Yearly Archives: 2022

Q1. What do you understand by the term development? Would all sections of society benefit from such a definition of development?

Answer

Development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress, well-being and an aspiration for a better
life. Through its notion of development a society articulates what constitutes its vision for the society as a whole and how best to achieve it. This definition of development would benefit all the sections of society as it shows the basic need which is the food, shelter, education, clothes etc.

However, development has become the subject of considerable controversy today. It has unfortunately often come to be identified with achieving pre-set targets, or completing projects like dams, or factories, hospitals, rather than with realising the broader vision of development which the society upholds. In the process some sections of society may have benefited while others may have had to suffer loss of their homes, or lands, or way of life, without any compensatory gains.

Q2. Discuss some of the social and ecological costs of the kind of development which has been pursued in most countries.

Answer

Social Costs of Development

• A large number of people have been displaced from their homes and localities due to the construction of big dams, industrial activities and mining activities, or other projects.

• Displacement causes loss of livelihood and increased impoverishment along with destruction of local culture and community life.

• Displacement of rural agricultural communities has resulted in increased number of urban and rural poor and has brought them into the category of marginalised people.

• It is responsible for many struggles and social disorganisation.

Ecological Costs of Development
• The model of development we are pursuing is heavily dependent on the increasing use of energy which is currently generated in the world is from non-renewable sources like coal or petroleum.
• The ice in the Arctic and Antarctic is melting because of increased emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and this has the potential to cause floods and actually submerge low lying areas like Bangladesh and the Maldives.s
• Air pollution is already a problem which does not discriminate between the rich and the poor.
• Loss of forests affects the poor who use forest resources for a variety of subsistence needs like firewood, medicinal herbs or food.
• Drying up of rivers and ponds and falling ground water levels means that women have to walk longer in order to procure water.
• Large tracts of the Amazon rainforests are being deforested in order to provide for the increased consumer needs.

Q3.What are some of the new claims for rights which the process of development has generated?
Answer

• The protection of people affected by development from the state and the society as a whole.

• The right of people to be consulted about decisions that affect their lives.

•The right to livelihood of people when their regular livelihood activities are threatened by developmental activities.

• Rights of communities, particularly tribal and aboriginal, to the use of natural resources.

• Rights of future generations to the resources that are common to the entire humanity.

Q4. What would be the advantages of democracy over other forms of government for ensuring that decisions regarding development are made to promote the common good?
Answer
• In a democracy conflicts over resources, or different visions of the good life, are resolved through debate and a respect for the rights of all. These cannot be imposed from the higher authorities.
• Democracy ensure participation of local decision-making bodies to take decisions about development projects in the local
• The people have to be consulted on issues which most affect them and it should be possible to reject projects which can adversely affect the community.
• A decentralised approach to development makes it possible to use various kinds of technologies traditional and modern in a creative manner.
Q5. In your view how successful have popular struggles been in making the state responsive to the social and environmental costs of development? Discuss with examples.
Answer
The popular struggles such as Narmada Bachao Aandolan and Chipko Movement tired to make state responsive in their own way.
• Narmada Bachao Aandolan is a social movement against a number of large dams being built across the Narmada River. It first started as a protest for not providing proper rehabilitation and resettlement for the people who have been displaced by the construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam. Later on, the movement turned its focus on the preservation of the environment and the eco-systems of the valley. A large forest was submerged during the construction and many people were displaced. This social movement has been partially successful in reducing the height of Sardar Sarovar Dam.
• Chipko Movement main objective was to protect the trees on the Himalayan slopes from the axes of contractors of the forest. This movement against deforestation was successful in Uttrakhand. The people hugged the trees and stopped the contractors from cutting them down. This ecological movement also secured the livelihood of the local people who are depended on these forests.

Short Answer Type Question:

Q1. Do you think that a change towards a peaceful world, needs a change in the way people think? Can mind promote peace and is it enough to focus only on the human mind?

Answer

Peace is the central theme of all religion. We think from our minds and this is the place where all conflicts arises. So if people can think from different irrespective then we can take step towards a peaceful world. However, the mind by itself is not enough to promote peace because you cannot control the outside harmful elements of the society Thus, the creation of a peaceful society requires the elimination of these harmful elements.

Q2. A State must protect the lives and rights of its citizens. However, at times its own actions are a source of violence against some of its citizens. Comment with the help of some examples.

Answer

Each state sees itself as an independent and supreme entity, it tends to protect its own perceived self-interest. The state is expected to use its force, its army or its police, to protect its citizens, in practice these forces could be deployed against its own members to suppress dissent. This is most clearly evident in authoritarian regimes and military dictatorships.
•  In America, until 1865, slavery existed. In Germany, during Hitler’s regime genocide was commited.  In South Africa, policy of racial discrimination was followed until 1992.• In certain countries the policy of racial discrimination is followed even today. • Immigrants from Asia, Latin America and Africa are not treated well in western countries. • In Myanmar, under the military regime, many democratic leaders and citizens were  put in jail. Aung San Suu Kyi, the leading opposition leader was kept under House arrest from 1989 to 1995.

Q3. Peace can be best realised when there is freedom, equality and justice. Do you agree?
Answer: Peace can be best realised when there is freedom, equality and justice. Freedom allows people to express themselves freely on the other hand equality and justice help in removing the grounds for conflict. Through equality, we can ensure get equal treatment and reduce the chance of negative thinking. Justice ensures the prevention of oppression of individuals and groups based on class, gender, etc.

• In a democracy, where freedom, justice and equality is the right of every individual, we see people are more peaceful as compared to Iraq, Iran and North Korea. These ideals help in building a society that cooperate with others.

Q4. Use of violence does not achieve just ends in the long run. What do you think about this statement?

Answer

Use of violence does not achieve just ends in the long run as it tends to spin out of control, leaving behind a trail of death and destruction. Violence involved in forcefully removing oppressors, liberation struggle and self-defence is often justified. However, the removal of oppressors by the oppressed class through violent struggle leads to another cycle of violence fuelled by a feeling for revenge.
It is for this reason that pacifists, who considerpeace to be a supreme value, take a moral stand against the use of violence even for attaining just ends. They too recognise the need to fight oppression but they advocate the mobilisation of love and truth to win the hearts and minds of the oppressors.

