due to import of waste paper from developed countries.

Sharply divided view about the impact of globalisation

• Some believe that it is necessary to herald a better world.
• Others fear that the impact of globalisation on different sections of people is vastly different. They argue that while many in the more privileged section may benefit, the condition of a large section of the already excluded population worsens.
• There are yet others who argue that globalisation is not a new development at all.

Global Interconnection (India)
Early years (British rule)

• Globalisation has been existing for many years but it was limited.
• During British rule there were 2 famous routes from India.
  1. Spice route mainly in south India (Kerala)
  2. Silk route connects India with China, Persia, Rome and Egypt.
• People from different parts of the world have been coming into India as traders or conquerors to find new jobs or for trading and have settled in India.
• During colonial rule trading took place where British colonies were established and these are Asia, Africa and Australia.
• Many people from India were sent to other colonies either willingly or forcefully and this included professionals and casual labours.
• They found it difficult to come back because their caste wouldn’t accept them.
• Labour was mainly sent from Africa to America and Australia.
• Raw materials were sent to Manchester and finished goods came back which were cheaper compared to the hand spun cloth.
• Due to this Indian companies faced afall back.

After Independence

• After Independence globalisation continued. Since 1990 globalisation outlook became wider and broader.
• Indians went abroad to study or work. Indians’ development is due to globalisation and a creation of a new global outlook 25 years since independence.
• Not only trade but exchange of technologies also became global.

Understanding Globalisation
Globalisation is a term which includes all aspects of society (a) Economic Dimension
Policy of liberalisation (a) Privatisation
(a) Economic aspect of globalisation

• Many new policies were made in 1990.
• Many laws were introduced by government as it was aware that there would be stiff competition to protect one local industries/markets/companies.
• Economic reforms policy of liberalisation flourished.

(b) Electronic Economy

• Transactions take place electronically at the click of a button through computers.
• No paperwork or paper currency required.
• Shares bought and sold within seconds.
• Transaction of funds between countries in seconds.
• One major risk is sometimes foreign companies buy up stocks in bulk, make a profit and sell it back to stock holders.
• Main reason for electronic economy is revolution in technology.

(c) Weightless or Knowledge Economy

• Weightless economy is that system in which basis is information e.g., IT sector, internet, software.
• A knowledge economy is one in which working people are not directly involved in the production of commodities but give support systems (transport and communications, architects, wedding planners, market, service etc).

(d) Globalisation of Finance

• Connected to electronic economy.
• Hub of electronic activity where transaction takes place 24 hours are called financial capital of that city.
• Globally integrated markets do transactions involving billions of holders work within seconds like.
  Bombay, Tokyo, London, New York

(c) INC’s or MNC’s

• Companies which have branches in different areas.
• Big billions dollars MNC’s and small MNC’s
• Many Indian companies
• Globalisation has picked up in such a big way because of MN C’s main basis is profit for an MNC and global market .

Global Communications

• Many revolutions have taken place because of advances and improvement in technology and communication.
• Some homes and many offices have multiple links to the outside world such as telephones, cell phones, fax machines, digital and cable television, electronic mail and internet.
• Two individuals located in different part of the world-in Banglore and New York – not only can talk but also send documents and images to one another with the help of satellite technology.

Globalisation and international division of labours

• Has emerged due to globalisation, where production (manufacturing) and employment is spread over different countries all over the world.
• Wherever good infrastructure, cheap labour, resources, MNC’s come up.
• Hence frequent shifting of location occurs.
• This got a feeling of insecurity among labour.
• Only unskilled, casual labours suffered.
• Main aim of factory owners is profit.

Globalisation And Employment

• Before globalisation (1990’s) the employment scenario was different
• Many jobs are now available after graduation (call centres, BPO’s)
• Job opportunities broadened largely

Political Dimension
(a) Collapse of socialist states like USSR
(b) Coming up of Organisation/Associations like ASEAN
(c) Coming up of IGO’s (Red Cross) and INGO’s (WTO)
Cultural Dimension
(a) Globalisation
Local + global culture

• Homogeneity all products and services are available everywhere.
• Uniqueness is being lost.
• Many foreign films are adapting to local cultures.
• All foreign companies try to adapt themselves to the local practices of the country where they have set up their branches.
• Many food joints know that in India people don’t eat beef so they secure chicken mutton and veg food.

– Fusion of music and dance
– Many foreign serials are shown in local languages
– This helps the marketing of the company which leads to better profit
– Appeals to bigger population
– Culture we have to adapt and mix
– Tradition and modernisation
– Sociologists debate it isn’t good as it is dissolving our culture.
– Some say it is good as we are developing.
(b) Culture of consumption

• Before 1990 (globalisation) growth of cities were in places where there was growth of industries.
• Whenever there were industries there was infrastructure changes in culture in terms of food, clothes, art, music, tourism has been responsible for migration of people to cities.
• With coming up of shopping malls, multiplexes, amusement park all add to the attraction of cities.
• Shopping is no longer done for necessity.
• Aspects of spending money have changed.
• Myth: women should be housewives not educated, not to take part in politics.
• One side believers they should be housewives etc.
• With the coming of globalisation it has empowered women.
• They take part in all jobs (bank, pilot, etc).

(c) Corporate culture

• Every corporation or MNC has its own culture because they want to be unique.
• Each company has its own way of looking after its people.
• This is done to keep the employee’s happy and relaxed which is also an incentive to keep there working efficiency.
• This incentive is required because there is competition among the people so it is a measure to increase productivity of the people.
• It is also done to create cohesiveness and loyalty.
  e.g., diwali mela, taking employees to watch movie or holiday or party.
• (Things companies do to keep employees happy).
• Each company has its own ways of sales and marketing.
• Marketing is done through advertising and India.
• Market strategies differ from company to company.
• There are a few professions that have been followed for years by teachers, doctors etc.
• Now with globalisation many new occupations have come up, people find jobs in fields like fashion designing, bank, art, dance, diet and theatre.
• The professionals have higher salaries so they face relatively more stress and strain (good money but a lot of work).

