Yearly Archives: 2022

TEXTBOOK QUESTION AND ANSWER:

Q1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists ? Give reasons for your answers.
Answer: The ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers is not much different from those of the fatalists and materialists. This is brought out by the following arguments.
(i) The essence of the philosophy of Jainism was already in existence in India, even before the birth of Lord Mahavir and Vardhaman.
(ii) Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important principle of Jainism. But this also form the basic thought of Hindu religion. Thus, there is a lot of similarity between the both the streams of the religion.
(iii) Upanishada believes and teaches Karma Theory. It means men and women should act and not worry about getting rewards. Fatalists also believed in the idea of work without thinking of the consequences. Thus there is a lot of similarity between the two.
(iv) Both fatalists and materislists believe that human beings are made , of four elements, earth, water, sky, air and fire.
Thus, we are inclined to agree that the idea of the Upanishad thinkers Eire not much different from that of the fatalists and materialists.

Q2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.
Answer:   The central teachings of Jainism are as follows :

• The entire world is animated – even stones, rocks and water have life.
• They believe in non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects.
• The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
• Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.
• For Jainism monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation.
• Jaina monks and nuns take five vows : to abstain from killing, stealing and lying; to observe celibacy, and to abstain from possessing property.

Q3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.
Answer:   Begums of Bhopal made a great contribution to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi. Following are the major contribution made by them.
(a) Shahejahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum of Bhopal were the rulers of Bhopal, who made generous grants to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi.
(b) A museum was built near the stupa and it was built mainly on the financial support of Begum Sultan Jahan Begum.
(c) The support to preserve the stupa came from the Europeans also.
(d) French and British both took the plaster cast copies of the pillars of the stupas to be displayed in the museums at France and Britain. They also contributed financially to preserve the stupa.

Q4. Read this short inscription and answer:
In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka, (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.
(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?
(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?
(d) What Buddhist text did she know?
(e) From whom dicTshe learn this text?
Answer:   (a) Dhanavati dated her inscription that she placed the inscription at Madhuvanaka in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day in the year 33 of the Maharaja named Havishka.
(b) I think that she (the Bhikkhuni Dhanvati installed an image of the Bodhisatta to show that Mahayana sect of Budhhism was becoming popular day by day and Boddhisattas were considered great personalities in Buddhism during the reign of the Kushana rulers.
(c) She has mentioned her own mother’s sister’s name Buddhamita. The lady was a Bhikkuni. She had also mentioned Bhikkuni Bala and her parents.
(d) She knew the Tipitaka.
(e) She learnt the text from the Bhikkhuni Buddhamita who was the female pupil of the Bala.

Q5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?
Answer:  The important reasons why men and women joined sanghas could be as follows:
(а) Many of them wanted to renounce the worldly pleasures.
(b) They could study the Buddhist literature and philosophy by staying in the company of other monks.
(c) Many people entered sanghas to become priests and teachers of Buddhism.
(d) All were considered equal and the previous social identity was to be renounced.
(e) The environment of sanghas was democratic. The decision making within sanghas was based on voting. This attracted many and they took to the life of sanghas

Q6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?
Answer:   Buddhist literature helps understanding the sculpture at Sanchi in the following ways :

1. A scene at the northern gateway at its first sight seems to depict a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees. However, the historians after studying the sculpture carefully, identify it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. It is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with his wife and children.
2. The art historians acquire familiarity with biographies of the Buddha in order to understand Buddhist sculpture. According to Buddha’s biographies, Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Many early sculptures showed Buddha’s presence through symbols such as empty seat, stupa and the wheel. Such symbols can be understood only with the traditions of those who produced these works of art.
3. It may be mentioned that one of the earliest modem art historians, James Ferguson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent worship because he was not familiar with Buddhist literature – most of which had not yet been translated. He, therefore, arrived at his conclusion by studying only the images on their own.

Q7. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer:   Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two branches of Hinduism. In case of Vaishnavism, Lord Vishnu was regarded as the chief deity. In case of Shaivism Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief deity. Both traditions were part of the Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement emphasised on the love and devotion of the devotee to : the God.

This tradition of Vaishnavism and Shaivism also impacted the tradition of architecture and sculpture. The temples developed the house deities. The initial temples were small and simple. It was a small room called Garbhagriha. Later it expanded, a tall structure was built on the garbhagriha. It was called Shikhara. The walls of the temple were decorated with suitors. Soon temples were built that had huge entrance and big halls for the comfort of visitors.

Many of these temples were carved out of rocks. These artificial caves were turned into temples. The tradition of article caves is old who had renounced the world. The most important were the Ajivikas, that developed as a sect during the reign of Asoka. Later a good example of the rock-cut temple is the Kailash Nath temple of the 8th Century. It was carved out of a single piece rock. There is a copper plate inscription at the temple of Ellora wherein the sculptor exclaims, “How did I make it!” Sculpture was yet another way of expression. Deities were given many shapes and forms in the sculpture. Shiva has been shown in the form of Linga. Many deities have shown in different forms, sometimes grotesque. There were also combination of man and animal forms.

Q8. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer: 

1. The rise of Vaishanavism and Shaivism led to worship of a chosen deity. This helped in the development of sculpture and architecture. For example, in the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or incarnations of the dieity. Ten avatars were recognised within the tradition. It is possible that different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. Each of these local deities was recognised as a form of Vishnu. It, therefore, created a more unified religious tradition.
2. Some of these forms were represented in sculptures as in one figure the Varaha or boar avatar of Vishnu has been shown as rescuing the earth goddess. Under Shaivism, Shiva was symbolised by the linga. He was represented in the human form too. The deities and their attributes were depicted through symbols such as head-dresses, ornaments and ayudhas – weapons or auspicious objects the deities hold in their hands etc.
3. At the same time, the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism, temples were made to house images of gods and goddesses. The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image. Later on, shikhara was built over the central shrine. Temple walls were decorated with sculpture.
4. Artificial caves were built and ultimately it led to the carving out of an entire temple, that of Kailashnath.

Q9. Of the religious traditions discussed in this chapter, is there any that is practised in your neighbourhood? What are the religious texts used today, an how are they preserved and transmitted? Are images used in worship? If so, are these similar to or different from those described in this chapter? Describe the buildings used for religious : activities today, comparing them with early stupas and temples.
Answer:   The chapter discuss the religious traditions of ancient India which included, Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, so on. As I live in the walled city of Delhi have seen people practising all these traditions.

The religious textbooks of all religions are preserved and kept with great respect. They have been translated in many languages including many regional languages of the country. Now they are also preserved in the form of CD and other modern devices. Images are also used by worshippers of these religions. The Hindus deities have almost same images as they had in the past. Jains and Buddhists also use images.Temples are used by hindus, buddhists and jams. Mosques are made by muslims and churches by the Christians. The structure of all these are different but with some similarities too.

TEXTBOOK QUESTION AND ANSWER:

Q1. Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Answer: Patriliny is the system through which descent from father to son and grandson is traced. The principle of patriliny would have been essential for the elite families for the following reasons:
Continuity of Dynasty: As per the Dharmashastras, it was an established belief that the son carried forward the dynasty. That was the main reason that the families wished for sons not for daughters. A couplet of Rigveda also substantiates this view. In this couplet, a father at the time of the marriage of his daughter wishes that she should have best sons with the grace of Lord Shiva.
Inheritance: In royal families, the acquisition of throne was included in the inheritance. After the death of a king, his eldest son was supposed to inherit the throne. After the death of the parents, the property was to be equally divided among all the sons. In fact, parents avoided disputes in the family after their death. Most of the royal families followed the patriliny since 600 B.C. But sometimes this system had exceptions also.

• The brother of the king ascended the throne in case the former had no son.
• Relatives also claimed inheritance of the throne.
• In some special cases, women also ascended the throne like Prabhavati Gupta.

Q2. Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.
Answer:   According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. Their functions were to ‘ engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice. But the kings in early states were not invariably Kshatriyas. Several important ruling lineages probably had different origins as mentioned below :

• Regarding the Mauryas, the Buddhist texts suggested they were Kshatriyas but Brahmanical texts described them as being of “low” origin.
• The Shungas and Kanvas were Brahmanas.
• The Shakas who came from Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas.
• The best known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.

Thus, it appears that political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster : support and resources, and rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.

On the other hand, the Buddhists in the Sutta Pitaka suggested that originally human beings did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants fully developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal.

However, in due course of time, human beings became greedy, vindictive and deceitful. This led to deterioration of their condition. They felt some authority to control them and he would get something in return from the people. Thus, the institution of kingship came into existence and people could change it in future in accordance with their needs. It was, therefore, a social contract and not a divine order.

Q3. Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba andMatanga.
Answer: Drona: Drona was a Brahmanas. As per the Dharmashastras, it was the duty of the Brahmana to impart education. It was considered a pious deed of the Brahmanas. Drona was also following that system. He was imparting education. He taught archery to the princes of the Kuru Dynasty. In those days, people of low caste were not entitled to get education. Keeping this view in mind, Drona refused imparting education to Ekalavya. But in the course of time, Ekalavya learnt archery and acquired great skill. But Drona demanded right thumb of Ekalavya as his teaching fee. This was against religious norms. In fact, Drona did this just to ensure that no one could be better archer than Aijuna in the field of archery.
Hidimba: Hidimba was a lady demon, that is rakshasini. In fact, all the rakshasas were man-eaters. One day her brother asked her to catch Pandavas so that he may eat them. But Hidimba did not follow this. She fell in love with Bhima and married him. A rakshasa boy was bom to him, named Ghatotkacha. In this way, Hidimba did not keep ; the norms of rakshasas.
Matanga: Matanga was Boddhisatta who was bom in the family of a chandala. But he married Dittha Mangalika who was the daughter of a merchant. A son was bom to him named Mandavya Kumara. In the course of time he learnt three Vedas. He used to offer food to sixteen hundred Brahmanas every day.’But when his father appeared before him dressed in rags with a clay alms bowl in his hand, he refused to offer food to him. The reason was that, he considered his father as outcaste and his food was meant for Brahmanas only. Matanga advised his son not to be proud of his birth. After saying this, he disappeared into the air. When Dittha Mahgalika knew this incident, she went after Matanga and begged his forgiveness. This way acted like a true wife. She performed her duty religiously. A donor is considered generous. But Mandavya failed to follow the norms of religion and generosity.