Q5. Differentiate between the major approaches, discussed in the chapter, to the establishment of peace in the world.

Answer

The major approaches that are discuss in the chapter to the establishment of peace in the world are:

• The First Approach: It is related centrally to states which favours sovereignty and deals with fair competition between the states. Its chief concern is with the proper management of this competition and with the containment of possible conflict.

• The Second Approach: It put emphasis on increasing social and economic cooperation among nations. The economic integration and interdependence that leads to political unification.

• The Third Approach: It considers state as passing phase of human history. It cisualises the state as a transitory system and the emergence of a global community surpassing the state system to maintain world peace. The process of globalisation has accelerated the process by reducing the influence of state and diluting the concept of sovereignty.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.List the names of few Nobel Peace Prize winners and write a note on any one of them.
Answer:

• Mrs. Aung Saan Suu Kuyi (Myanmar)-1991
• Miss Riyoberta Manchu (Guatemala)-1992
• Nelson Mandela and F.W.D. Clark (South Africa)-1993
• Yasser Arafal (PLO) and Yitzhok Robin (Israel)-1994
• Joseph Rotblat anti-nuclear campaigner (UK) and the Purgwash Conference on Science and World Affairs which he chairs-1995
• Jose Romos Horta and Bishop Carlos Felipe (East Timor)-1996
• Jody Williams (USA)-International Campaign to Ban Landmines and Its Coordinator-1997.
• John Home and David Trimble (Northern Ireland)-1998
• Medicine Sans Frantiers (Doctors without Borders)-1999
• Kim Dae Jung (South Korea)-2000
• Kofi Annan (UN Secretary-General)-2001

Aung Saan Suu Kuyi:

• Inspired much from the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Remained under house arrest in Myanmar for restoration of democracy and the freedom of her people.
• She says “for me, real freedom is freedom from fear to live a dignified human life”. id) Her words suggest not to be afraid of the opinions of others or of the attitude of authority, or of the reactions of the members of out community.
  Her book of essays also bears the title “Freedom from Fear”.

Q2.Mention different types of structural violence?
Answer:
Caste as a cause of structural violence:

• In India, traditional caste system has been existed.
• This system considers the lower caste people as ‘untouchables’.
• This ‘untouchability’ resulted in social exclusion and deprivation of the worst sort. id) Though a social order based on class appears to be more flexible, still it generates a great deal of inequality and oppression.

Class-based structural violence capitalist vs. Labour class:

• A sizeable unclass exists even in the developed countries.
• In the developing countries, the majority of labour classes faces the conditions of wages underpaid and ill-conditions of working.

Based on ill-treatment with women:

• To treat women with discrimination.
• Its examples are abortion of female foeticides, inadequate nourishment to women, child marriage, education to girl-child, wife battering, etc.
• The low sex-ratio in India (933 females per 1000 males).

Political based structure violence:

• Though imperialism and colonialism has been a rare phenomenon.
• Still Palestinian struggle against Israeli domination shows not be rooted out this phenomenon.
• Even European Imperialist countries also have to recover completely from manifold exploitation during colonial era.

Racism and communalism based structure violence:

• It involve stigmatization and oppression of entire racial group.
• It has been used to justify insidious practices like Negro slavery in USA, slaughter of Jews during Nazism and Apartheid policy in South Africa.
• Racial discrimination is still in practice in the west and directed against immigrants from countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• Communalism may be seen in South Asian counterpart of racism where the victims tend to be minority religious groups.

Q3.How India has implemented Human Rights?
Answer:

• India has granted and guaranteed all the human rights to its citizens which soever have been included in the UN declaration of human rights.
• India is the largest democracy in the world to grant fundamental rights to its citizens constitutionally as well as opposed the violation of human rights by any country to raise voice against it.
• India has established National Humans Rights Commission at the central level and state Human Rights Commissions at the state level to look into the complaints and to take their own initiatives to stop violation of human rights.
• As far as, human rights are concerned, various laws have been passed by the government of India to point out the case of torture by police, state managed encounters, and custodial death in violation of human rights.

Q4.What is the role of the UNO in maintaining world peace?
Answer:
The UNO has adopted various methods for the realisation of its objectives:

• To unite the nations in maintaining international peace and security.
• To ensure that armed forces will not be used except in common interest.
• To employ international machinery for the promotions of social and economic development of peoples.
• To practicise tolerance.

The UNO has played following crucial role in the maintenance of world peace:

• In 1950, North Korea attacked on South Korea, the UNO intervened and sent the armies of 16 nations to control the war and it was stopped successfully.
• In 1956, Egypt declared nationalization of Suez Canal, hence England and France attacked on Egypt through Israel. The UNO made best efforts to end this war.
• In 1965, Pakistan attacked on India and the UNO intervened to end this war with the treaty of Tashkent in 1966.
• In 1991, the Gulf war took place between the USA and other European countries against Iraq. The UNO passed a resolution to end the war.
• The UNO has made many efforts for disarmament by passing many resolutions to maintain international peace and order.

Short Answer type Question:

Q1. Which of the following do you feel are compatible with the idea of secularism? Give reasons.
(a) Absence of domination of one religious group by another.
(b) Recognition of a state religion.
(c) Equal state support to all religions.
(d) Mandatory prayers in schools.
(e) Allowing separate educational institutions for any minority community.
(f) Appointment of temple management bodies by the government.
(g) Intervention of state to ensure entry of Dalits in temples.

Answer

(a) Compatible
Secularism opposes all forms of inter-religious domination.

(b) Not Compatible
Secular state has no official religion.

(c) Compatible
In Secularism, all regions are treated similar.

(d) No Compatible
Making religious activity compulsory is not accepted in secular state.

(e) Compatible
Minority community should be given right to to maintain its cultural identity.

(f) Not Compatible
Government should not interfere or involve in any kind of religious activity.

(g) Compatible
Government should prevent discrimination and provides equal rights to every social group.