Craft

• There are some crafts that have originated in India and during th€ years have started losing their importance even more so after globalisation.
• This is due to competition as many products within India or outside India are easily available and cheaper.
• With the coming of globalisation the threat to this indigenous crafts have became a= common threat.

Knowledge system
– Many food product like sandalwood and turmeric have originated in India. e.g. Tulsi, haldi, are a lot of health products.
– All these products have been promoted as Indian products.
– Care has to be taken to see that other MN C’s do not promote these products as their own. – Recent attemps by some MNC’s to patent the use of Tulsi, Haldi, Rudraksha and Basmati rice is alarming and the need for protecting the base of its indigenous knowledge system.
-Yoga is popular knowledge systems everywhere .

Class 12 Sociology Quick Revision notes Chapter 11 Change and Development in Industrial Society

Facts That Matter

• There are several classes in a city. Elite, upper class, upper middle class, middle class, lower middle class, lower class and below poverty line.
• Although we do share common infrastructure (walk facilities, monuments).
• But there are differences, as people are recognised on the basis of acclaimed status e.g., Bollywood actors, actresses, directors etc. Only the actors reap the benefits and the stunt artists, dancer, etc are not noticed.
• Marketing, advertisements, trailers have really helped Bollywood.
• Different classes of people who eat at all different places, some eat at 5 star restaurants while some eat on the roadside.
• Major changes occurring in a city in urban areas can be attributed to science and technology.
• The professions that the women would choose were quite limited (teachers, nurses) but
• now there are many options but some fields are male dominated as fighter pilots.
• Because of science and technology a lot of disparities have been bridged.
• A lower class can became an upper caste by working hard.
• Even today society depends upon the people inhibiting the place, the area.

Social features associated with industiralisation
Thinkers like Karl Marx, Max Weber and Emile Durkheim associated a number of social features with industry such as:

• The loss of face-to-face relationships that were found in rural areas where people worked on their own farms or for a landlord they knew, and their substitution by anonymous professional relationships in modern factories and workplaces. Industrialisation involves a detailed division of labour.
• People often do not see the end result of their work because they are producing only one small part of a product.
• The work is repetitive and exhausting. But even this is better than having no work at all, i.e., being unemployed. Marx called this situation alienation, when people do not enjoy work, and see it as something they have to do only in order to survive, and even that survival depends on whether the technology has room for any human labour.
• Industrialisation leads to greater equality, at least in some spheres. For example, caste distinctions do not matter any more on trains, buses or in cyber cafes.
• On the other hand, older forms of discrimination may persist even in new factory or workplace settings. And even as social inequalities are reducing, economic or income inequality is growing in the world.
• Often social inequality and income inequality overlap, for example, in the domination of upper caste men in well-paying professions like medicine, law or journalism. Women often get paid less than men for similar work.

Industrialisation and Modernisation

• While the early sociologists saw industrialisation as both positive and negative, by the mid 20th century, under the influence of modernisation theory, industrialisation came to be seen as inevitable and positive.
• Modernisation theory argues that societies are at different stages on the road to modernisation, but they are all heading in the same direction. Modern society, for these theorists, is represented by the West.

Industrialisation in the society (India)

• In many ways similar to the western model and in many ways different. Comparative analysis of different countries suggests that there is no standard model of industrial capitalism.
• One point of difference is relating to what kind of work people are doing. In developed countries, the majority of people are in the services sector, followed by industry and less than 10% are in agriculture (ILO figures). In India, in 1999-2000, nearly 60% were employed in the primary sector (agriculture and mining), 17% in the secondary sector (manufacturing, construction and utilities), and 23% in the tertiary sector (trade, transport, financial services etc.)
• The contribution of these sectors to economic growth, the share of agriculture has declined sharply, and services contribute approximately more than half. This is a very serious situation because it means that the sector where the maximum people are employed is not able to generate much income for them.
• Second point of difference is the number of people in regular salaried employment. In developed countries, the majority are formally employed. In India, over 50% of the population is self-employed, only about 14% are in regular salaried employment, while approx-imately 30% are in casual labour (Anant 2005: 239).

Features of organised sector
1. 10 people are employed.
2. Rules and regulations are already set.
3. Allowances, bonuses, provident funds are social implication of unorganised sector.
4. Do not have any savings
When they retire they get money from their kids.
No security for old age dependent on children.
5. There are laws for security of unorganised sector by the government not implemented.
Minimum wage has been set but not given properly.
No records, on paper they show it differently.
They are on the mercy of the employer.
6. In unorganised sector the people cannot fight on ethereal grounds.
Social Implication of Organised Sector
1. Fixed rules and regulations.
2. Mode of payment has to be transparent on both sides-employee and employer.
3. There is a proper procedure to be followed by employer or vice versa.
4. Employee cannot be removed from the job without prior notice.
5. An employee cannot be removed until their retirement age in the government.
6. There are a lot of perks gratuity, bonuses, provident fund, travel allowance.
Industrialisation in Early Years in Independent India
1. Jute, iron, cotton, railways, coal prospered during the British rule and continued to
prosper even after Independence.

• The government was in control of the public sector.
• The government decided that some industries should be privatised like coal, jute.
• Now, India started having a mixed sector combination of public and private.
• But some sectors were not privatised-railways, defence, coal mines, telecom services.
• During the colonial rule, the port cities were Calcutta, Bombay, Madras.
• Now many other cities have become very important Coimbatore, Faridabad, Pune, Bangaluru slowly became industrial cities.
• Government realised that many people were employed and have started small scale industries/cottage industries and the government began to support them (jute bags, pots, carpets, unorganised sector 70%.
• Around 30% is organised large scale industries.