Q4. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta?
Answer:  The Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta describes the four social .categories to have emanated from the body of Purusha : The Brahmana was his mouth. The Kshatriya was made of his arms. His thigh became the Vaishya and of his feet the Shudra was born. Thus, the four social categories or vamas – Brahmana, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras were result of a divine order. The Brahmanas often cited this verse to justify their claims for ideal occupations of four vamas. They also attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.

On the other hand, the Buddhists in the Sutta Pitaka suggested that originally human beings did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants fully developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal.

However, in due course of time, human beings became greedy, vindictive and deceitful. This led to deterioration of their condition. They felt some authority to control them and he would get something in return from the people. Thus, the institution of kingship came into existence and people could change it in future in accordance with their needs. It was, therefore, a social contract and not a divine order.

Q5. The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Jandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:
Try and identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position in the list.
Ans: Not only age, gender and kinship ties but there were other factors too which were considered to prepare the list.
The Brahmana, the Purohits and the Gums were bestowed the highest honours. They all were widely respected.
Fraternal kins were also given respects who were considered like parents. People who were of equal age of younger were placed at the third rank. In the next order, the young Kuru warriors were respected.Women also received due place. Wives, mothers, daughters-in-law and daughters came in this order. Orphans and handicapped had also been taken care of. Yudhisthira also greets them.

Q6. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Wintemitz, wrote about the Mahabharata: “Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature…. and contains so many kinds of things….(it) give(s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.
Answer:   Plenty of literary sources are available to reconstruct the ancient Indian history.
Mahabharata is one of them. It is an important literary and historical source. Its importance has been recognised even by the foreign writers. Its importance has also been recognised by Maurice Wintemitz because in his opinion the Mahabharata represents an entire literature. This great epic is full of various examples of different aspects of the Indians life. The reading of the Mahabharata gives a profound depth of the soul of the Indian folk. It has been written in simple Sanskrit and therefore widely understood.
Generally, historians classify the contents of the Mahabharata under two sections.They are narrative and didactic. Narrative section contains stories and didactic sections contains prescriptions about social norms. But at some instances, there were intermingling also.
Many historians believe that the Mahabharata was a dramatic, moving story and that the didactic portions were a later interpolation.
We get several different views about the authorship of the Mahabharata. It was believed that the original stories were composed by Sutas. Sutas were charioteer bards. They accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battle field and composed poems celebrating their victories other achievements. These compositions were circulated orally. From the fifth, century BCE onwards, Brahmanas took over the story and started writing story.This great epic contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements.
It describes kinship, political life of the said period, social priority. Major features of the family life such as patriliny, different forms of marriage and rules related with marriage, position of women in the society, social differences of the Indian society can be traced back to the period of the Mahabharata. This great epic also describes social mobility.

Q7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
Answer:   There are so much views about the author of the Mahabharata. Following views have been put forward regarding the authorship of the Mahabharata.
•It is believed that the original story was written by the charioteer-bards known as sutas. They generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battle field and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements.
•It is also believed that in the beginning the text of the Mahabharata was orally circulated. Scholars and priests carried it from one generation to another. From the fifth century BCE, the Brahmanas took over the story and started writing.
This was the time when Kurus and Panchals were gradually becoming kingdoms.
The story of the Mahabharata also revolved round them. Some parts of the story reflect that old social values were replaced by the new ones.
• C. 200 BCE and 200 CE is another phase in the composition of the Mahabharata.
During this period worship of Vishnu was gaining ground Krishna came to be identified as Vishnu. Large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added during the period between C 200 and 400 CE. These interpolations made the Mahabharata an epic consisting of 100,000 verses. This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyas.

Q8. How important were gender differences in early societies ? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:   Gender differences in early societies were very important because it had effects on social life of men and women in the following ways :

• No share for women in the paternal estate : According to Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents. Women could not claim a share of these resources. Women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana.
• No hoarding by women : Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables, without the husband’s permission.
• There was the ideal of patriliny under which sons could claim the resources, including the throne in the case of kings, of their fathers when the latter died.
• Gotra of women : Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage.
• Polygyny : Under polygyny, a man could have several wives. Satavahana rulers were polygynous.
• Wives to be treated as property of their husbands : Wives were treated as property of the husband because Yudhisthira after losing everything including himself had staked their common wife Draupadi in a game of dice and lost her too. However, Draupadi asked whether Yudhisthira after losing himself could stake her. The matter remained unresolved and ultimately Dhritarashtra restored to the Pandavas and Draupadi their personal freedom.

Q9. Discuss the evidence tliat suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and F marriage were not universally followed.
Answer:   Brahmanical prescription about kinship and marriage:
Prescription about kinship:
According to Sanskrit texts the term “kula’ was used to designate families and jati for the larger network of kinfolk. The term ‘vamsha’ was used for lineage. Very often people belonging to the same family share food and other resources they live, work and perform rituals together. Families were considered as the part of larger networks of people defined as relatives a technical term used to defined them was kinfolk. While familial ties were considered “natural” and based on blood they can be defined in different ways.

For instance, some societies regard cousins as being blood relations, whereas others, do not regard as from Historians retrieve information about elite families fairly easily from it is very hard reconstruct the familial relationship of ordinary people. Historians also try to analyse their attitudes towards family and kinship. These are important, because they provide an insight into people’s thinking. It is also expected ideas would have shaped their action because their actions may have led to changes in their attitudes.

Prescription about marriage:
For the continuity of the patrilineage the sons were considered important the daughters could not over the resources of their household. They were married into families outsidethe kin. This system was known as exogamy which means marrying outside one’s kin or gotra. The women of high status families were married to the right persons at right time. Kanayadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was considered as an important religious duty of the father. With the emergence of new means of communication people came into contact with each other and they began to share their view. So the Brahaman said down codes of their social behaviour. These codes regarding social behaviour were later on enshrined in Dharmashashtra. These text recognised eight types of marriage. Among these types of marriage the four were considered as good while the rest four as condemnable. Satvahana ruler did not follow exogamy of Brahmans.

TEXTBOOK QUESTION AND ANSWER:

Q1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Answer: Widespread and deep excavations in the early historic towns have not been possible due to the fact that these towns are still inhabited. In Harappan Civilisation, we have been fortunate enough that excavations have taken place widespread. Despite this shortcoming, we have found many artefacts in the historic towns. These throw light on the craftsmanship of those days. There are other evidences too, that throw light on the craftsmanship of those days. The salient features of such evidences are as follows:
1. From the sights the fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They are glossy too and we call them Northern Black Polished Ware. It looks they were used by the rich people.
2. There have also been evidence of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. There are a wide range of items made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
3. The donor inscription tells who all lived in towns in terms of professionals and craftsmen. It included washer men, weaver, scribes, carpenters, goldsmith, ironsmith, etc. It is notable in Harappan towns there are no evidences of iron use.
4. The craftsmen and artisans built their guilds too. They collectively bought raw materials, produced and marketed their products.

Q2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.
Answer:  The salient features of mahajanapadas are as follows :

• The most important mahajanapadas were Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti.
• Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings.
• Some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.
• In some cases, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively.
• Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
• Brahmanas composed the Dharmasutras which laid down norms for rulers as well as for other social categories. The rulers were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas. Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans.
• Sometimes raids on neighbouring states were conducted for acquiring wealth. These raids were recognised as legitimate means.
• Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on militia, recruited from the peasantry.

Q3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Answer:  Ordinary people could not leave behind any historical evidence about their life. Hence, the historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the lives of the common people during the ancient times. The important sources are:
1. Remains of houses and pottery give an idea of the life of common men.
2. Some inscriptions and scriptures talk about the relation between monarchs and the subject. It talks about taxes and happiness and unhappiness of the common men.
3. Changing tools of craftsmen and farmers talk about the lifestyle of the people.
4. Historians also depend upon folklores to reconstruct the lives of the people during the ancient times.

Q4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (source 8). Do you notice any similarities and differences?
Answer: The gifts given to Pandya chief included things like ivory, fragrant wood, honey, sandal¬wood, pepper, flowers, etc. in additions to many birds and animals were also given as gifts. On the contrary, items produced in the village of Danguda included grass, skin of animals, flower salt and other minerals, etc. In both the lists the only common item is flower.

Q5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Answer: The problems faced by epigraphists are as given below :

1. Sometimes, the letters of inscriptions are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain.
2. Sometimes, the inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.
3. On certain occasions it is not easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in the inscriptions, some of which maybe specific to a particular place or time. That is why scholars are constantly debating and discussing alternative ways of reading inscriptions.
4. Several thousand inscriptions have been discovered but not all have been deciphered, published and translated.
5. Many more inscriptions must have existed, which have not survived the ravages of
   time. Whatever is available, is only a fraction of all inscriptions.
6. There is also a possibility that what we consider politically or economically significant may not have been recorded in inscriptions. For example, there is no mention of routine agricultural practices and the joys and sorrows of daily existence in the inscriptions.

Q6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements ate evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Answer: The main features of Mauryan administration are as follows :

1. There were five major political centres in the empire i.e., the capital Pataliputra and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvamagiri.
2. The communication system existed along both land and riverine routes. It was very vital for the existence of the empire.
3. As the journeys from the centre to the provinces could have taken a long time, there was arrangement for provisions as well as protection for the travellers,
4. The Mauryans kept a large army. Magasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity which were as mentioned below :
   • One to look after the navy;
   • The second for management of transport and provisions;
   • The third was responsible for foot soldiers;
   • The fourth for horses;
   • The fifth for chariots;
   • The sixth for elephants.