Q2. Some of the key characteristics of western and Indian model of secularism have got mixed up. Separate them and make a new table.

Western Secularism	Indian Secularism
Strict non-interference of religion and state in each other’s affairs.	State supported religious reforms allowed.
Equality between different religious groups is a key concern.	Equality between different sects of a religion is emphasised
Attention to minority rights	Less attention to community based rights
Individual and his rights at the centre	Rights of both individual and religious community protected.

Answer

Western Secularism	Indian Secularism
State supported religious reforms allowed.	Strict non-interference of religion and state in each other’s affairs.
Equality between different religious groups is a key concern.	Equality between different religious groups is a key concern.
Less attention to community based rights.	Attention to minority rights
Individual and his rights at the centre.	Rights of both individual and religious community protected.

Q3. What do you understand by secularism? Can it be equated with religious tolerance?

Answer

Secularism opposes all such forms of inter-religious domination. Secularism cannot be equated with religious tolerance as tolerance may be compatible with religious domination by one group. It promotes freedom within religions, and equality between, as well as within, religions.

Q4. Do you agree with the following statements? Give reasons for supporting or opposing any of them.
(a) Secularism does not allow us to have a religious identity.
(b) Secularism is against inequality within a religious group or between different religious groups.
(c) Secularism has a western-Christian origin. It is not suitable for India.

Answer

(a) Secularism allow us to have a religious identity. In India, people enjoy freedom of religion.A citizen can have a religious identity and can practice, preserve and develop their religion and religious institutions.

(b) The Indian government tries to maintain equality within religious groups to prevent discrimination and eradicate practices that are derogatory to human dignity.

(c) India has diverse culture, ethnicity and religion. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure equal treatment to all groups both within and between different religions to maintain harmony and integrate the country.

Q5. Indian secularism focuses on more than the religion-state separation. Explain.

Answer

Indian secularism does not only focus on the religion-state separation but it is also concerned with peace, religious freedom, freedom from religiously grounded oppression, discrimination and exclusion, as also inter-religious and intra-religious equality. To promote these ends the state must be separated from organised religion and its institutions for the sake of some of these values. Indian secularism allows every religion to flourish and develop. The Indian state allows the promotion of all religions and treats each of them equally. The state does not interfere in religious matters but it checks the influence of religion in public life.

Q6. Explain the concept of principled distance.

Answer

Principle distance means a secular state should not interfere in any religion actively to promote peace between communities and it may also intervene to protect the rights of specific communities. The state gives equal preference to every religion and respects them all equally.However, the state may interfere if religious groups try to exercise their power on the political and social life of the people. This balanced distance of state from any religion is the concept of principled distance.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.What are the elements to make India a secular state and suggestions to strengthen secularism in India?
Answer:
A secular state:

• Consider religion and belief as a personal matter of individual.
• Civil administration is free from domination of religious parties and organisations.
• Laws made by elected representatives are enforced only.
• Political system should not be theocratic.
• No discrimination should be made in job opportunity and recognition of status.
• Fraternity should be recognised.

Elements to make India a secular state:

• State has no religion at its own.
• State is neutral and impartial in matters of religion.
• Every citizen has a right to adopt or profess any religion and to practicise in one’s own way.
• No one can be discriminated on the ground of religion.
• Minorities have been guaranteed the right to establish and run their educational institutions for protection of their language, script and culture.
• state cannot compel an individual to embrace or renounce any religion.

Suggestions to strengthen secularism:

• Religion should be kept separate from state politics.
• The political parties based upon religion or encourage communalism should be banned.
• If any candidate or political party campaigns on the ground of religions sentiments, should be punished or banned forever.
• Education should be imparted to students from the very first stage to embrace the principles of secularism along with scientific and national thinking.

Q2.Mention the constitutional provisions in India to promote secularism.
Answer:

• The preamble to the constitution speaks of the liberty in important matters like faith, worship and belief.
• Article 14 states not to deny equality before law within the territory of India.
• Article 15 states not to discrimination any citizen on the grounds of caste, colour, race, religion, etc. and not to deny access to public places also.
• Article 16 states not to discriminate among individuals on any ground in matters of public employment or to deny admission in educational institutions.
• Article 17 declares untouchability a punishable offence under law.
• Article 25 provides right to adopt, practices, profess and propogate any religion of one’s choice.
• Article 26 provides to have rights to establish and maintain institutions for religions and charitable purposes, to mange its own affairs of religion, to own and acquire movable and immovable property and to administer it as well.
• Article 27 states that no person shall be compelled to pay taxes to proceed the payment of expenses for promotion and maintenance of particular religions denomination.
• Article 28 states that no religions instructions shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained by the state.
• Article 29 provides that the state shall not impose upon it any culture other than community’s own culture.

Short Answer type Question:

Q1. How is a nation different from other forms of collective belonging?
Answer

• A nation is not any casual collection of people. At the same time it is also different from other groups or communities found in human society.

• Nation is different from the family which is based on face-to-face relationships with each member having direct personal knowledge of the identity and character of others.

• Nation is also different from tribes and clans and other kinship groups in which ties of marriage and
descent link members to each other so that even if we do not personally know all the members we can, if need be, trace the links that bind them to us.

• In nation we may never come face to face with most of our fellow nationals nor need we share ties of descent with them but nations exist, are lived in and valued by their members.

Q2. What do you understand by the right to national self-determination? How has this idea resulted in both formation of and challenges to nation-states?

Answer

Right to national self-determination means nations seek the right to govern themselves and determine their future development. In making this claim a nation seeks recognition and acceptance by the international community of its status as a distinct political entity or state.

Most often these claims come from people who have lived together on a given land for a long period of time and who have a sense of common identity. In some cases such claims to self-determination are linked also to the desire to form a state in which the culture of the group is protected if not privileged.

In the world today, more and more people are beginning to realise that the solution does not lie in creating new states but in making existing states more democratic and equal. That is, in ensuring that people with different cultural and ethnic identities live and co-exist as partners and equal citizens within the country. This may be essential not only for resolving problems arising from new claims for self-determination but also for building a strong and united state.