Changes in Indian Industries: Globalisation and Liberalisation

• It is in the 1900’s when globalisation came to India.
• Lot of changes and rules were introduced in the industries by WTO.
• Globalisation is the interrelationship between local economy and global economy.
• It involves all aspects of life social, economic, cultural, political, ecological.
• Liberalisation is the economic aspect of globalisation.
• Removal of trade barriers, tarrifs, taxes, international boundaries easy to cross borders, people, commodities, capital, technology.
• With the coming of globalisation large and small MNC’s grew tremendously.
• The foreign companies started investing in India and began setting up branches.
• There is a lot of unemployment in large scale industries.
• Wages are low as the small scale industries want to attach themselves to the large scale industries.
• Outsourcing is mainly done by private sectors but some government sectors also out source.

How are Jobs found?

• In older days it was from word of mouth personal relationships “near and dear friends”.
• Later it moved to newspapers, magazines, ads.
• Nowadays, there are websites and HR requirement of major companies like MNC’s.
• Employment exchanges register your name and qualification and they call you whenever there is a job available.

Contractors

• Very influential people also known as mistris in small factories, towns and even cities.
• They are workers in the factories.
• Many companies have also started outsourcing (outsource security, gardening. catering or outsource various parts of the product and may not be manufactured by the company).

Advantages (Outsourcing)

• Cost of production goes down can concentrate on final product.
• No additional hurdles for trade unions.
• Do not want union to be formed in different sectors.

Disadvantages (Outsourcing)

• If the supplier do not supply products on time it is upto the company to make up lost time and make the workers work overtime.
• This is not done only for money but goodwill or reputation of company.
• The quality may not be upto the mark.
• One has to be constantly vigilant to involve that the quality is maintained.

Times Slavery-Slaves to time

• The concept of Taylorism has been applied to the IT sector in which each person does his/her work at a given time span.
• Night out →The professionals work the whole night but this is not the same as overtime but this is voluntary.
• Fixed time→ There is no fixed time, but have to work for 8 hours.
• Can select their time slot, working hours.
• There are three cities which are the hub of IT
  1. Bengaluru-Silicon city
  2. Hyderabad-Hitech city
  3. Gurgaon-Cyber city
• To cater to the needs of the people eating joints, shops, hotels, etc are open overnight creating employment and cater to these people.
• Three reasons for staying overnight
  1. To finish work.
  2. If you are unable to finish your work, the other persons will not be able to do their work.
  3. They do it to please the boss.
• Joint families are going up as both parents are working and they need to keep grandparents and children secure.
• The value system cannot be taught by the paid help.

Working Conditions

• In same places it wasn’t good (small factories) not hygienic insecurity.
• Working condition in Mines.
• In 1952 an Act called the Mines Act was passed. The government said that owners of the mines have to follow certain acts/rules.
• One regulation is that workers have to be paid proper wages and each person should know the number of hours he is working in the mines (hours should be fixed).
• All safety rules have to be followed as lives are otherwise in danger.
• Applicable to every factory.
• Unfortunately many small factories do not follow the rules that are laid down.
• Large factories have to follow rules as a lot is at stake as they are in the public eye.
• All people in the mines are not registered. Since they are not registered properly in case something happens to them their families cannot get compensation.
• If any worker is injured no compensation is paid.
• There are 2 types of workers in mines.
• Underground (inside the ground)

Problems:

• Fumes, which if inhaled can cause serious problem.
• Lung infections, tuberculosis.
• Collapsing of walls and roofs.
• Lack of ventilation, ageing fast, poor eye sight
• One the ground Problems:
• Dig up the mines and do not fill up the pits before moving to another site so other workers can fall and injure themselves.
• They are exposed to weather condition (sun and rain) and result in skin diseases.
• Sometimes they used to blast the ground and if precautions are not taken people can get seriously injured or die.

Working Conditions

• Unhygienic conditions.
• Long working hours→overburdening, fear of insecurity
• Fear of insecurity (ready to work for low wages)
• Living conditions are poor.
• Women who work are paid less, no respect for them due to inefficiency and ignorance they are so overworked and exhausted that they have no time for social interactions (they get drunk and sleep in their free time they have).
• No time for their family.
• Life is very tough so women are becoming independent and self aware, getting educated taking their own decisions and are quite self sufficient.
• House Based Industries
• Many house based Industries are there in India.
• It is not as rosy as it looks.
• Most of them are in unorganised sectors.
• Carpets, borders, Zari, match boxes, bags, bidi are some of the examples.
• Mainly done by women and children.
• Paid by single piece, dozen, box etc depending on the product.

Bidi Industry

• Tendu leaves (leaves in which the bidi is made): Tendu leaves are collected and are soaked and the women and children make the bidi’s and sell it back to the contractors. The leaves are collected by the workers of private owners and government officials and are handed to the forest officials who auction the leaves to private owners.
• These private owners employ contractors who go to the village and hand over the tendu leaves to women and children.
• Contractors collect the bidis and the women and children are paid meagerly. These bundles go back to factories. In factories a signature label and scent is added. It is given to distributors who give it in wholesale market to shopkeepers who sell it to us.

Strikes and Unions

• Strike is a situation where workers restrain from work because they want better wages.
• It is a very risky proposition for the workers as the employer may not take them back after the strike.
• Lockout is when the management closes down these factory or industry for some time.
• This may be due to:
  1. Bankruptcy
  2. Case pending on the factory
  3. Selling it off
  4. Exchange of hands
• In a lockout unlike strike the management has to pay a compensation or take back the employees.
• Union is an association formed to protect the interest of the factory workers.
• TAI (Textile Association of India) by Gandhi was the first trade association.