The element that there were five major political centres in the empire – the capital Pataliputra, and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvamagiri – all have been mentioned in the Asoka’s inscriptions.

Q1. List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
Answer:

Q2. How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice? [Delhi, All India 2009, 2011]
Answer:  (a) Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society in the following ways:

• Burials
• Looking for “luxuries”.

(b) The archaeologists have noticed the following differences in the socio-economic conditions in Harappan society :

• In the Harappan society, the dead were generally laid in pits. In some burial pits the hallowed-out spaces were lined with bricks.
• Some graves contain pottery and ornaments.
• In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors.
• Artefacts are divided into two categories – utilitarian and luxuries. The utilitarian objects are of daily use. These are made of ordinary materials such as stone and clay. These are found in all settlements. Luxury items are found in large settlements of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. These are made of valuable materials like faience. Gold too was rare and precious as all the gold jewellery has been found at Harappan sites.

Q3. Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your Answer.
 Yes, I agree with that the drainage system in Harappan cities which indicates the town planning. I can cite the following reasons in support of my answer.

• The drainage system needed a planning for its execution. It seems that first drainages were laid out and then houses were built along with the drains. Every house was supposed to have at least one wall along a street to allow the domestic waste water to flow out in the street drains. The plans of the lower town show that roads and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
• It appears that human settlement was made by planning from the beginning. The city was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms.
• Bricks, sundried or baked, were of standard ratio. The length and breadth of bricks were of four times and twice the height respectively These bricks were used at all the settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.

Q4. List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan Civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
Answer: Making beads was an important craft of the Harappan people. It was mainly prevalent in Chanhudaro.

Materials for making beads included beautiful red coloured stone-like camelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite. Besides these, use of copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, terracotta or burnt clay was also used.Process of making beads Making of beads differed as per the materials used. Beads had variety*of shapes. They did not make geometrical shapes like one made of harder stones.
Nodules were to be chipped for making rough shapes. They were finally flaked into the final form.
By firing the yellowish raw material, the red colour of camelian was obtained. Grinding, polishing and drilling constituted the last phase. Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira were famous for specialized drilling.

Q5. Look at figure 1.30 (See NCERT page-26) and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
Answer:  Following observations can be obtained after looking at the figure:

• Body has been kept in North-south direction in a pit,
• Many graves contain pottery and ornaments which include jar.
• Yes, jewellery like bangles are there on the body.
• Yes, this indicates towards the sex of the skeleton, Le. it is the body of a woman.

It is concluded that there were great social or economic differences among the people living within the area of the Harappan Civilisation. But as a whole it appears that the Harappan did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

Q6. Describe some ofthe distinctive features of Mohenjodaro. [Delhi 2013]
Answer:  Planned City: Harappa as a planned urban centre. It had two parts. One part of the city was small. It was built on a higher place.

The second part was comparatively large. It was built on a lower place. The first part was designed as citadel and the second part was as lower town. The citadel owed its height to the fact that it was built on mud brick platforms. It had walls on all sides and these walls were separated from the lower town.

Lower Town: It was also a walled town. Most of the buildings were built on platforms.
In fact, these platforms were considered as foundation stones. It required huge quantity of labour force to build these platforms. It is obvious that settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the building plan. Quality of sun-dried bricks or baked bricks also prove the concept of planning.
All the bricks were of standard ratio. The length and width was four times and twice the height of the bricks respectively. These bricks were used in the settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.

Drainage System: The drainage system was well planned. All the roads and streets were laid out on a grid pattern. They intersected one another at the right angles. It seems that streets featuring drains were laid out first and houses were built thereafter along with them. To make the flow of domestic water, every house had at least one wall along the street.

The Citadel: There were many buildings in the citadel. These buildings were used for many special public purposes. The Warehouse and the Great Bath were the two most important constructions.

Q7. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
Answer:  (a) The raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation was as given below:

• Stones like camelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite;
• Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and
• Shell, faience and terracotta, or burnt clay.

(b) The above raw materials might have been obtained as mentioned below :

• They established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was available. Other places were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stone and Lothal near the sources of camelian, steatite and metal.
• The second way was to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and south India for gold.
• The third way to have contact with distant lands. For example, copper was brought from Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Mesopotamian texts mention contact with Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea.

Q8. Discuss, how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
Answer: Archaeologists excavate the sites of the ancient past related to culture or civilization. They find out the art and craft such as seal, material, remains of houses, buildings, pots, ornaments, tools, coins, weights, measurements and toys, etc.

Skulls, bones, jaws, teeth of the dead bodies and materials kept with these dead bodies are also helpful for archaeologists. With the help of the botanists, and zoologists, archaeologists study the plants and animal bones found at different places.

Archaeologists try to find out the tools used in the process of cultivation and harvesting. They also try to find out traces of wells, canals, tanks, etc. as they served means of irrigation.

Different layers of sites are observed to find out different things. These things give the picture of socio-economic condition such as religious life and the cultural life of the people.

Tools, unfinished products, waste materials, help in identifying the centres of craft production. Indirect evidences also help the archaeologists in reconstructing the past.

Archaeologists develop frames of references, It can be better understood by this fact that the first Harappan seal that was found could not be understood till archaeologists had a context in which to place it-both in terms of cultural sequence in which it was found and in terms of a comparison with finds in Mesopotamia.

Examination of seals help in constructing the concept of religious belief of the period. Seals depict religious scenes. Some animals such as the one-homed animal, often called the unicorn depicted on the seals appear mythical, composite creatures. In some seals, a figure has been shown sitting crossed legs in a yogic posture. All these represent the religious concept of the period.

Q9. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Answer:  There are different views on the Harappan society. One group of archaeologists suggest that the Harappan society had no rulers and so everybody enjoyed equal status. The other group of archaeologists are of the opinion that there was no single ruler but several ones. The third theory seems the most suitable. It suggests that it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.

Evidences show that complex decisions were taken and implemented in the Harappan society. Extra ordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks show the complex decisions.

Plans and layouts of the city were prepared under the guidance and supervisions of the rulers. Big buildings, palaces, forts, tanks, wells, canals and granaries were constructed.

Cleanliness was the responsibility of the ruler. Roads, lanes and drains were also constructed.

The rulers also looked after the welfare of the economy. They hsed to inspire the farmers to increase agricultural production. They also motivated the craftsmen to promote different handicrafts. External and internal trade were both promoted by the ruler. The ruler used to issue common acceptable coins or seals, weights and measurements.

Rulers were expected to provide relief during natural calamity. During flood, earthquake, epidemics, the ruler provided grains and other eatables to the affected people. During foreign aggression, the rulers defended the city.

Q10. On the given map, use a pencil to circle the sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites where raw materials were found.
Answer: (i) Sites of agriculture: Harappa, Banawali, Kalibangan, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira (Gujarat).
(ii) Sites of craft production: Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, Balakot.
(iii) Sites of raw material: Nageshwar, Balakot, Khetri.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.How did Ananthakrishna Iyer and Sarat Chandra Roy come to practice social anthropology?

Answer:

Ananthakrishna Iyer came to practice social anthropology by voluntarily helping the British administrators in ethnographic surveys of India. He was initially a clerk and then became a college teacher at Ernakulum. In 1902, he was asked by the Dewan of Cochin to assist with an ethnographic survey of the state. Later, he worked for British government as unpaid Superintendent of Ethnography. His work received appreciation from British anthropologists and administrators. Iyer became a reader at the University of Madras and set up the post-graduate department of anthropology at the University of Calcutta. Thus, he became the first self-taught anthropologist.

Sarat Chandra Roy was educated in law and English. He gave up his law practice and became a school teacher in Ranchi. He was appointed as the official interpreter in the court after he resumed his law practice. Gradually, he became interested in the tribal society, as he had to interpret the tribal customs in the court. He gained considerable knowledge on the culture and society of the tribal people of Chhotanagpur. Roy produced valuable monographs and research articles on this subject. He travelled and did intensive fieldwork pertaining to the tribal community.

Thus, the experiences gained by Iyer and Roy in the course of their work led to their interest in social anthropology.

Q2.What were the main arguments on either side of the debate about how to relate to tribal communities?

Answer:

The main arguments, on either side of the debate about relating to tribal communities, were led by the British administrator-anthropologists and the nationalists.

According to the British, the tribes of India were primitive people and had a different culture from the Hindus. They believed that the simple tribal people would suffer exploitation and cultural degradation at the hands of Hindu people who wanted the assimilation of tribal people with them. Thus, they needed to be protected by the state in order to safeguard their interests.

On the other hand, the nationalists, of whom G.S Ghurye was the most famous exponent, argued that the tribes of India were not backward, but had been interacting with the rest of Hindu society over a long period. The process of assimilation had been experienced by all the communities in India and the tribes were only a step behind in this process. According to nationalists, attempts to preserve tribal culture only contributed to their backwardness. They believed tribal society needed as much reform as Hindu society.

Thus, the main difference in both viewpoints was the perception about the impact of mainstream culture on tribes.

Q3.Outline the positions of Herbert Risley and G.S. Ghurye on the relationship between race and caste in India.

Answer:

Herbert Risley believed that human beings could be divided into separate races on the basis of their physical characteristics. His main argument was that caste originated in race because the different castes belonged to different racial types. He believed that the higher castes originated from Indo-Aryans while the lower castes originated from non-Aryan races. Risley was of the opinion that the conditions in India were suitable for studying racial evolution as inter-caste marriages was strictly prohibited in India.