Q3. “We have seen that nationalism can unite people as well as divide them, liberate them as well as generate bitterness and conflict”. Illustrate your answer with examples.

Answer

Nationalism as unifying factor:

• In the 19th century Europe, the spirit of Nationalism led to the unification of a number of small kingdoms into larger nation states.

• The present day German and Italian states were formed through such a process of unification and consolidation.

Nationalism as dividing factor:

• Nationalism is also responsible for the breakup of big empires such as Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires in the early 20th century.

• Nationalism was also mainly responsible for the break up of the British, French, Dutch and Portuguese empires in Asia and Africa.

Q4. Neither descent, nor language, nor religion or ethnicity can claim to be a common factor in nationalisms all over the world. Comment.

Answer
descent, nor language, nor religion or ethnicity can claim to be a common factor in nationalisms all over the world. It is not possible to find purity of race in a single nationality. There is in fact no common set of characteristics which is present in all nations. Many nations do not have a common language. For example, Canada that includes English speaking as well as French speaking peoples. India also has a large number of languages which are spoken in different regions and by different communities. Nor do many nations have a common religion to unite them. The same could be said of other characteristics such as race or descent.
Q5. Illustrate with suitable examples the factors that lead to the emergence of nationalist feelings.
Answer
• Shared Beliefs: It is to refer to the collective identity and vision for the future of a group which aspires to have an independent political existence. A nation exists when its members believe that they belong together.

• History: People who see themselves as a nation also embody a sense of continuing historical identity. They articulate for themselves a sense of their own history by drawing on collective memories, legends, historical records, to outline the continuing identity of the nation.
• Territory: Sharing a common past and living together on a particular territory over a long period of time gives people a sense of their collective identity. It helps them to imagine themselves as one people.
• Shared Political Ideals: A shared vision of the future and the collective aspiration to have an independent political existence that distinguishes groups from nations. Members of a nation share a vision of the kind of state they want to build. They affirm among other things a set of values and principles such as democracy, secularism and liberalism.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.What is nationalism? Mention its merits and demerits also.
Answer:
Nationalism is a desire for having separate region for free and independent development of one’s culture, race, language, etc.
Merits of Nationalism:

• Nationalism makes an individual to feel that the nation is above all and raises the standard of thinking and behaving of individuals about nation.
• Nationalism asserts independent living and thinking among the citizens of country.
• Nationalism creates a sense to make country free from colonial rule or from those who rule over the nation from outside (foreigners, etc.)
• Nationalism gives an opportunity to each nation for development of its culture and develop a sense of pride towards the culture and heritage of a nation.
• Nationalism makes a country self-sufficient to meet the basic necessities of a nation during a crisis.
• Nationalism creates healthy rivals at international level to get better standard of living, social life, etc.

Demerits of nationalism:

• Nationalism has resulted in the World War I and II due to greed of people to expand their own nationalism beyond territories.
• In nationalism, each fact is exaggerated, i.e. national achievements are given wide publicity to pose a major problem.
• Nationalism misuses the authority which creates a larger gap between the rich and the poor by making the rich richer and the poor poorer.
• Nationalism can be used against slave countries by capitalist countries.

Short Answer Type Question:

Q1. Citizenship as full and equal membership of a political community involves both rights and obligations. Which rights could citizens expect to enjoy in most democratic state today? What kind of obligation will they have to their state and fellow citizens?
Answer
The rights that citizens are expected to enjoy in most democratic state today are some political
rights like the right to vote, civil rights like the freedom of speech or belief, and some socio-economic rights which could include the right to a minimum wage, or the right to education.
There are legal and moral obligations on citizens to participate in and contribute to the shared life of the community as well as the state. Citizens are also considered to be the inheritors and trustees of the culture and natural resources of the country.
Q2. All citizens may be granted equal rights but all may not be able to equally exercise them. Explain.
Answer
All citizens may be granted equal rights but all may not be able to equally exercise them because
• Differences in their economic and social position.
• Differences in their opinions, choices, interests.
• Lack of information and awareness
• Corruption in government framework

Q3. Write a short note on any two struggles for full enjoyment of citizen rights which have taken place in India in recent years. Which rights were being claimed in each case?

Answer
https://9b12eb40f35359b0072a687c8cb7a0ef.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-38/html/container.htmlNarmada Bachao Andolan is a protest against a large number of dams being contrasted near Narmada river because the dam will flood the area and people will get displaced. This brought a large number of adivasis, farmers, environmentalists, and human rights activists together.  The movement force the government to stop the work at the dam and directing the concerned states to first complete the rehabilitation and replacement process. Later, Court allowed the construction to proceed, subject to conditions. In this movement, right to shelter, food and security were being claimed.
Nirbhaya Movement is protest against the 2012 Delhi rape case which forced the people to came out on streets in several parts of the country. The movement also created a stir in social media where people changed their display picture to a black dot and tens of thousands of people signed a petition protesting the incident. Taking the movement into consideration, the government at the centre and various states announced several steps to ensure the safety of women. In this case, right to security and against sex discrimination were being claimed.

Q4. What are some of the problems faced by refugees? In what ways could the concept of global citizenship benefit them?

Answer
Some of the problems that are faced by refugees are:
• Problem of shelter
• Problem of food
• Problem of their children’s education
• Problem of employment opportunities
• They don’t have citizenship and any rights.
The concept of global citizenship would be beneficial for refugees as this make it easier to deal with problems which extend across national boundaries and which therefore need cooperative action
by the people and governments of many states. It ensures refugees basic rights and protection regardless of the country in which they may be living.

Q5. Migration of people to different regions within the country is often resisted by the local inhabitants. What are some of the contributions that the migrants could make to the local economy?
Answer
Some of the contributions that the migrants could make to the local economy are:
• They increase the labour force of the country which decrease the labour cost.
• They bring new techniques and technology which is helpful in doing work faster and effectively.
• They pay taxes in which they are living.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.How can we classify rights?
Answer:
Rights can be classified into the following two types:
(a) Moral rights are our moral senses which cannot be demanded or cannot be forced. Even if moral rights are violated, no legal action can be taken, i.e. to make children educated to look after parents, etc.
(b) Legal rights are recognized by the state which are enforceable and can be classified as:

• Civil rights help to lead a secured social life, i.e. right to life and education.
• Political rights are given to the citizens by the state, i.e. right to contest election, right to vote, right to hold any public office, etc.
• Economic rights include right to work, to rest, to housing, to buy own property in any part of country and to possess any job or profession in the country.