Bombay Textile Mill Strike-1982

• It was led by the trade union leader Dr. Datta Samant.
• Affected quarter million workers and their families.
• Trade Union Association formed to ensure the welfare of the people.
• They wanted higher wages.
• Rashtriya Mill Mazdoor Sangh-Trade union supported by Congress in 1982.
• The union need to be approved by the government.
• This act was given by BIRA- Bombay Industrial Relation Act.
• Strike consisted of 1000 workers.
• They may not get their jobs back.
• Unfortunately the mill got Badli workers so the work in the factory did not stop.
• After 2-212years the strike was a failure.
• Many workers did not get their jobs back.
• Very few got jobs back.
• Workers went back to their villages to look for other jobs.
• Went to other villages for work in factories.
• Some took up casual labourer jobs and the some led to migrate which affected their family life.

Consequences

• Mill owners stopped buying new machineries and didn’t upgrade them.
• They sold it to property dealers.
• This was the time when mills disappeared and buildings came up.
• The whole scenario in Bombay changed

Class 12 Sociology Quick Revision notes Chapter 10 Change and Development in Rural Society

Facts That Matter
Indian society is primarily a rural society

• The majority of India’s people live in rural areas, approx. 67 per cent.
• They make their living from agriculture or related occupations. This means that agricultural land is the most important productive resource for a great many Indians.
• Land is also the most important form of property. But land is not just a ‘means of production’ nor just a ‘form of property’.
• Nor is agriculture just a form of livelihood. It is also a way of life. Many of our cultural practices and patterns can be traced to our agrarian backgrounds.
• For example, most of the New Year festivals in different regions of India – such as Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Bihu in Assam, Baisakhi in Punjab and Ugadi in Karnataka to name just a few – actually celebrate the main harvest season and herald the beginning of a new agricultural season.

Agriculture and Culture

• There is a close connection between agriculture and culture.
• The nature and practice of agriculture varies greatly across the different regions of the country. These variations are reflected in the different regional cultures.
• One can say that both the culture and social structure in rural India are closely bound up with agricultural and the agrarian way of life.

Rural life

• Agriculture is the single most important source of livelihood for the majority of the rural population. But the rural is not just agriculture.
• Many activities that support agriculture and village life are also sources of livelihood for people in rural India. For example, a large number of artisans such as potters, carpenters, weavers, iron smiths, and goldsmiths are found in rural areas.
• Rural life also supported many other specialists and crafts persons as story-tellers, astrologers, priests, water-distributors, and oil-pressers.
• The diversity of occupations in rural India was reflected in the caste system, which in most regions included specialist and ‘service’ castes such as Washermen, Potters, and Goldsmiths.
• Some of these traditional occupations have declined. But increasing interconnection of the rural and urban economies have led to many diverse occupations.
• Many people living in rural areas are employed in, or have livelihoods based in, rural non-farm activities. For instance, there are rural residents employed in government services such as the Postal and Education Departments, factory workers, or in the army, who earn their living through non-agricultural activities.

Agrarian Structure

• Depends upon the land holdings amount of land a person holds.
• There is unequal distribution of land some people have lots of land and some people don’t have any.
• The agriculture structure is how the land holdings have been distributed among people.
  Types of Landholdings:
  1. Large Landers: Own large amount of land, earlier known as zamindars.
  2. Medium landowners Small landowners: Have small amount of land and can make a profit.
  3. Marginal landowners: These along with small family grow just enough for consumption of their family and do not have enough land to get surplus to sell in the market.
  4. Landless landowners: Have no land of their own, work for others.
  5. Tenants: Take land on rent and give the landowner a share of the profit.
  Positions of women

• Woman’s position is low, they can’t own land.
• Women are usually excluded from ownership of land, because of the prevailing patrilineal kinship system and mode of inheritance.
• They have equal property rights as the son but they are woman or they are scared to voice their oppose.

Class and Caste Structure in Rural Areas
Interrelated

• Upper caste were considered to be upper class. But the issue in rural areas is complex
• Brahm.ins are the top most caste but not necessarily the wealthiest. The kshatriyas are upper caste as well as upper class.

Dominant Caste

• After independence, land reforms introduced land ceiling. It set a limit of land holding by each individual.
• Large land owners sold away their land to medium land owners as they moved to urban areas to set up factories.

Proprietary Caste

• Upper caste, rich people, large and mediums land owners controlled the resources and labour force in that particular areas.
• Begar-bonded Labourers: were illiterate and did not know how to do any skilled work.

Zamindari System

• Zarnindars collected the kind- rice, wheat, sugar etc. as tax from the farmers of the village
• For maximum exploitation of farmers, zarnindars collected extra taxes.

Royal/Raiyat/Ryatwari System

• One member of the family (joint family) was selected to collect the tax from the family and give it to the British.
• There was some exploitation, but very less-It was very successful in some areas.

Mahalwari System

• Headman of the village collected the tax – It was much better than zamindari system.
• There were three problems the Ministers often faced:
  1. Poverty
  2. Imported grains
  3. Less productivity
  Poverty and less productivity was during colonial period and imported grains was after independence. They came up with land reforms to solve these problems as well as to ensure social justice.
• After independence the gap between the rich and poor was very large.

Abolition of Zamindari System/intermediary System

• The exploitation of farmers by zarnindars led to a lot of problems.
• The first land reform introduced was that the farmers would directly pay their tax to the government.