Ghurye was of a different view. He believed that Risley’s argument was partially correct and the argument of upper castes being Aryan and lower castes being non-Aryan was true only for north India. He further said that the prohibition of intermixing of different castes was only limited to the northern India, and people in other areas had been mixing for a long time. According to him, racial purity was preserved only in North India while other parts adopted the practice of endogamy only after variations had occurred in racial groups.

Q4.Summarise the social anthropological definition of caste.

Answer:

The social anthropological definition of caste was given by G.S Ghurye, which comprised six features. These were as follows:

(i) Caste is an institution based on segmental division. This means that the castes were different and closed segments that comprised people of an exclusive social order determined by birth. The individuals born in a particular caste would always remain in that caste.

(ii) Caste society is based on hierarchical division. The caste system was based on a hierarchical order, and each caste had unequal status as compared to others.

(iii) The institution of caste necessarily involves restrictions on social interaction, specially sharing of food. There were many restrictions in the caste system based on the ideas of purity and pollution.

(iv) Caste involves differential rights and duties for different caste as a consequence of hierarchy and restricted social interaction. These pertained to religious life and everyday practices.

(v) The choice of occupation, like caste itself, is decided by birth and is hereditary. It was a rigid form of division of labour. A person born as a shudra would always remain one, however hard he worked or whatever success he achieved.

(vi) Caste involves strict restrictions on marriage. The marriage between people of different castes was strictly prohibited and rules existed regarding both endogamy and exogamy.

Q5.What does D.P. Mukerji mean by a `living tradition’? Why did he insist that Indian sociologists be rooted in this tradition?

Answer:

By ‘living tradition’, D.P. Mukerji means that the traditions were not only formed in the past but also kept on changing with the present and evolved over time. It manages to retain basic elements from the past. He insisted that Indian sociologists be rooted in this tradition because an Indian sociologist should be an Indian first, which means that he/she should understand his/her social system first.

Q6.What are the specificities of Indian culture and society, and how do they affect the pattern of change?

Answer:

The Indian culture and society are not individualistic like the western society. The behaviour of an Indian individual is fixed by his socio-cultural group. Hence, the Indian social system is oriented towards groups, unlike the western societies where people are highly individualistic. The actions of individuals in Indian society are mostly involuntary. The traditions are strongly rooted in the past.
Thus, there are fewer changes in Indian societies, as the pattern of desires of an individual are mostly governed by the societal traditions and norms. Changes occur more in adaptive form than any basic form. The role of economy as an internal source of change is diluted in Indian society. Conflict due to caste system causes adaptive changes without overriding the institution of caste.

Q7.What is a welfare state? Why is A.R. Desai critical of the claims made on its behalf?

Answer:

A.R. Desai explained three features of a welfare state. These were as follows:

(i) A welfare state is a positive state that uses its power in order to implement social policies for the betterment of society. It is interventionist in nature.

(ii) Democracy and democratic institutions are considered the most important factors for the emergence of the welfare state.

(iii) A welfare state includes a mixed economy. It means the co-existence of both the private and state owned enterprises. The public sector concentrates on basic goods and social infrastructure, while the private industry produces consumer goods.

Desai is critical of welfare states like Britain, USA and countries in Europe. He argues that the claims of these states are exaggerated, while they are not even able to provide basic social and economic security to their citizens. They are unable to reduce economic inequality. The process of development in these states is not independent of market fluctuations. A high level of unemployment alongside excess economic capacity indicates the failure of welfare state. Therefore, A.R. Desai is critical of the claims made on behalf of welfare state and concludes that its existence is a myth.

Q8.What arguments were given for and against the village as a subject of sociological research by M.N. Srinivas and Louis Dumont?

Answer:

According to Louis Dumont, social institutions like caste were more important than the study of villages. He argued that villages are just a group of people, who live or die or may move to another location, but their social institutions always follow them. Hence, he thought that the study of village as a category should not be given much importance.

Contrary to this, M.N. Srinivas argued that the Indian villages were relevant social entities and historically the villages were a unifying factor in the Indian society. Further, he criticised the British administrators because they studied the villages as a self sufficient entity, and mentioned them as “little republics”. With the help of historical and sociological data, M.N. Srinivas concluded that the Indian villages had undergone considerable change, were connected with the outside world and had always been a part of the Indian economy. Thus, he believed it was necessary to study the function of villages in the Indian social life.

Q9.What is the significance of village studies in the history of Indian sociology? What role did M.N. Srinivas play in promoting village studies?

Answer:

The study of Indian villages has always been important in the history of Indian sociology because of the following reasons:

(i) It provided with an opportunity to emphasise the importance of ethnographic research methods.

(ii) It provided examples of rapid social change that took place in the country after independence and implementation of planned development.

(iii) The village studies provided sociology with a new role in the context of independent nation as it enabled urban Indians and policy makers to form their opinions about developments in the villages of India.

M.N. Srinivas played a very important role in promoting village studies by concentrating his research on village areas. He conducted field work in villages and coordinated efforts at producing detailed ethnographic accounts of villages. His writings featured ethnographic accounts and historical and conceptual discussions about villages. He was critical of the arguments presented by the British anthropologists. He concluded that the village was as important as any other social institution. He also presented the links of the village community to the economy of the outside world.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Discuss the views expressed by Ghurye on the tribes.
Answer:
Ghurye emphasized that some anothropologists and the British administrators advocated a policy of isolation for the tribes. They mentioned many causes for it such as: First, the tribals were different from the non-tribals or Hindus.
Secondly, tribals were the original inhabitants of the country.
Thirdly, they are unlike the Hindus, animists.
Fourthly, the tribals are different from the Hindus on linguistic grounds also.
Fifthly, tribal’s contact with the non-tribals had been harmful for the culture and economy of the tribals.
Ghurye referred to the long process of Hinduization of the tribes of India in different parts of the country. Some tribes had been integrated with the Hindu society. Some others remained loosely integrated. The tribes living in the hilly regions and the depths of forests were barely touched by the Hinduism. They were the imperfectly integrated classes of Hindus.
The tribes embraced the Hindu social order mainly for following causes :

• The first reason was the economic motivation. They adopted specialized types of occupation which were in demand in the society.
• The second reason lies in the Catholicity of caste system to the tribal belief and rituals.
  Ghurye emphasized that the policy of the British Government in relation to forests caused hardship for the tribals.

Q2.Explain the structural features of caste given by Ghurye.
Answer:
The caste system has got the following six structural characteristics :

• Segmental Division: Govind Sadashiv Ghurye sees caste as social grouping or segments; the membership of which is obtained and fixed by birth.
  Caste provides its own centre regarding rules, regulations, standards of morality and justice.
• Hierarchy: The castes or segments are arranged in terms of hierarchy. The Brahmans were placed at the top and the untouchables were kept at the bottom of the hierarchy.
• Principles of Purity and Pollution: The above described two features (attributes) reflect the separation or distance between castes. This fact of separation is reinforced by the principles of purity and pollution that find their expression in the codes, regulating the acceptance of food or drink from other castes.
• Civil and Religious Disabilities and Privileges of different Sections:
  A result of the hierarchical division of society is that rights and obligations are unequally shared by different sections of the society.
• Lack of Choice of Occupation:
  Every group or caste was associated with a hereditary occupation. Distinction between pure and impure occupations, the hereditary occupation of a caste reflected its status in society.
• Restrictions on Marriage:
  Inter-caste marriage was prohibited.

Q3.What was D.P. Mukerji’s view about traditions and modernity?
Answer:
D.P. Mukerji’s view about traditions:

1. D.P. Mukerji asserts that traditions do change. These principles of change are recognized in Indian tradition:
   • Shruti,
   • Smriti,
   • Anubhava.
     It is anubhava or personal experience, which is the revolutionary principle.
2. The experience of prem or love and sahaj or spontaneity of these saints and their followers was noticeable also in Sufis among the Muslims.
3. Our country has definitely preserved many values (some good and other bad also). The point, however, is that of utilizing the forces which are foreign to Indian traditions, e.g.
   • technology,
   • democracy,
   • urbanization,
   • bureaucratic rule, etc.

D.P. Mukerji’s views about modernity:

• D.P. Mukerji does not worship tradition. His idea of “full man” or “well balanced personality” calls for a blend of moral fervor and aesthetic and intellectual sensibility with the sense of history and rationality.
• D.P. Mukerji believed that “the knowledge of tradition shows the way to break them with the least social cost.”
• According to D.P. Mukerji, a dialectical process of conflict and synthesis, must be given a push by the conserved energies of the class structure of Indian society.

Q4.Discuss the features of the caste system as stated by G.S.Ghurye.
Answer:
According to Ghurye, the caste system has the following features:

• Segmental division: This refers to the division of society into compartments, segments or castes. They have a set of rules, regulations, standards of morality and justice for each caste.
• ‘Hierarchy: Hierarchy is a scheme, which arranges castes in terms of higher, or Superior and lower or inferior in relation to each other.
• Principles of purity and pollution: The principles of purity and pollution find their expression in the codes regulating the acceptance of food or drink from other castes.
• Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of different sections: The ritual status of a caste; their rights and obligations are the crucial determinants of the nature of these disabilities.
• Lack of choice of occupation: Every caste is associated with a hereditary occupation. As distinction is made between ‘clean’ and ‘unclean’ and therefore between ‘pure’ and ‘impure’ occupations; the hereditary occupation of a caste reflected its status in society.
• Restrictions on marriage: Inter-marriage between castes was prohibited. Individuals were allowed to marry within their castes only i.e. they practised endogamy.

Q5.Discuss the factors that brought about social changes in society.
Answer:
Some of the factors are internal to the society whereas some are external.
1. Environment: It sets limits to the social change and may bring very rapid change in society. Difficult environmental conditions make slow the development of an advanced technology. In suitable environmental conditions, they grow and develop faster. If there are unfavourable environmental conditions, a society may remain backward. Isolated societies remain underdeveloped whereas well communicated societies develop rapidly. Natural disasters like flood, cyclone, drought force people to move from place to place, thus bringing social change in their lives.