Q2.Explain some political rights of the citizens.
Answer:
Political rights are given to the citizens to participate in the affairs of the state:

• Right to vote is the most important political right to participate in the formation of government without any discrimination, i.e. every citizen in the age of 18 years and above enjoys the right to vote.
• Every voter enjoys the right to contest elections, i.e. right to be elected as a representatives on the attainment of 25 years of age.
• All the citizens are eligible to hold public offices equally, i.e. on one can be discriminated on the ground of colour, language, religion, caste, etc.
• Every citizen enjoys the right to address petitions of complaints to the competent authorities, i.e. people’s grievance can be redressed by the government.
• Citizens can enjoy the right to form political parties also at their own.
• The citizens are provided the right to equality before law, i.e. equal opportunities are available to one and all without any discrimination on any ground.

Q3.Explain some civil rights of its citizens.
Answer:
Civil rights are as follows:

• The life of an individual is considered the property of state also as its human resource. Hence, it protects the life of individual also by providing the right to life. To commit suicide or to murder has been declared punishable offence.
• The citizens are allowed to enjoy the right to personal liberty. Hence, no individual can be arrested arbitrarily and cannot be deprived of his life, liberty and property without a breach of law established in an ordinary court of law.
• The citizens enjoy the right to equality in all spheres in a democratic state, i.e. all individuals should enjoy equal opportunities and nobody should be discriminated on any ground.
• Every individual enjoys the right to move freely in any part of country and to reside also in any part of the territory. No one can be compelled to leave one place without one’s own will.
• Every citizen in a state exercises the right to freedom of thought and expression, i.e. writing, speaking, free expression of opinion and even to criticise the governmental policies, etc.
• The citizens are provided with the freedom to form social, economic, political and cultural association. The state cannot interfere in the functioning of these associations, i.e. trade unions, commercial associations, etc.

Short Answer Type Question:

Q1. What are rights and why are they important? What are the bases on which claims to rights can be made?
Answer
Rights are those claims which are necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. It is important because:
• It helps individuals to develop their talents and skills.
• It helps to develop one’s capacity to reason.
• It gives individuals useful skills and enables us to make informed choices in life.
The bases on which claims to rights can be made are
• They represent conditions that we collectively see as a source of self-respect and dignity
• They are necessary for our well-being.

Q2. On what grounds are some rights considered to be universal in nature? Identify three rights which you consider universal. Give reasons.

Answer

Some rights are considered to be universal in nature because they are important for all human beings
who live in society. Three universal rights are:
• Right to a livelihood is necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity.
• Right to education is universal because it helps to develop our capacity to reason, gives us useful
skills and enables us to make informed choices in life
• Freedom of expression is important as it allows for the free expression of beliefs and opinions.

Q3. Discuss briefly some of the new rights claims which are being put forward in our country today — for example the rights of tribal peoples to protect their habitat and way of life, or the rights of children against bonded labour.

Answer

Some of the new rights claims which are being put forward in our country today are: The rights for tribal people: These people are dependent on forest and land for their livelihood since ancient times. They want no interference in their habitat and way of life which is going on in the name of modernisation. According to them their demands justified and essential for leading secure and respectful life.
• The rights of children against bonded labour: Childrens are future of the country so they must be free from any kind of exploitation or bonded labour.
• The right to education: Every child must have right to receive the basic education as it helps in the development of their potential.

Q4. Differentiate between political, economic and cultural rights. Give examples of each kind of right.

Answer

• Political rights give to the citizens the right to equality before law and the right to participate in the political process. For example: right to vote and elect representatives, the right to contest elections, the right to form political parties or join them.

• Economic rights give the citizens the right to their basic needs of food, shelter, clothes etc. For example: right to minimum wage.

• Culture rights give the citizens right to preserve their culture and its dignity. For Example: right
to establish institutions for teaching one’s language and culture.

Q5. Rights place some limits on the authority of the state. Explain with examples.

Answer

Rights place some limits on the authority of the state as it suggests what the state must refrain from doing. It places certain obligations upon the state to act in a certain way. For example if right suggests that the state can not simply arrest an individual at its own will. If it wishes to put an individual behind bars it must defend that action. It must give reasons for curtailing that individual liberty before a judicial court. This is why the police are required to produce an arrest warrant before taking any person away. Thus, rights  place certain constraints upon state actions.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.How can we classify rights?
Answer:
Rights can be classified into the following two types:
(a) Moral rights are our moral senses which cannot be demanded or cannot be forced. Even if moral rights are violated, no legal action can be taken, i.e. to make children educated to look after parents, etc.
(b) Legal rights are recognized by the state which are enforceable and can be classified as:

• Civil rights help to lead a secured social life, i.e. right to life and education.
• Political rights are given to the citizens by the state, i.e. right to contest election, right to vote, right to hold any public office, etc.
• Economic rights include right to work, to rest, to housing, to buy own property in any part of country and to possess any job or profession in the country.

Q2.Explain some political rights of the citizens.
Answer:
Political rights are given to the citizens to participate in the affairs of the state:

• Right to vote is the most important political right to participate in the formation of government without any discrimination, i.e. every citizen in the age of 18 years and above enjoys the right to vote.
• Every voter enjoys the right to contest elections, i.e. right to be elected as a representatives on the attainment of 25 years of age.
• All the citizens are eligible to hold public offices equally, i.e. on one can be discriminated on the ground of colour, language, religion, caste, etc.
• Every citizen enjoys the right to address petitions of complaints to the competent authorities, i.e. people’s grievance can be redressed by the government.
• Citizens can enjoy the right to form political parties also at their own.
• The citizens are provided the right to equality before law, i.e. equal opportunities are available to one and all without any discrimination on any ground.