Land ceilings (productive land law ceiling, unproductive-high)

• A limit as to how much land a person could own.
• If a farmer had 300 areas of land, 80 acres were given to the small, marginal farmers as 220 was the limit.
• The government imposed upper limit on the amount of land a person can own.
• Ceiling varied region to region depending upon how fertile the land is.
• In a productive area there was low ceiling limit, more land was taken from farmers.
• It was a big task for the government to visit each region and judge the ceiling according to facility level.
• In some areas it was successful, but not so in some areas due to Benami transfer the landlord wanted land to himself, thus he would put the land in the name of the women, accountant, distant relative only on paper it was so, but actually he owned the land.

Tenancy Reforms

• Tenants are those who take land on rent.
• If the land has good productivity, the landlord wanted the land back.
• Government made lives of tenants secure by
  (i) Security for tenants: For certain period, owner cannot take the land back, before period.
  (ii) Regulation of rent: A certain amount of the profit was to be given to the landlord either he would pay or in the beginning he would not agree to paying money.
• Even if he made a loss and said he would give it to the landlord he would have to pay.
• One of the policies was that if the tenant showing production over a period of time and was regular in giving a part of his profit, he would buy the land.
• If he was unable to pay, at times the landlord could take away the land from the peasant.

Consideration of Land Holdings

• The whole rural area was divided into sectors and each sector had various facilities provided by the government.
• A person from another sector could not use the facilities of another sector. They have to use the facilities of their sectors.

Land Records

• During the colonial rule, there were barely any records.
• Later they were registered, maintained and was computerized.

Green Revolution

• Green revolution was a revolution started in 1960’s and 70’s had a drastic change in the productivity.
• Introduced in those areas where there was a possibility of a water source and fertile land.

Social Consequence of Green Revolution
Advantages:
– First time India started exporting grains (rice and wheat), surplus.
– It was a great achievement for government but also for Indian scientists who created seeds.
– Employment opportunities increased, demand for agricultural labour went up.
Disadvantage:
Increased inequality in rural areas
– Only rich landlords who could afford the HYV seeds could make profits.
– Lower class (agri- subsistence) did not have resources to produce surplus to sell in market for profit.
– Land taken away from tenants by landowners as they wanted to make extra profit rather than paying them. This was the displacements of tenants.
Displacement of service class

• All work which used to be done by manual labour was replaced by machines (harvestees etc.)

Rich became richer and poor became poorer

• Payment was shifted from land to cash.
• Instead of increase in wages, they decreased as there was so much demand for agricultural labour.

Green Revolution in Arid Areas

• The crops shifted to multi crop from new crop. So that the profit was more (irrigation, HYV seeds).
• If the crop failed the farmer had nothing to fall back on in case of crop failure.
• Everything grown for commercial purposes.
• Increased insecurity of the farmer.
• It is divided into Andhra and Telengana. Andhra has two rivers – Krishna and Godavari Land is fertile. Landlords in Andhra Pradesh are prosperous.
• Hyderabad, the capital of Andhra Pradesh is in the center of Telengana and all development is done there only. Farmers of Andhra have sold their products in Hyderabad.
• Different regions have regional inequalities like UP and Haryana.

Diversification

• There is a new class of people that has caused up entire pressure.
• Group of landowners who invest agricultural money into small factories, invest in machines.
• They started: sending their children to school in urban areas, providing education.
• The hybrid seeds, pesticides have an effect on ecology.
• Fertility of soil is decreasing.
• Farmers prefer organic farming or natural products.

Transformation of Rural Society
Several profound transformations in the nature of social relations in rural areas took place in the post-Independence period, especially in those regions that underwent the Green Revolution. These included:

• an increase in the use of agricultural labour as cultivation became more intensive;
• a shift from payment in kind (grain) to payment in cash;
• a loosening of traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between farmers or landowners and agricultural workers (known as bonded labour);
• and the rise of a class of ‘free’ wage labourers’.

The change in the nature of the relationship between landlords (who usually belonged to the dominant castes) and agricultural workers (usually low caste), was described by the sociologist Jan Breman as a shift from ‘patronage to exploitation’ Such changes took place in many areas where agriculture was becoming more commercialised, that is, where crops were being grown primarily for sale in the market.
Commercialisation of agriculture

• The transformation in labour relations is regarded by some scholars as indicative of a transition to capitalist agriculture.
• Because the capitalist mode of production is based on the separation of the workers from the means of production (in this case, land), and the use of ‘free’ wage labour.
• In general, it is true that farmers in the more developed regions were becoming more oriented to the market. As cultivation became more commercialised these rural areas were also becoming integrated into the wider economy.
• This process increased the flow of money into villages and expanding opportunities for business and employment.
• But we should remember that this process of transformation in the rural economy in fact began during the colonial period. In many regions in the 19th century large tracts of land in Maharashtra were given over to cotton cultivation, and cotton farmers became directly linked to the world market.
• However, the pace and spread of change rapidly increased after Independence, as the government promoted modern methods of cultivation and attempted to modernise the rural economy through other strategies.
• The state invested in the development of rural infrastructure, such as irrigation facilities, roads, and electricity, and on the provision of agricultural inputs, including credit through banks and cooperatives.
• The overall outcome of these efforts at ‘rural development’ was not only to transform the rural economy and agriculture, but also the agrarian structure and rural society itself.

Alteration of rural social structure
Areas with rapid agricultural development

• One way in which rural social structure was altered by agricultural development in the 1960s and 1970s was through the enrichment of the medium and large farmers who adopted the new technologies.
• In several agriculturally rich regions, such as coastal Andhra Pradesh, western Uttar Pradesh, and central Gujarat, well-to-do farmers belonging to the dominant castes began to invest their profits from agriculture in other types of business ventures.
• There was rise of new entrepreneurial groups that moved out of rural areas and into the growing towns of these developing regions, giving rise to new regional elites that became economically as well as politically dominant.
• The spread of higher education, especially private professional colleges, in rural and semi-urban areas, allowed the new rural elites to educate their children – many of whom then joined professional or white collar occupations or started businesses.
• Thus, in areas of rapid agricultural development there has been a consolidation of the old landed or cultivating groups, who have transformed themselves into a dynamic entrepreneurial, rural-urban dominant class.