2. Population: Change in the size of population brings about change in the economic life of the people and other aspects of life. Decrease in population may solve some social problems, decrease unemployment, whereas increase will do to the contrary. Industrialised nations need to maintain a balance between the size of the population and natural resources.

3. Technology: Social change is more rapid in technologically developed societies. In traditional societies, changes are very slow. Complexity in social structure grows along with advancement of technology. Due to advancement of technology, simple division of labour of the traditional societies has changed into complex form of division of labour. This has helped in the development of occupational specialisation. However, this has divided the population into a number of groups.

4. Values and Beliefs: On one hand, new social values and beliefs can bring about
social change, whereas they may also cause resistance to it. Changes in values and beliefs take a long time to be realized. When changes occur in society, they are noticed only partially.

5. Diffusion: Diffusion is an important mechanism of social change. Borrowing of cultural traits from an advanced society by a backward society is a normal process. This brings about social change. The backward societies change very rapidly and become modem by borrowing advanced technologies from the advanced societies. Non material traits like religion, ideology, beliefs and values change very slowly.

In This Post we are  providing Chapter- 5 ORGANIZING NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12BUSSINESS STUDIES which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON ORGANIZING

1)Differentiate between Formal organization and Informal organization?
Answer:

Basis	Delegation of authority	Decentralization
1. Nature	It is the first step towards decentralization	Decentralization is the last step in the process of delegation. It includes delegation.
2. Freedom to make decisions	Under delegation, subordinates have to follow the directions given by their superiors while making decisions.	Under decentralization, subordinates are free to take decisions
3. Scope	Its scope is limited since it refers to entrusting some part of the authority by the superior to his nearest subordinate on a personal basis.	Its scope is wide since it refers to the wide dispersal of authority to all levels in the entire organization.
4. Routine or important	It is considered to be the routine task of managers.	It is considered to be the very important decision of organizational arrangement.
5. Transfer of Responsibility	Under it, only the authority is transferred and not the responsibility. The ultimate responsibility lies with the delegator.	Under it, authority, as well as responsibility, is transferred. Subordinates are independently responsible for their performance.
6. Power to Control	In it superior has the power to exercise control over his subordinates.	In it superior losses the power to control his subordinates.
7. Temporary or permanent	It is a temporary arrangement where the authority is taken back after the assigned task is completed.	It is a permanent feature where the authority is granted for the future also.
8. Essential or optional	It is essential for all types of organizations because no superior can get the things done from his’ subordinates without delegating sufficient authority to them.	It is optional because it is not necessary’ that the superior must disperse his authority in a systematic manner throughout the entire organization.
9. Dependence	Decentralization is not essential for delegation i.e. delegation does not depend on decentralization	Delegation is essential for decentralization, i.e. it depends on delegation.

2)Differentiate between a delegation of authority and Decentralization?
Answer:
The distinction between Decentralisation and Delegation of authority. Though decentralization is the expanded form of delegation, there is a considerable difference in them. Decentralization is much more than delegation. Louis A. Allen says, when a person hands over his work to others it is known as delegation but it will be known as decentralization only when the authority to complete the entire work is handed over to them.

For example, when the chief executive of a company hands over the responsibility to make appointments in h:s department to a particular manager, it is known as delegation. But when all the departmental managers are given authority to make appointments in their respective departments, it is known as decentralization. The extent of decentralization increases when the departmental managers extend this authority to the executives below them

The distinction between Delegation of authority and Decentralisation. Delegation of authority

Basis	Formal organization	Informal organizations
(1) Formation	It is formed by the top management in a thoughtful and organized way.	It is formed automatically due to the social relationship.
(2) Purpose	Its main purpose is the achievement of the objectives of the organization eff’içieñtly.	Its main purpose is the fulfillment of individual needs and to protect their mutual interests.
(3) Nature or Structure	The activities, rights, and responsibilities are clearly defined in suçh organizations.	The rules are neither written nor clearly defined.
(4) Authority	In such an organization authority ¡s derived from assigned positions and from above.	In this authority is derived from the acceptance and capabilities of an individual.
(5) Flow of authority or Communication	This authority flows from top to bottom.	This authority flows from top to bottom or horizontally.
(6) Behaviour of Members	In this organization, the relation among employees is according to the position and functions. Thus, the behavior is highly formal.	In this organization, there exists a personal relationship among members. Thus the behavior among them is informal.
(7) Tenure	Due to the establishment of the organization on some logical planning, the tenure is relatively	Since it is based on personal and mutual relationships it is highly flexible and temporary.
(8) Use of organization charts	In this, an organization chart is prepared to present the position of authority and responsibility.	No organization chat is prepared
(9) Size	They can be huge in size.	They are mainly small in size.

3)Explain in brief the matrix or Grid organization? Also, mention its merits and demerits.
Answer:
Matrix or Grid organization:
When the size and operational field of any organization are too wide and the number of products produced by it and its number of customers is large, it cannot be divided on any of the bases mentioned above. In such a situation, a matrix organization is established. Such organizations are divided on the basis of functions like the production department, purchase department, sales department, finance department, personnel department, etc. Besides this, a separate Project Manager is appointed for different projects.

This is explained through the diagram given below –

From the above diagram, it is clear that a separate Project Manager is appointed to complete the project quickly like Project A, Project B, Project C, etc. The project manager is given full responsibility for that particular project and all the other departmental; officers are instructed to co-operate with him. Project Managers make plans for the project and undertake all the functions of organizing, control, direction, etc. The project manager is responsible for the success or failure of the project. The middle level and lower level officers work under the control of the project manager until the completion. of the project and get involved in their normal activities after the completion of the project.

Thus in a matrix organization, two types of organizational structures work together – Functional and Project. Project managers do not wholly use the services of middle level and lower level officers but make use of their services temporarily according to their needs.

Advantages of Matrix Organisation:

1. Quick Completion of the Project: The project manager makes plans for all the activities of the project like giving orders, direction, etc. Thus the project gets completed quickly.
2. Advantages of Functional as well as project departmentation: Advantages of two types of organization-functional and project, can be availed of Project managers are the experts in their own field and they have the full co-operation of other officers.
3. Flexibility: Such type of organization is flexible as it can be easily implemented without bringing many changes in the existing organizational structure.
4. The economy in costs: There is no need of appointing special staff for each project. Services of departmental officers can be utilized as and when needed by the project manager which leads to economy in costs.

Disadvantages of Matrix organization:

1. Violation of the Principle of Unity of Command: The principle of unity of command is not followed because the officers are responsible to their superior as well as to the project manager. Thus they have to follow more than one boss.
2. The problem of coordination: There is a problem of coordination between the functions of departmental officers and project managers. There arises a conflict between the functions of the two because departmental officers give priority to the activities of their own department whereas project managers give priority to their project work.
3. Lack of Fixation of Responsibility: On non-completion of the project, in time, the project managers normally complain of non-cooperation of the departmental officers.
4. The problem of communication: The problem of internal communication arises.

4) Explain the term Decentralization and mention its importance in business activities?
Answer:
Decentralization:
Decentralisation of authority means systematic dispersal of authority in all departments and at all levels of management. According to Louis Allen decentralization is “the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest levels all authority, except that which can be exercised at central points”. An organization is said to be decentralized when managers at middle and lower levels are given the authority to make decisions and actions on matters relating to their respective areas of work. The top management retains the authority for taking major decisions and formulating policies for the organization as a whole. Top management also retains authority for overall coordination and control of the organization.

For example, let us take the case of a large steel manufacturing company. The board of directors and managing director of the company lay down the overall objectives and policies of the enterprise. Major decisions on product lines, capital investment, marketing methods are taken by the respective heads of departments. The marketing manager, for instance, is authorized to decide the quality and prices of products, channels of distribution, advertising methods, and organizing sales campaigns. The top management of the company does not interfere with his authority. However, departmental managers are required to keep in view the overall policies of the company while making decisions on matters within their authority. This is how a decentralized organization works.

Centralization and decentralization are opposite terms. They should not be confused with the location of work. An organization having ‘ branches in different cities may be centralized. Similarly, a company; maybe decentralized even though all its offices are located in one budding. Centralization and decentralization are relative terms. No organization can be completely centralized or completely decentralized. They exist together.

For example, even in a decentralized organization, the top management retains the authority for-overall policy decisions to ensure coordination and control. The degree of centralization and decentralization differs from one organization to another. According to Henri Fayol, “Everything which goes to increase the subordinates. the role is decentralization; everything which goes to decrease it is centralization.”

Importance of Decentralisation:
The main benefits of decentralization are as follows –
1. Reduction in Burden of Top Executives: Decentralisation helps to reduce the workload of top executives.
They can devote greater time and attention to important policy matters by decentralizing authority for routine operational decisions.

2. Motivation of subordinates: Decentralisation helps to improve the job satisfaction and morale of lower-level managers by satisfying their needs for independence, participation, and status. It also fosters team-spirit and group cohesiveness among the subordinates.

3. Better Decisions: Under decentralization, the authority to make decisions is placed in the hands of those who are responsible for executing the decisions, as a result, more accurate and faster decisions can be taken as the subordinates are well aware of the realities of the situation. This avoids red-tapism and delays.

4. Growth and Diversification: Decentralisation facilitates the growth and diversification of the enterprise. Each product division is given sufficient autonomy for innovations and creativity. The top management can extend leadership over a giant enterprise. A sense of competition can be created among different divisions or departments.

5. Development of managers: When authority is decentralized, subordinates get the opportunity of exercising their own judgment. They learn how to decide and develop managerial skills. As a result, the problem of succession is overcome and the continuity and growth of the organization are ensured. There is a better utilization of lower-level executives.