Q3.Explain some civil rights of its citizens.
Answer:
Civil rights are as follows:

• The life of an individual is considered the property of state also as its human resource. Hence, it protects the life of individual also by providing the right to life. To commit suicide or to murder has been declared punishable offence.
• The citizens are allowed to enjoy the right to personal liberty. Hence, no individual can be arrested arbitrarily and cannot be deprived of his life, liberty and property without a breach of law established in an ordinary court of law.
• The citizens enjoy the right to equality in all spheres in a democratic state, i.e. all individuals should enjoy equal opportunities and nobody should be discriminated on any ground.
• Every individual enjoys the right to move freely in any part of country and to reside also in any part of the territory. No one can be compelled to leave one place without one’s own will.
• Every citizen in a state exercises the right to freedom of thought and expression, i.e. writing, speaking, free expression of opinion and even to criticise the governmental policies, etc.
• The citizens are provided with the freedom to form social, economic, political and cultural association. The state cannot interfere in the functioning of these associations, i.e. trade unions, commercial associations, etc.

Short Answer type Question:

Q1. What does it mean to give each person his/her due? How has the meaning of “giving each his due” changed over time?

Answer

Giving each person his/her due means that providing justice by ensuring the well-being of the people.
The meaning of “giving each his due” changed over time, In today’s world, it means understanding of what is due to each person as a human being. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that if all persons are granted dignity then what is due to each of them is the opportunity to develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals.

Q2. Briefly discuss the three principles of justice outlined in the chapter? Explain each with examples.

Answer

Three principles of justice with examples are:

• Equal Treatment for Equals: It is the principle of treating equals equally as all individuals share certain characteristics as human beings. Therefore, they deserve equal rights and equal treatment. It includes civil rights like right to life, liberty and property, political rights like right to vote and social rights related to equal social opportunities. The people should not be discriminated against on grounds of class, caste, race or gender. They should be judged on the basis of their work and actions.
For example: if two persons from different castes perform the same kind of work, whether it be breaking stones or delivering Pizzas, they should receive the same kind of reward.
• Proportionate Justice: It is the principle of rewarding people in proportion to the scale and quality of their effort. It would be fair and just to reward different kinds of work differently if we take into account factors such as the effort required, the skills required, the possible dangers involved in that work, and so on. The principle of equal treatment needs to be balanced with the principle of proportionality. For example: The reward and compensation of police officer and clerk should be different according to skill and dangers involved.
• Recognition of Special Needs: This principle is for a society to take into account special needs of people while distributing rewards or duties. This is a way of promoting social justice. Physical disabilities, age or lack of access to good education or health care, are some of the factors which are considered grounds for special treatment in many countries. For example: The reservations of government jobs for people belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Tribes.

Q3. Does the principle of considering the special needs of people conflict with the principle of equal treatment for all?

Answer

No, the principle of considering the special needs of people does not conflict with the principle of equal treatment for all because the principle of treating equals equally could imply that people who are not equal in certain important respects could be treated differently. People with special needs or disabilities could be considered unequal in some particular respect thus special treatment require for integration with society.

Q4. How does Rawls use the idea of a veil of ignorance to argue that fair and just distribution can be defended on rational grounds?

Answer
Under idea of a veil of ignorance, only way we a person arrive at a fair and just rule is if he/she imagine themselves to be in a situation in which he/she have to make decisions about how society should be organised. There is complete ignorance about their possible position and status in society therefore he/she would rationally decide from the point of view of the worst-off. It would be sensible in this situation for everyone to ensure that all resources are available equally to all persons. Thus, Rawls, with his idea of ‘veil of ignorance’, is able to prove that fair and just distribution can be defended on rational grounds.

Q5. What are generally considered to be the basic minimum requirements of people for living a healthy and productive life? What is the responsibility of governments in trying to ensure this minimum to all?
Answer
Housing, supply of clean water, basic amount of nourishment to remain healthy, education and minimum wage are the basic minimum requirements of people for living a healthy and productive life.The responsibility of governments in trying to ensure this minimum to all are:• Government should encourage private agencies to provide services such as health care, education etc. and make policies that should try to empower people to buy those services. It might also be necessary for the government to give special help to the old and the sick who cannot compete. It should make availability of good quality goods and services at a cost people can afford.• Government should maintain a framework of laws and regulations to ensure that competition between individuals remains free of coercion and other obstacles in market.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.What are the different kinds of concepts of justice?
Answer:
Justice refers to faithful realization of existing laws against any arbitrary dealing and the ideal element in law to which a good law should aspire for. Justice can be classified as:
1. Social justice:

• No discrimination should be made among the citizens of country on the ground of religion, colour, caste, race, language, etc.
• Equal opportunities should be provided to one and all for one’s own development,
• An equality based society should be established.

2. Political justice:

• To exercise political power to serve the interests of all
• Every citizen should enjoy their right to vote without any discrimination.
• Every person should have the right to contest elections at par.
• Every citizen should have an opportunity to put pressure on government.

3. Economic justice:

• It refers to provide equal opportunities to one and all to earn money and to spend to meet the needs of life.
• National income and resources should be evenly distributed among all the people.
• Economic welfare of weaker section should be looked after.

4. Moral justice:

• Natural principles exist in the universe.
• To determine mutual relations among individuals.
• Speaking the truth, showing kindness, keeping the promises, behaving liberally, etc.

5. Legal justice:

• To frame genuine legislation to be enforced by law.
• Equal provisions of punishments should also be made without any partiality.
• State established justice by means of law.

Q2.Mention the steps taken by Constitution of India to ensure social justice.
Answer:
This is the duty of state to establish a society based on equality through executives and legislatives:

• Article 39 A (42nd Amendment) provides that state shall try to secure equal justice and free legal aid to its citizens.
• Article 42 states that the state shall make provisions to secure just and human conditions.
• Article 46 provides that the state shall promote the educational and economic interests of weaker sections of society especially for SC’s, ST’s and to protect them from social injustice.
• Article 46 says that the state shall within the limits of its economic capacity make provisions for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in areas of unemployment, old age and sickness, etc.