Areas like Easter UP and Bihar

• The lack of effective land reforms, political mobilisation, and redistributive measures has meant that there have been relatively few changes in the agrarian structure and hence in the life conditions of most people.

Kerela

• Have undergone a different process of development, in which political mobilisation, redistributive measures, and linkages to an external economy (primarily the Gulf countries) have brought about a substantial transformation of the rural countryside.
• Far from the rural being primarily agrarian, the rural in Kerala is a mixed economy that integrates some agriculture with a wide network of retail sales and services, and where a large number of families are dependent on remittances from abroad.

Circulation of labour

• The commercialisation of agriculture has let to the growth of migrant agricultural labour.
• The ‘traditional’ bonds of patronage between labourers or tenants and landlords broke down, and the seasonal demand for agricultural labour increased.
• In prosperous Green Revolution regions such as the Punjab, a pattern of seasonal migration emerged in which thousands of workers circulate between their home villages and more prosperous areas where there is more demand for labour and higher wages.
• Labourers migrate also due to the increasing inequalities in rural areas from the mid-1990s, which have forced many households to combine multiple occupations to sustain themselves.
• As a livelihood strategy, men migrate out periodically in search of work and better wages, while women and children are often left behind in their villages with elderly grandparents.
• Migrant workers come mainly from drought-prone and less productive regions, and they go to work for part of the year on farms in the Punjab and Haryana, or on brick kilns in U.P., or construction sites in cities such as New Delhi or Bangalore.
• These migrant workers have been termed ‘footloose labour’ by Jan Breman, but this does not imply freedom.
• On the contrary, landless workers do not have many rights, for instance, they are usually not paid the minimum wage. It should be noted here that wealthy farmers often prefer to employ migrant workers as can be paid lower wages.

Impact of lager scale circulation of labour

• Cultivation has become primarily a female task.
• Women are also emerging as the main source of agricultural labour, leading to the ‘feminisation of agricultural labour force.’
• The insecurity of women is greater because they earn lower wages than men for similar work. Until recently, women were hardly visible in official statistics as earners and workers.
• While women toil on the land as landless labourers and as cultivators, the prevailing patrilineal kinship system, and other cultural practices that privilege male rights, largely exclude women from land ownership.

Globalisation, Liberalisation & Rural Society

• In late 80′ s and 90′ s globalisation came to India.
• This led to competition among farmers.
• The organisation in charge for rules and regulations was the WTO, which led rules regarding prices, wages, taxes, aspects of trading, reduction of barriers.
• Indian trades are facing competition. Fruits, vegetables, clothes whole structure of rural area changed.
• Anew concept was introduced in rural areas known as ‘contract farming’

Contract Farming

• The MNC’s go to different villages and tell the farmers about their requirements.
• Some products which are popular such as potatoes, tomatoes, flowers, etc.
• The MNC’s gave the Indian farmers seeds, fertilizers and the know how as to how they were to be used.
• These products were only produced for the MNC’s either sold, made into sauces, jams, carved food (by being processed).
• The farmer is assured of an income and a profit.
• Very popular in some states (Punjab) and the land is fertile.

Disadvantages:
1. Farmers are growing the items, wanted by that MNC and if there is a crop failure there the farmer has nothing to fall back on.
2. Insecurity among the farmers.
3. Product will not be bought by MNC if product is not up to the mark. Only if it is up to the mark it is good.
4. There is insecurity as there is total dependence on the MNC.
5. We are moving away from production of grains, rice to producing tomatoes, potatoes.

• Once you grow tomatoes etc you cannot go back to producing grains.
• The knowledge that the traditional farmers have is of no use, as the know how about growing there crops is given by the MNC’S.
• Ecologically the soil gets eroded not very feasible and people are switching to organic farming.

MNC’S as agents:
1. Now MNC’s are providing seeds, fertilizers to the farmers.
Seeds etc are expensive but farmers have to buy them for contract farming.
2. Though the profits are high, the insecurities all is also high.
In case there is a crop failure, they do not have the government to fall back upon.
3. The government cannot give loans at low interest rates as the MNC’s are induced and they take charge.
Farmers’ Suicide-Small and Marginal Reasons:
1. The Green Revolution belt, small and marginal farmers wanted to increase productivity by increasing the use of advanced technology including tillers, tractors.
2. Unfortunately there may be a setback due to many reasons which can lead to farmer suicide.
Factors:
1. Withdrawal of subsidies and support price by government from farmers.
2. Now they have to borrow from other sources leading to debt traps. When they are unable to pay the money, at times they commit suicide.
3. Crop failure-Natural or manual failure, drought, heavy rain, pests, insecticides, etc.
4. Totally dependent on the market – when there is a crop failure, they have nothing to fall back on insecurity.
5. Besides production costs, there are other expenditures to be incurred. Education, dowry, medial care etc

The Story Indian Democracy Notes

Facts that Matter

• Democracy is a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.
• Democracies fall into two basic categories, direct and representative.

Direct democracy

• All citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials, can participate in making public decisions.
• Such a system is clearly only practical with relatively small numbers of people – in a community organisation or tribal council, for example, the local unit of a trade union, where members can meet in a single room to discuss issues and arrive at decisions by consensus or majority vote.