6. Effective communication: Under decentralization, the span of an organization is wider and there are fewer levels of an organization. Therefore, the communication system becomes more effective. Intimate relationships between superiors and subordinates can be developed.

7. Efficient supervision and control: Managers at lower levels have adequate authority to make changes in work assignments, rechange production-schedules, recommend supervision, and take disciplinary actions. Therefore, more effective supervision can be exercised. Control can JiS-Jnade effective by evaluating the performance of each decentralized unit in the light of clear and predetermined standards. Decentralization permits management by objectives and self-control.

8. Democratic Management: Decentralisation of authority distributes decision making authority at all levels and in all departments. Therefore, it creates democracy in the management of an organization. People at all levels are involved in decision making.

Decentralization, may, however, create problems of coordination and control. It is costly to set up semiautonomous departments and divisions. Lack of competent managers at middle and lower levels hinders decentralization. The degree of decentralization varies from one organization to another. It may also change from one time period to another in the same organization.

5)Give the meaning of delegation of authority and its importance?
Answer:
Meaning of Delegation of Authority:
Delegation of authority takes place when a manager assigns a .part of his work to others and gives them the authority to perform the assigned tasks. The manager who delegates authority holds his subordinates responsible for the proper performance of the assigned tasks. Thus, the process of delegation involves assigning duties, entrusting authority, and imposing responsibility on subordinates.

Some popular definitions of the delegation are given below –

• Delegation of authority merely means granting of authority to subordinates to operate within prescribed limits. Theo Haimann
• Authority is delegated when enterprise discretion is vested in a subordinate by a superior. The entire process of delegation involves the determination of results expected, assignment of tasks, transfer of authority for the accomplishment of these tasks, and the exaction of responsibility for their accomplishment. – Koontz and O’ Donnell.

Importance of Delegation:
When the size of an organization expands, a manager alone cannot do all the work himself. He has to share his work and authority with others. An executive can extend his personal capacity through delegation of authority. Delegation is the means by which a manager can get results through others. Failure to delegate reduces the efficiency of the individual and blocks the development of his juniors. How one delegate determines how one manages. Just as authority is the key to the manager’s job, delegation is the key to the organization.

The main advantages of the delegation are as follows –
1. Relief to Top Executives: Delegation of authority enables a manager to share his workload with his subordinates. It reduces the burden of work on senior executives. By transferring routine work to subordinates, a manager can concentrate on important policy matters. He can, therefore, make better use of his valuable time and ability. Delegation facilitates the proper distribution of workload as it takes place at all levels. The manager who delegates authority can achieve greater results than the one who does not. This is because by delegating authority, a manager secures the cooperation and participation of his subordinates.

2. Scalar Chain: Delegation of authority creates a chain of superior-subordinate relationships among managers. It provides meaning and content to managerial jobs. It also directs and regulates the flow of authority from the top to the bottom of an organization. It serves as a basis of superior-subordinate relations.

3. Specialization: Through delegation, an executive can assign jobs to his subordinates according to abilities and experience. In this way, he can obtain the benefits of the division of work.

4. Quick Decisions: When authority is delegated, lower-level employees can take decisions quickly without consulting senior executives. Subordinates are better in touch with local conditions and can take more practicable decisions within the policy framework laid down by top management.

5. Motivation: Delegation provides a feeling of status and importance to subordinates. Their independence and job satisfaction increase due to the authority they enjoy. They become more willing to work hard and achieve the targets laid down by higher authorities. Thus, delegation promotes a sense of initiative and responsibility among employees. It inspires employees to make full use of their skills.

6. Executive Development: Delegation gives an opportunity to employees to learn decision-making and leadership skills by exercising authority. It helps to improve the quality of personnel at lower levels because they are required to handle situations and solve managerial problems. They acquire competence and problems and can take up higher responsibilities in course of time. In this way, the delegation of authority is a means of developing future managers.

7. Growth and Diversification: Delegation of authority facilitates expansion and growth of the organization. As the quality of managerial talent improves, the organization can face future challenges better. It can grow and expand to a bigger size.

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6).Enumerate the steps in the process of organizing? (3)
Ans: 1) Identification and division of work
2) Grouping Jobs and Departmentalization
3) Assignment of duties
4) Establishing authority relationship
.
7).Distinguish between functional structure and divisional structure. (4M)

Basis	Functional Structure	Divisional Structure.
Formation	It is based on functions	It is based on product lines
Specialisation	Functional Specialisation	Product Specialisation
Responsibility	Difficult to fix on a departments	Easy to fix responsibility
Cost	Economical	Costly
Co ordination	Difficult for multi product company	Easy, because all functions related to a particular product are integrated in one department.
Managerial Development	Difficult, as each functional manager has to report to the top management	Easier, autonomy as well as the chance to perform multiple functions helps in managerial development.

8).What are the advantages and disadvantages of divisional structure? (5/6 )
Ans: Advantages:
1).All activities associated with one product. It can be easily integrated.
2).Decision making is faster.
3).Performance can be easily assessed remedial action can be taken
4). It facilitates expansion and growth as new divisions can be added.
Disadvantages:
1).This gives rise to duplication of effort among its divisions.
2).Manages in each department focus on their own product without thinking the rest of the organization.
3).There may not be full utilization of different equipment’s
4).Conflict may arise among different division.
9) Name the type of organization in which: (1)
Ans. Friendly relationship exists among the members.
b. Official relationship exists among the members.
A: a) Informal Organisation b) Formal Organisation.
10).Distinguish between formal and informal organizations on the basis of( 5/6)
a) Formation b. Purpose c. structure d. Behavior of members e. stability and f. adherence to rules.
Ans:

Basis	Functional Structure	Divisional Structure.
Formation	Deliberately Planned	Emerges Spontaneously among people
Purpose	To achieve organizational goals	To satisfy social and cultural needs
Structure	Well defined structure	Does not have a clear-cut
		Structure
Behavior of members	Standards of behavior	Mutual consent among members
Stability	It is stable	Neither stable nor predictable.
Adherence to rules	Violation of rules may lead to penalties	No such punishment.

In This Post we are  providing Chapter- 4 PLANNING NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 BUSSINESS STUDIES which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON PLANNING

1. How is planning forward looking?
OR
Planning is futuristic’ explain?
Ans. Planning is always for the future and never for the past. It involves peeping in to future, analyzing and preparing plans accordingly. Thus, planning is futuristic as it helps in meeting likely future events effectively and efficiently to best advantage of the organisation.
For example, on the basis of sales forecasts, annual plans for production and sales are drawn.
2. Planning involves decision making”. Explain.
Ans. Planning is essentially a process of making choice from among various alternatives. There will be no need for planning, if there is only one course of action, because there will be no choice. Hence need for planning depends on the availability of alternatives. A manager, after examining and evaluating the various alternatives, chooses the most appropriate one.
3. ‘Planning reduces creativity’. How?
Ans. Usually in an organisation, planning function is performed by the top management and the rest of the members are required to implement these plans. As a result, middle management and other members are neither allowed to deviate from plans nor are they granted authority to act on their own. Hence most of the initiative and creativity in them gets reduced.
4. ‘Planning does not guarantee success’. Comment.
Ans. An organisation is successful only when the plans are effectively drawn and implemented.
A plan must be converted into action otherwise it becomes meaningless. Generally, it is seen that managers are in the habit of depending on previously tried and tested successful plans. But this practice sometimes does not work and may actually lead to failure instead of success.
5. Enumerate the steps involved in the planning process.
Ans. Steps of planning are as follows:
(i) Setting up of objectives
(ii) Developing premises.
(iii) Identifying alternative courses of action.
(iv) Evaluating alternative courses
(v) Selecting an alternative.
(vi) Implementation of plan.
(vii) Follow up

6. What do you mean by methods?
Ans. Methods are standard ways of doing planned jobs for attaining the objectives. They are more detailed than procedures. Methods are helpful in simplification, standardization and systematization of work. For doing different jobs, different methods can be adopted. For example, for imparting training to employees at different levels, different methods of training can be used viz for higher level lectures or seminars and for supervisory level on the job training can be used.
7. What do you mean by rules?
Ans. Rules can be defined as statements that tell us what is to be done and what is not to be done. Deviations from rules are not permitted unless a policy decision is taken. They enforce rigidity and there is fine or penalty if they are not followed. For example, prohibition on sale of tobacco within certain radius of an educational institution is a rule to be followed by all.
8. What do you mean by programmes?
Ans. Programmes are a solid combination of goals, policies, procedures, rules, tasks, assignments, steps to be taken, resources to be employed and other elements necessary to carry out a given course of action. Programmes interlink the objectives, policies and procedures. They work out even the minutest detail within broad policy framework of the organisation.
9. What is meant by budget?
Ans. Budget is a plan in numerical terms which quantifies desired facts and figures. It is a statement of expected results expressed in quantitative terms. For example, a sales budget helps in forecasting the sales of a particular product in different areas during a particular month. Similarly, a budget may be prepared to show the number of workers required in factory at the time of packing the products.
10. Defining ‘organizational objectives’ is the first step in the process of planning.
Explain, in brief, the other steps of this process.
OR
Explain the steps involved in the process of planning.
Ans. It has been rightly said that defining organizational objectives is the first step in the
process of planning. Other steps in the process of planning a as follows:
(i) Establish planning premises
This step involves the establishment of planning premises in which plans are, expected to operate. Planning premises are assumptions relating to future conditions and events which are likely to have an effect on achievement of goals
(ii) Identifying alternative courses of action
Under this step, various possible alternatives for reaching objectives should be identified by managers.
(iii) Evaluating Alternative Courses
This step involves deep evaluation of various alternative courses of action in light of the various objectives to be achieved. The positive and negative aspect of each alternative is evaluated.
(iv) Selecting an alternative
This step involves the selection of the most optimum and realistic plan with least negative results.
(v) Implement the plan
Under this step the best selected plan is put in to action.
(vi) Follow up
Under this step, it is monitored whether the plans are being implement and whether the activities are being performed according to the schedule.
2. Differentiate between procedures and rules.
Ans.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROCEDURES AND RULES

Basis	Procedures	Rules
1. Meaning	Procedure is a guide for action in a given situation.	Rule is a code of conduct governing or restricting flexibility or discretion
2. Nature	Procedures are specified in chronological order.	Rules do not place activities in chronological order
3. Purpose	The purpose of procedure is to facilitate and simplify the operation and eliminate duplication.	The purpose of rule is to s maintain discipline in an organization.
4. Scope	The scope of procedures is wide because it has Its own rules and regulations.	A rule has no procedure.