Q3.What measurements have been taken by India to secure social justice?
Answer:

• The preamble to the constitution of India declares its objectives to ensure social, economic and political justice.
• Since independence, various programmes have been set up to eradicate poverty in India.
• The Antyodaya Schemes have been launched for the upliftment of the poorest.
• The government has launched five year plans and many other programmes also for downtrodden people.
• To improve special status of SCs and STs, government has made provisions for their reservations in educational institutes and government jobs.
• The government of India assures right also to poor and and downtrodden people in education, age, sickness or any other disablement.

Short Answer Type Question:

Q1.What are the main features of equality?
Answer:

• Equality does not offer any special privileges in the society to treat every member equal.
• Equality provides adequate opportunities to each and every citizen in the society to develop one’s own potential.
• Every individual must have an access to the basic needs of life in a society.

Q2.Mention political dimensions of equality.
Answer:
Political equality provides equal political rights to every individual. Its dimensions are as follows:

• For the success of democracy, all the citizens should have an equal right to enjoy universal adult suffrage.
• Every individual must have the right to be elected as a representative also to contest elections.
• The citizens must enjoy the right to hold public offices also without any discrimination except qualification.

Q3.“Social inequalities can be minimized by an affirmative action”. Analyse the statement.
Answer:

• Disadvantaged communities should be provided with the facilities of scholarships and hostels, etc. in various institutions
• India has adopted the policy of reservations of seats and quotas to provide equal opportunity.
• SC’s, ST’s and OBC’s require special attention, and protection to create a just society to expand democracy.

Q4.What are positive and negative aspects of equality?
Answer:
Positive aspect:

• To provide adequate opportunities to all.
• Every individual should get equal opportunities to develop one’s own potential upto their best level.

Negative aspect:

• It refers to absence of undue privileges to people.
• To remove man-made inequalities in the society.
• No one should be discriminated on the ground of caste, colour, race, religion, language, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.“Political liberty cannot be imagined without economic liberty.” Analyse.
Answer:
Liberty and equality are contemporary to each other. Political liberty gives a freedom to an individual to participate in the activities of state, i.e.:

• Right to vote to form government
• Right to hold public offices
• Right to form political party
• Right to contest elections.

Economic equality provides equal opportunities to earn the livelihood by an individual i.e.:

• All the individuals must have the means to meet their needs.
• Exploitation should not exist.
• Means of production and distribution should be made for public welfare. Relationship between political liberty and

economic equality:

• A poor man is attracted sometimes to false commitments of politicians as they lack in proper intelligence to identify right or wrong because they could not attain even good education, hence they are unable to use their right to vote properly.
• Sometimes poor voters sell out their votes to rich candidates who trap them by making commitments to fulfill their requirements either in cash or kind, hence the poor voters misuse their right to vote in place of utilizing it for the welfare of country.
• To contest elections is an expensive activity and the poor who cannot afford one day meal easily, it is not possible to contest elections. Hence, the poors are exempted naturally from contesting elections due to the lack of wherewithal.It can be concluded that political liberty requires economic equality also.

Q2.What is the relationship between liberty and equality?
Answer:
Liberty and equality run parallel to each other but sometimes it is presumed that both are opposed to each other.
1. Liberty and equality are complementary:

• Liberty in absence of equality is meaningless.
• Prof. Laski, Powny Polard and Maclver support this view.
• Liberty does not mean the same work and equal wages for all the people.

2. Liberty and equality are opposed to each other:

• Liberty and equality are opposed to each other to curtail individual liberty.
• De Tocqueviflle and Lord Acton are the supporters of this view.
• If equality is established in actual sense, then no one will enjoy the liberty to sharpen one’s own potential.
• Nature has also not created each and every individual equal hence everyone differs in one’s own traits, qualities, capabilities, etc.

It can be concluded that to enjoy them, one requires the presence of others, i.e. political liberty requires equal political status and civil liberty requires equality in the eyes of law to be treated equally. Hence economic equality is of least importance.

Short Answer Type Question:

Q1. What is meant by freedom? Is there a relationship between freedom for the individual and freedom for the nation?

Answer

Freedom is the absence of constraints. An individual could be considered free if he/she is not subject to external controls or coercion and is able to make independent decisions and act in an autonomous way. It is also about expanding the ability of people to freely express themselves and develop their creativity, sensibilities and capabilities.
Yes, there is a relationship between freedom for the individual and freedom for the nation. A nation whose government is free from external influence can only grant freedom to its individuals. On the other hand, a nation is said to be free only when it has freedom as one of its principle which is provided to its people.

Q2. What is the difference between the negative and positive conception of liberty?
Answer

Negative Liberty	Positive Liberty
It is only concerned with the inviolable area in which no external authority can interfere.	It recognises that one can be free only in society (not outside it) and hence tries to make that society such that it enables the development of the individual.
It is not concerned with the conditions of the society.	It is concerned with the enabling conditions of the society.
It is concerned with explaining the idea of ‘freedom from’.	It is concerned with explaining the idea of ‘freedom to’.

Q3. What is meant by social constraints? Are constraints of any kind necessary for enjoying freedom?
Answer

The domination and external controls on freedom of individual imposed by the society is known as social constraints. These controls may be imposed by government through laws which embody the power of the rulers over the people. Constraints on freedom can also result from social inequality
of the kind implicit in the caste system, or which result from extreme economic inequality in a society.
Yes, the constraints of any kind necessary for enjoying freedom because:
• It is necessary for the creation of society.
• It develops respect for differences of views, opinions and beliefs.
• It is required to control violence and settle disputes.

Q4. What is the role of the state in upholding freedom of its citizens?

Answer

The role of the state in upholding freedom of its citizen are:
• The state provides certain rights to its people.
• It also maintains reasonable restrictions and on people so that they cannot harm others and their freedom.
• It provides positive liberty to its citizens to enable them to expand their ability and talent.
• It keeps checks on freedom of its people in order to maintain social stability.

Q5. What is meant by freedom of expression? What in your view would be a reasonable restriction on this freedom? Give examples.