Representative democracy

• Citizens elect officials to make political decisions, formulate laws, and administer programmes for the public good.
• Every citizen has the important right to vote her/his representative. People elect their representatives to all levels from Panchayats, Municipal Boards, State Assemblies and Parliament.
• Participatory democracy is a system of democracy in which the members of a group or community participate collectively in the taking of major decisions.
• Decentralised governance/democratic decentralisation system of governance:
  Where power is divided among levels and each level has its own powers and authority (duties, responsibilities) e.g Panchayati Raj.

Core Values of Democracy

• Democracy is not a modem term, it has been there for a long long ago.
• Example of democratic behaviour has been shown in traditional plays and stories and in the epics, folklores.
• It is a combination of modem and traditional ideas. Modem ideas taken from the colonial rule and traditional ideas taken from folklores and epics.
• Western ideas-» Taken from books and other country’s example.
• Indian National Congress-e-Most powerful party had sessions in various places. Karachi Session 1931 was crucial because the concept of Pooma Swaraj came into being.
• Also known as Karachi Resolution in which ideas were put together and later put into the constitution, fundamental rights were taken from these ideas.
  156

Fundamental Rights
1. All religions are equal: Everyone has the right to choose his/her religion.
2. Everyone should be free to elect, and vote for his/her representatives. Women can also work and can exercise their rights.
3. Right to Freedoms- Justice to all.

Constitutent Assembly and Drafting of Constitution
• Constitutent Assembly formed to draft constitution, had members from all walks of life.
• 1945-46 Constituent Assembly was formed, people from all sections, religions, castes, language, element group, region were part of it.
• B R Ambedkar was the head of assembly.
• There were a lot of debates on various issues e.g. When Panchayati Raj was suggested BR Ambedkar was against it because there would be more divisions among castes.
• But Panchayati Raj was formed in 1992.

Constitution and social change

• The multi-religious and multicultural composition of the population with distinct streams of tribal culture is one aspect of the plurality. Many divides classify the Indian people.
• The impact that culture, religion, and caste have on the urban–rural divide, rich-poor divide and the literate-illiterate divide is varied. Deeply stratified by caste and poverty, there are groupings and sub-groupings among the rural poor.
• The urban working class comprises a very wide range. Then, there is the well-organised domestic business class as also the professional and commercial class. The urban professional class is highly vocal.
• Competing interests operate on the Indian social scene and clamour for control of the State’s resources.

Basic objectives laid down by the Constitution

• Empowerment of the poor and marginalised, poverty alleviation, ending of caste and positive steps to treat all groups equally.

Competing interest

• Competing interests do not always reflect a clear class divide.
• Take the issue of the close down of a factory because it emits toxic waste and affects the health of those around. This is a matter of life, which the Constitution protects.
• The flipside is that the closure will render people jobless. Livelihood again, is a matter of life that the Constitution protects.
• It is interesting that at the time of drawing up the Constitution, the Constituent Assembly was fully aware of this complexity and plurality but was intent on securing social justice as a guarantee.

Law and justice

• The essence of law is its force. Law is law because it carries the means to coerce or force obedience. The power of the state is behind it.
• The essence of justice is fairness. Any system of laws functions through a hierarchy of authorities.
• The basic norm from which all other rules and authorities flow is called the Constitution. It is the document that constitutes a nation’s tenets.
• The Indian Constitution is India’s basic norm. All other laws are made as per the procedures the Constitution prescribes. These laws are made and implemented by the authorities specified by the Constitution.
• A hierarchy of courts (which too are authorities created by the Constitution) interpret the laws when there is a dispute. The Supreme Court is the highest court and the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution.
• The Supreme Court has enhanced the substance of Fundamental Rights in the Constitution in many important ways.

The Constitution and social justice

• The Constitution is not just a ready reference of do’s and don’ts for social justice. It has the potential for the meaning of social justice to be extended.
• Social movements have also aided the Courts and authorities to interpret the contents of rights and principles in keeping with the contemporary understanding on social justice.
• Law and Courts are sites where competing views are debated. The Constitution remains a means to channelise and civilise political power towards social welfare.
• The Constitution has the capacity to help people because it is based on basic norms of social justice. For instance, the Directive Principle on village panchayats was moved as an amendment in the Constituent assembly by K. Santhanam.
• After forty odd years it became a Constitutional imperative after the 73rd Amendment in 1992.

Panchayati Raj

• Panchayati Raj translates literally to ‘Governance by five individuals’.
• The idea is to ensure at the village or grass root level a functioning and vibrant democracy.
• While the idea of grassroot democracy is not an alien import to our country, in a society where there are sharp inequalities democratic participation is hindered on grounds of gender, caste and class.
• Traditionally there have been caste panchayats in villages. But they have usually represented dominant groups.
• They often held conservative views and often have, and continue to take decisions that go against both democratic norms and procedures.

Panchyati Raj Institution

• The structure of the three tier system of Panchyati Raj Institution is like a pyramid. At the base of the structure stands the unit of democracy or Gram Sabha followed by the Panchayat Samiti or Gram Panchayat and then the Zila Parishad.
• This consists of the entire body of citizens in a village or grama. It is this general body that elects the local government and charges it with specific responsibilities.
• The Gram Sabhas ideally ought to provide an open forum for discussions and village-level development activities and play a crucial role in ensuring inclusion of the weaker sections in the decision-making processes.
• The 73rd Amendment provided a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all states having a population of over twenty lakhs. It became mandatory that election to these bodies be conducted every five years.
• It provided reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and thirty three percent seats for women.
• It constituted District Planning Committee to prepare drafts and develop plans for the district as a whole.