In This Post we are  providing Chapter- 3 BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 BUSSINESS STUDIES which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

1. What is included in ‘Political Environment’ of business? State.

Ans. The following components are included in political environment of business:
(i) Constitutional framework
(ii)Political system
(iii)Political structure
(iv) Government interventions in business
(v) Foreign policy and defence policy of the country

2. What is included in ‘Legal Environment’ of business? State.

Ans. Legal environment includes:
(i) Several acts passed by government.
(ii) Court judgements. .                                              .     . ”
(iii) Statutory warnings prescribed under law.
(iv) Legislations passed by the government, e.g. essential commodities, etc

3. What is included in the ‘Technological Environment’ of business? State

Ans. Technological environment includes scientific improvements and innovations, which provide new ways of producing goods and services. It also includes news methods and techniques of operating a business.

4. Business environment includes both specific and general forces. List any four specific forces.  
Ans. Specific forces of business environment are:
(i) Suppliers                                                          (ii)    Investors
(iii) Customers                                                     (iv)     Competitors

5. What is meant by business environment? Explain dynamic nature and uncertainty as features of business environment.
Ans. Business environment is the sum total of all individuals, institutions and other forces like customers, competitors, suppliers, distributors, industry trends, substitutes, regulations government activities, social and cultural factors that are outside the control of the business enterprise but may affect its performance.
Features of business environment are:
Dynamic nature Business environment is dynamic as it keeps on changing. It is not static and its components are highly flexible, e.g. technological improvements, increase in competition, etc.
Uncertainty Business environment is uncertain as it is difficult to predict future happenings when environment changes are taking place frequently

6. Why is the understanding of business environment important for Explain with the help of any four points.  
or
Understanding of environment by business managers enables them not only to identify and evaluate, but also to react to the forces external to their firms? In the light of the statement, explain any four points of importance, of business environment.    
or
Explain any four points of importance of business environment.
or
State any five points which clarify how understanding of business environment helps the managers?    
or
Explain by giving any five reasons why understanding of business environment is important for managers ?
or
Explain by giving any four points, why ‘in the present day competitive market, it is essential for a business to remain alert and aware of its environment’?  
Ans. In the present day of competitive market, it is essential for a business to remain alert and aware of its
environment, because of the following points:
(i) Identify opportunities and getting the first mover advantage Awareness of environment helps an enterprise to identify the opportunities prevailing in the market and they can make strategies to capitalise such opportunities at the earliest, e.g. Maruti Udyog became the leader in the small car market because it was the first, who recognised the need for small cars in the environment.
(ii) Identify threats and early warning signals Environmental awareness helps an enterprise in identifying possible threats in future, so that the enterpirse can take timely measures to minimise the threats and its adverse effects, if any, e.g. when the new firms entered in the mid segment cars (threat), Maruti Udyog increased the production of its Esteem car. Increase in production enabled the company to make faster delivery. As a result, the company captured a substantial share of the market and became a leader in this segment
(iii) Assist in planning and policy formulation Environment awareness helps a business unit to identify opportunities and threats in the market. These serve as a basis for planning future course of action and making policies for the same.
(iv) Tapping useful resources A business environment is an open system which gets resources such as capital, labour, machines, materials, etc from the environment, converts them into goods and services desired by the customers and then supplies its output to the environment. Thus, a business firm depends on its external environment for tapping various resources and for the sale of its output.

7. What is meant by ‘business environment’? Explain any three features of business environment.
or
Explain any four characteristics of business environment.

or
State any five features of business environment.
Ans. Business environment is the sum total of all individuals, institutions and other forces like customers, competitors, suppliers, distributors, industry trends, substitutes, regulations, government activities, social and cultural factors that are outside the control of the business enterprise but may affect its performance.
The main features of business environment are:
(i) Totality of external forces Business environment is the sum total of all external forces outside the control of a business.
(ii) Consists of specific and general forces Specific forces are those, which affects the individual enterprises, viz competitors, customers, investors, and suppliers. Whereas general forces have an impact on all business enterprises. The general forces comprise of social, political, legal, economic and technological forces.
(iii) Complexity Business environment is complex, as to understand it in totality, e.g. it becomes difficult to know the extent of relative impact of social, economic, political, legal and technological, factors on change in demand of a product.
(iv) Uncertainty Business environment is largely uncertain as it is very difficult to predict future happenings, especially when changes take place at a fast pace.
(v) Relativity Business environment is relative as it differs from place to place and region to region.

8. The court passed an order that all schools must have water purifiers for the school children as

• Society in general is more concerned about quality of life.
• Innovative techniques are being developed to manufacture water purifiers at competitive rates.
• Incomes are rising and children at home are also drinking purified water.
• The government is also showing positive attitude towards the water purifier business.

Identify the different dimensions of business environment by quoting from the above details.   
Ans. The court passed an order that all schools must have water purifier’.
The quoted line is depicting legal environment. Business has to function within the framework of laws and regulations of the country. Legal environment exercises significant influence on business activities.
(i) ‘Society in general is more concerned about quality of life’.
The quoted line is depicting the social environment as this environment consists of all the social and cultural forces within which business firms operate
(ii)  ‘Innovative techniques are being developed to manufacture water purifiers at competitive rates’.
The quoted line is depicting the technological environment. It includes forces relating to scientific improvements and innovations which provide new ways of producing goods and services.
(iii) ‘Incomes are rising and children at home are also drinking purified water’.
The quoted line is depicting the economic environment. It consists of the factors and forces concerning means of production and distribution of wealth. It includes all such forces of economic development which influence the product’s market scope of business.
(iv) ‘The government is also showing positive attitude towards the water purifier business’.
The quoted line is depicting the political environment. It is concerned with the forces related with political stability, and political conditions that have strong impact on business.

9. The court passed an order to ban polythene bags as

• These bags are creating many environmental problems which affect the life of people in general.
• Society in general is more concerned about quality of life.
•  The government decided to give subsidy to jute industry to promote this business.
• Innovative techniques are being developed to manufacture jute bags at low rates.
• Incomes are rising and people can afford to buy these bags.

Identify the different dimensions of business environment by quoting the lines from the above particulars.  
Ans. ‘The court passed an order to ban polythene bags’.
The quoted line is depicting the legal environment. Business has to function within the framework of laws and regulations of the country. Legal environment exercises significant influence on business activities.
‘Polythene bags are creating many environmental problems which affect the life of people in general’ and ‘society in general is more concerned about quality of life’.
These quoted lines are depicting the social environment, which consists of all the social and cultural forces within which business firms operate.
‘Government decided to give subsidy to jute industry to promote this business’.
The quoted line is depicting the political environment, which is concerned with the forces related with political stability and political conditions that have strong impact on business.
‘Innovative techniques are being developed to manufacture jute bags at low rates’.
The quoted line is depicting the technological environment. It includes forces relating to scientific improvements and innovations which provide new ways of producing goods and services.
‘Incomes are rising and people can afford to buy these bags’.
The quoted line is depicting the economic environment. It consists of the factors and forces concerning means of production and distribution of wealth. It includes all such forces of economic development which influence the product’s market scope of business.

10. Management of every enterprise can be benefited from being aware of different dimensions of business environment. Explain any four such dimensions (All India 2010]
Ans. Dimensions of business environment are as follows :
(i) Economic environment It consists of economic factors that influence the business in a country. These factors include Gross National Product, corporate profits, inflation rate, employment, Balance of Payments, interest rates, consumer income, etc. Economic environment in a country has strong influence on the business in that country.
(ii) Social environment It describes the characteristics of the society in which the organisation exists. Literacy rate, customs, value beliefs, life style, demographic features and mobility of population are the part of the social environment. The trend of change can be predicted well in advance. It is important for managers to notice the direction in which the society is moving and formulate progressive policies according to the changing social scenario.
(iii) Political environment It is the outcome of a combination of various ideologies advocated by different political parties. Every political party has a different attitude towards business community. A live example of this, can be seen during elections when there is a fluctuation in the share market.
(iv) Legal environment It consists of legislation that is passed by the Parliament and state legislatures. This component sets the framework of law within which the business is free to operate. Example of such legislation specifically aims at business operations which include the Trade Marks Act, 1969, Essential Commodities Act, 1955, Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1969 and Consumer Protection Act, 1986

In This Post we are  providing Chapter- 2 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12BUSSINESS STUDIES which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