Answer

Freedom of expression means the freedom to express one’s views and ideas freely through speech, writing, books plays etc. It is considered to belong to the minimum area of ‘non-interference’.
The examples of reasonable restriction on the freedom expression are:
• Censor boards restrict the freedom of speech by banning portion of the film which to maintains peace in the society or to keep check the bad effect of the film.
• The freedom shouldn’t interfere in someone’s privacy. Employees of Royal household of England are constrained by contract from disclosing any inner affairs of the royal household.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.What is the relationship between liberty and authority? Explain.
Answer:

• The one who thinks freedom is to do whatever one likes to do, is a wrong opinion. So the authority imposes restrictions which are a number of times undesirable.
• On the contrary, the basic idea is that liberty and authority goes hand-in-hand because authority not only guarantees the freedom but equal opportunities also.
• Both authority and liberty must remain within their limits for the existence of both the state and individuals.
• If one crosses the limits, one is bound to destroy the purpose for which it was being maintained.
• Excess of liberty may destroy authority and concentration of authority can abolish the existence of liberty.

Q2.Mention the elements of liberty.
Answer:

• Liberty is not the absence of all restraints because peace and order in the society can be maintained only by putting some constraints on people.
• Freedom refers to power to do something worthy which should be desirable in society.
• Freedom is given to everybody on equal basis in place of giving to a particular person.
• Liberty or freedom can be enjoyed only in society within a positive framework.
• Freedom provides an opportunity to an individual to realise the best of one in one-self as per one’s potential.

Q3.Explain different kinds of liberty.
Answer:

• Natural liberty is natural to man who is born free with it. But it has no existence in civilized society.
• Individual liberty refers to enjoy complete freedom in their personal and individual matters, i.e. food, clothing, religion, shelter, etc. But an individual should get the liberty up to the extent not to harm any other individual.
• Political freedom refers to the complete freedom to citizens to participate in formation of government and to elect their representatives as well as to be elected as a representative.
• Economic liberty refers to equal wages and work opportunities to all and absence of exploitation, unemployment, unfair wage, insecurity, etc.
• Religious liberty refers to the rights to adopt and preach any religion of their choices and no interference from the state in this matter.
• Civil liberty refers to enjoy all liberties to be permissible under the laws and everybody should be treated as equal before law.

Short Answer type Question:

Q1. Politics is more than what politicians do. Do you agree with this statement? Give examples.

Answer:

Yes, Politics is more than what politicians do. Politicians as a part of government are involved in politics but it is more beyond this. Politics is an important and integral part of any society. Examples:
→ It involves what governments do and how they relate to the aspirations of the people
→ It involves how people struggle and influence decision making
→ It involves how people engage in political activity whenever they negotiate with each other and take part in collective activities which are designed to promote social development and help to resolve common problems.

Q2. Vigilant citizens are a must for the successful working of a democracy. Comment.

Answer

Vigilant citizens are a must for the successful working of a democracy as they helps in reaching the roots of the democracy. They create awareness among the masses about the rights of citizens and policies of the government which leads to mature discussion and debate on the issues. Thus, citizens can force the government to implement new policies or modify old one by mobilising their opinion.
Q3. In what ways is the study of political theory useful for us? Identify four ways in which the political theory can be useful to us?

Answer

The study of political theory is useful for us in following ways:

→ It is relevant for us now and also in future also we may choose it as a career.

→ As we are all going to be citizens entitled to vote and decide other issues. To act responsibly, it is helpful to have a basic knowledge of the political ideas and institutions of our country so that we can express our interest in thoughtful and mature way.

→ It encourages us to do is examine our ideas and feelings about political things which are not only abstract issues such as freedom, equality and secularism.

→ It exposes us to systematic thinking on justice or equality so that we can polish our opinions and argue in an informed manner and for the sake of common interests.

Q4. Do you think that a good/convincing argument can compel others to listen to you?
Answer

Yes, a good/convincing argument can compel others to listen to someone. Arguments prove the degree of reason of a proposition and the need to defend it. A good defence is a compelling factor in the audience listening to the speaker. To provide good arguments we must have depth knowledge and thinking on that issue so that we can argue in informed manner and is for the sake of common interests. This compel others to listen our view.

Q5. Do you think studying political theory is like studying mathematics? Give reasons for your answer.

Answer

No, studying political theory is not like studying mathematics. Mathematics study objects and works on well defined concept and principles while political theory study people and have no exact concept and principles, it differ according to context.
In political theory we deal with with the origins, meaning and significance of political ideas that we are familiar with such as freedom, equality, citizenship, justice, development, nationalism secularism etc, which have so many definitions but in mathematics we have one definition of a triangle or square. This is because opinion of people changes on issue like equality unlike objects.

Long Answer Type Question:

Q1.‘Politics works as a pursuit of common good of people’. Justify the statement.
Answer:
Politics implies to power to make laws and to enforce them for common good:

• Common good is both an objective and a procedure to be followed.
• Common good has been evolved with the growth of democracy.
• Common good may be associated with the concept of welfare state.
• Developing nations reflect common good in realization of objectives for a welfare’ state while developed nations  believe to common good to be the efforts of state.

Politics as a pursuit of common good:

• Politics discovers a ‘common’ in all and promoter the spirit of ‘common hood’ among people.
• Politics does not refer to class struggle but it is a class permeation.
• The common good serves all the people living in society in place of individuals’ interests only.
• It begins with the establishment of social order and ends up in a state to serve all.

Q2.What are the differences between politics and political science?
Answer:
Politics:

• Politics may have different ideas to be argued upon.
• Politics is associated with the satisfaction of wants.
• Politics is sometimes considered to be what politicians do. But it associates them with teams due to their false commitments, etc.
• Politics promotes the interests of an individual by all means.

Political Science:

• It is a scientific study of political ideas and principles.
• Political Science shapes the government and public opinion in a well-mannered way.
• Political science examines the defections, false commitment and false promises made by politicians.
• Political Science examines the validity of concepts of equality, justice, freedom, democracy, secularism, etc.
• The philosophers in political science can generate the new ideas to mould society.