The 73rd and 74th amendments

• Ensured the reservation of one third of the total seats for women in all elected offices of local bodies in both the rural and urban areas. Out of this, 17 per cent seats are reserved for women belonging to the scheduled castes and tribes.
• This amendment is significant as for the first time it brought women into elected bodies which also bestowed on them decision making powers. One third of the seats in local bodies, gram panchayats, village panchayats, municipalities, city corporations and district boards are reserved for women.
• The 1993-94 elections, soon after the 73rd amendment brought in 800,000 women into the political processes in a single election. That was a big step indeed in enfranchising women.
• A constitutional amendment prescribed a three-tier system of local self-governance for the entire country, effective since 1992-93.

Power and responsibilities of Panchyats

• According to the Constitution, Panchayats should be given powers and authority to function as institutions of self-government. It, thus, requires all state governments to revitalise local representative institutions.
• The following powers and responsibility were delegated to the Panchayats:
  • to prepare plans and schemes for economic development
  • to promote schemes that will enhance social justice
  • to levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees
  • help in the devolution of governmental responsibilities, especially that of finances to local authorities

Social welfare responsibilities

• The maintenance of burning and burial grounds
• Recording statistics of births and deaths, establishment of child welfare and maternity centres
• Control of cattle pounds
• Propagation of family planning
• Promotion of agricultural activities.

Development activities

• The construction of roads, public buildings, wells, tanks and schools.
• They also promote small cottage industries and take care of minor irrigation works.
• Many government schemes like the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) are monitored by members of the panchayat.

Income of the Panchayats

• The main income of the Panchayats is from tax levied on property, profession, animals, vehicles, cess on land revenue and rentals.
• The resources are further increased by the grants received through the Zilla Panchayat.
• It is also considered compulsory for Panchayat offices to put up boards outside their offices, listing the break up of funds received, and utilisation of the financial aid received.
• This exercise was taken up to ensure that people at the grassroot level should have the ‘right to information’ – opening all functioning to the public eye.
• People had the right to scrutinise allocation of money. And ask reasons for decisions that were taken for the welfare and development activities of the village.

Nyaya Panchayats

• Nyaya Panchayats have been constituted in some states.
• They possess the authority to hear some petty, civil and criminal cases.
• They can impose fines but cannot award a sentence.
• These village courts have often been successful in bringing about an agreement amongst contending parties. They have been particularly effective in punishing men who harass women for dowry and perpetrate violence against them.

Van Panchayats

• Van-panchayats were set up by women in Uttarakhand in order to stop the problem of deforestation that is a big problem in the mountainous regions.
• Members of the van-panchayats develop nurseries and nurture tree saplings for planting on the hill slopes.
• Members also police nearby forests to keep an eye on illegal felling of trees.
• The Chipko movement – where women hugged trees to prevent them from being cut had its beginnings in this area.

Panchayati Raj training for illiterate women

• The story of two villages, Sukhipur and Dhukipur are unravelled through a cloth ‘phad’ or a scroll (a traditional folk medium of story telling).
• Village Dhukipur (sad village) has a corrupt Pradhan (Bimla), who has spent the money received from the panchayat for building a school, on constructing a house for herself and her family. The rest of the village are sad and poor.
• On the other hand Sukhipur (happy village) has a content populace as the Pradhan (Najma) has invested rural reconstruction money in developing good infrastructure for her village. Here the primary health centre is functioning, it has a ‘pucca’ building and also has a good road so that buses can reach the village.
• Pictorial pictures on the ‘phad’, accompanied with folk music were useful tools to convey the message for able governance and participation.
• This innovative method of story telling was very affective in bringing awareness to unlettered women. Most importantly the campaign conveyed the message, that it was not enough to merely vote, or to stand for election, or to win. But important to know why one is voting for a particular person, what are the traits to look for, and what does he or she stand for.
• The value for integrity is also emphasised through the story and song media of the ‘phad’.

Tradition of grassroot democratic functioning in tribal areas

• Tribal areas like Kahsis, Jaintias and Garos in Meghalaya have their own traditional political institutions that have existed for hundreds of years.
• These political institutions were fairly well-developed and functioned at various tiers, such as the village level, clan level and state level. For instance, in the traditional political system of the Khasis each clan had its own council known as the ‘Durbar Kur’ which was presided over by the clan headman.
• Though there is a long tradition of grassroot political institutions in Meghalaya, a large chunk of tribal areas lie outside the provisions of the 73rd Amendment. This may be because the concerned policy makers did not wish to interfere with the traditional tribal institutions.
• However, as sociologist Tiplut Nongbri remarks that tribal institutions in themselves need not necessarily be democratic in its structure and functioning. The strong egalitarian ethos characterises tribal societies and thus the element of stratification is not altogether absent.
• Tribal political institutions are not only marked by open intolerance to women but the process of social change has also introduced sharp distortions in the system, making it difficult to identify which is traditional and which is not.

Inequality in democracy

• Democratisation is not easy in a society that has had a long history of inequality based on caste, community and gender.
• Given this unequal and undemocratic social structure, it is not surprising that in many cases, certain members belonging to particular groups, communities, castes of the village are not included or informed about meetings and activities of the village.
• The Gram Sabha members are often controlled by a small coterie of rich landlords usually hailing from the upper castes or landed peasantry.
• They make decisions on development activities, allocate funds, leaving the silent majority as mere onlookers.

Political parties

• A political party may be defined as an organisation oriented towards achieving legitimate control of government through an electoral process.
• Political Party is an organisation established with the aim of achieving governmental power and using that power to pursue a specific programme.
• Political parties are based on certain understanding of society and how it ought to be. In a democratic form of government political parties are key actors.
• In a democratic system the interests of different groups are also represented by political parties, who take up their case.

Pressure groups

• Different interest groups work towards influencing political parties to take up their case.
• When certain groups feel that their interests are not being taken up, they may move to form an alternative party.
• Or they form pressure groups who lobby with the government