 1. ‘Principles of Management are different from those used in pure science’. Write any one difference.
Ans.The principle of management are not universal in their Application while those in pure science are universal.
2. Which principle does functional foreman ship violate?
Ans. Unity of command
3. Give any one effect of principle of division of work?
Ans. Specialization, speed, accuracy.
4. A sales person is asked to finalize a deal with customer. The marketing manager allows him to give a discount of up to 10% but the Finance Manager allows him to give discount of upto 25%. Which principle is violated here?
Ans. Unity of Command.
6. State any three reasons as to why proper understanding of management principles is necessary.
Ans. Proper understanding of management principles is necessary because of the  following reasons (any three):
(a) They provide managers with useful insight into reality.
(b) They help in optimal utilization of resources and effective administration.
(c) They help in meeting environment requirements.
(d) They are used as basis for management training, education and research.
6. How do management principles ensure optimum utilization of resources and effective administration?
Ans. In every organization, resources such as men, machine, material and money play a vital role. Management principles are designed in such a way that maximum benefits from these resources can be achieved minimum resources wastage. Along with this, the principles of management also help in establishing effective administration by limiting the boundary of managerial discretion that their decisions may be free from personal biases. For example, while deciding the annual budget for different departments, a manager is required to follow the principle of contribution to organizational objectives and not personal preferences
7. Explain briefly the technique of fatigue study?(3or4)
Ans. Fatigue study determines the amount and frequency of rest intervals in completing a task. Workers cannot work at a stretch. After putting in work for a certain periods of time, they reel tired which affects their performance. If they are allowed rest intervals, they will regain their stamina and will resume their work with greater efficiency.
8. Give positive effects of the principle of ‘discipline’.
Ans. Positive effects of the principle of ‘discipline’ are as under:
i) Improves efficiency of the employees.
ii) Systematic work in the organization.
iii) Ensuring that penalties are imposed judicially.
7. Explain the Principle of centralization and decentralization. –
Ans. Centralization means concentration of authority in the hands of few people at the top, whereas decentralization means appropriate distribution of power at every level of   management. According to Fayol,  company must be properly balanced i.e. it should neither be completely centralized nor d e c e n t r a li z e d . There must be some element of both depending upon the profile of the organization. The panchayat system in our country is a very good example of decentralization at the national level.
8. Ms. Ritu and Mr. Mohit are Data Entry Operators in a company having same educational qualifications. Ritu is getting Rs. 5,000 per month and Mohit Rs. 6,000 per month as salary for the same working hours. Which principle of management is violated in the case? Name and explain the principle.
Ans. The principle of ‘equity’ is violated in this case. According to this principle, employees should be given kind, fair and just treatment and there should not be any discrimination based on caste, creed, color, sex etc. Apparently, Ritu is getting less in view of bring a female which is against this principle.
9. Explain the technique ‘Functional Foremanship’.
Ans. Functional foremanship is the extension of the principle of specialization. This technique emphasizes on the separation of planning from execution. To facilitate it, Taylor suggested setting up of “planning in charge” and “production in charge”.
FUNCTIONAL FOREMANSHIP
Planning Incharge: The main function of “planning in charge” is to plan all aspects of a job to be performed. It consists of four positions:
(i) Route clerk: He determines the sequence to perform various mechanical  and manual operations.
(ii) Instruction card clerk: He issues instructions to the workers to be followed by them.
(iii) Time and cost clerk: He is concerned with the framing of time schedule on the basis of determined route. Also, he keeps the record of the cost of operations.
(iv) Disciplinarian: He is concerned with the coordination in each job from planning to successful execution. He enforces rules and regulations and maintains discipline.
Production Incharge: It consists of following four specialists who are concerned with the execution of plans.
(i) Speed Boss: He checks whether work is progressing as per schedule. He ensures timely and accurate completion of jobs.
(ii) Gang Boss: He arranges machines, materials, tools, and equipments properly so that workers can proceed with their work.
(iii) Repair Boss: He ensures that all machines, tools, equipments are in perfect working order.
Inspector: He ensures that the work is done as per the standards of quality set by planning department.
10. Name and explain that principle of Fayol which suggests that communication from top to bottom should follow the official lines of command.
OR
Explain the ‘Principle of Scalar Chain’ with an example.
Ans. In an organization, the formal lines of authority, from highest to lowest level of all superiors and subordinates, are known as scalar chain. The principle of scalar chain suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom, linking superiors and subordinates at all levels. The scalar chain serves as a chain of command as well as communication. In normal circumstances, the formal communication is required to be made by following this chain.
Scalar Chain and Gang Plank
Example: The above figure shows the scalar chain linking managers at lower levels with the top management. If D has to communicate with G, The message should ordinarily move up through C and B to A, and then down from A to E, F and G.
Above mentioned chain has follo
wing disadvantages:
(i) It causes delay in reaching communication to the required level.
(iii) Creates the possibility of distortion of information flow as various levels are involved.
To avoid delays and to remove hurdles in the exchange of information, concept of Gang Plank has been suggested by Fayol, shown by the dotted line joining D and G

In This Post we are  providing Chapter- 1 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MANAGEMENT NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12BUSSINESS STUDIES which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MANAGEMENT

Question 1

Coordination is the essence of management. Do you agree? Give reasons. 

Ans- Coordination is no doubt the essence of management. Coordination means a path which links up the group functions. It starts from the stage of planning where the objectives and goals of the organisations are set. Division interdependence, common goal, and work allotted are few of the reasons which signify the essence of the management

Question 2.
Distinguish between coordination and cooperation.
Answer:

Co-ordination	Cooperation
1. It is an orderly arrangement of a group effort to provide for unity of action.	1. It is a voluntary desire to help each other
2. Co-ordination includes cooperation, hence it is a wider term.	2. Co-operation is a narrow term as it is a part of co-ordination.
3. It is a deliberate effort made by the management to balance interrelated activities.	3. It is the voluntary effort made by a group of people depending on their mental needs or liking
4. It is a technique.	4. It is an attitude.

Question 3.
Write the characteristics of management and explain any two.
Answer:
Characteristics The key features of management are –

1. Goal-oriented process,
2. all-pervasive,
3. multidimensional,
4. Continuous process,
5. group activity
6. dynamic function,
7. tangible force.

1. Management is a goal-oriented process:  An organization has a set of basic goals which are the basic reason for its existence. These should be simple and clearly stated.

2. Management is all-pervasive: The activities involved in managing an enterprise are common to all organizations whether economic, social, or political Thus it is all-pervasive.

Question 4.
“Lack of proper management results in wastage of time money and efforts.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Answer:
Yes, the above-mentioned statement holds true as the reasons are as follows.

1. Means to accomplishing goals:  Management is important because it helps in achieving group goals, increases efficiency, and creates a dynamic organization.
2. Unified direction: Management motivates and directs the workforce by unifying goals with the group goals.
3. Establishes sound industrial relations: The success of any organization depends upon its workforce. It is the only factor of production which is movable in nature. Effective management tries to build a feeling of team and loyalty towards the organization.
4. It looks after for future uncertainties: An effective management prepares the organization for future contingencies and paved the way for its survival and growth. In the ‘ absence of this foresightedness, an organization may be forced to wind up its operations resulting in wastage of time, efforts, and resources.

Question 5.
State two objectives of management. (1993, 1996, 1998)
Answer:
The main two objectives of management are –

1. Maximization of profits at minimum cost.
2. Optimum utilization of the given resources by the organization.

Question 6.
What is meant by Administration? (1992, 1999)
Answer:
Administration means a determination of overall policies, the setting of major objectives, the identification of general-purpose, the laying out of broad programs, etc. It is determinative in nature.

Question 7.
Name any two activities undertaken at the top-level management. (1995, 2001, 2004)
Answer:
The two main functions or activities of top-level management are.

1. It does long-term planning and formulating suitable policies, organizing (determination of organization structure), and controlling.
2. It maintains cordial relations with all outside parties like the shareholders, the government, etc.

Question 8.
State two functions of lower-level management. (1992-1994)
Answer:
The main functions are as follows –

1. It translates the intermediate plan of middle-level management into day to day operating plan.
2. It gives directions to operating employees by assigning jobs, evaluating and correcting their performance and sends information and progress reports to higher management.

Question 9.
Do you think proper Management is an important part of an organization?
or
Explain the importance of management.
Answer:
Yes, management is a universal activity that is integral to any organization. We now examine some of the reasons that have made management so important.

1. Management helps in achieving group goals: Management is required not for itself but for achieving the goals of the organization, the task of a manager is to give a common direction to all.

2. Management increases efficiency:  The aim of a manager is to reduce costs and increase productivity ” through better planning, organizing directing, staffing, and controlling the activities of the organization.

3. Management creates a dynamic organization: All organizations have to function in an environment that is constantly changing.

4. Management helps in achieving personal objectives: A manager motivates and leads his team in such a manner that individual members are able to achieve personal goals while contributing to the overall organizational objective.

5. Management helps in the development of society: An organization has multiple objectives to serve the purpose of the different groups that constitute it. In the process of fulfilling all these management helps in the development of the organization and through that it helps in the development of society. It helps to provide good ‘ quality products and services, creates employment opportunities, and leads the path towards growth and development.

Question 10.
Explain the level of management and their main functions.
Answer:
Level of Management.

Generally speaking, there are three levels in the hierarchy of an organization.

1. Top Management:
They consist of the senior-most executives of the organization by whatever name they are called. They are usually referred to as the chairman, the chief executive officer, chief operating officer, president, and vice-president. Top management is a team consisting of managers from different functional levels. Their basic task is to integrate diverse elements and coordinate the activities of different departments according to the overall objectives of the organization. They are responsible for the welfare and survival of the organization. Their job is complex and stressful.

2. Middle Management:
It is the link between top and lower-level management. They are subordinate to top managers and superior to the first-line managers. They are usually known as division heads, operation managers, or plant superintendent. They are responsible for implementing and controlling plans developed by top management. At the same time, they are responsible for all the activities of first-line management. Their main task is to carry out the plans formulated by the top management and at the same time, they are responsible for all the activities of first-line managers.

3. Operational Management:
Foreman and supervisors comprise the lower level in the organization. Supervisors directly oversee the efforts of the workforce. Their authority and responsibility are limited according to the plans drawn by the top management. They play a very important role in the organization since they interact with the actual workforce and pass on instructions of the middle management to the Workers. Through the quality of their efforts of output is maintained. Wastage of materials is minimized and safety standards are maintained.