Yearly Archives: 2022

1. Fill in the blanks:

1. The Rajarajeshvara temple was built in ………………..
2. Ajmer is associated with the Sufi saint…………………
3. Hampi was the capital of the ………….
4. The Dutch established a settlement at…………….. in Andhra Pradesh.

Answer:

1. (a) early 11th century
2. (b) Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
3. (c) Vijayanagara
4. (d) Masulipatnam

2. State whether true or false:
(a) We know the name of the architect of the Rajarajeshvara temple from an inscription.
(b) Merchants preferred to travel individually rather than in caravans.
(c) Kabul was a major centre for trade in elephants.
(d) Surat was an important trading port on the Bay of Bengal.
Answer:   (a)—T, (b)—F, (c)—F, (d)—F.

3. How was water supplied, to the city of Thanjavur?
Answer:
Water from wells and tanks was supplied to the city of Thanjavur through channels.

4. Who lived in the ‘Black Towns’ in cities such as Madras?
Answer:  Merchants, artisans (such as weavers), native traders and craftspersons lived in the ‘Black Towns’.

5. Why do you think towns grew around temples?
Answer:
Towns grew around temples because of the following reasons:

1. Priests, workers, artisans, craftspersons settled around temples.
2. Several shops came up around temples to cater to the needs of pilgrims and priests etc.

6. How important were craftspersons for the building and maintenance of temples?
Answer:
Craftspersons were very important because of the following reasons:

1. They carried out inlay work in copper and silver. Craftspersons from Bidar were well-known for Bidri work.
2. Goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons, carpenters built temples.
3. They also maintained them.
4. Weavers also played an important role in cotton textiles.

7. Why did people from distant lands visit Surat?
Answer:
People from distant lands visited Surat because of the following reasons:

1. Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz.
2. Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.
3. There was a big market for cotton textiles. One could find several retail and wholesale shops selling cotton textiles.
4. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders, Le. zari and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.
5. There were ample rest-houses for the visitors. Magnificent buildings and innumerable pleasure parks attracted people of far-off places.

8. In what ways was craft production in cities like Calcutta different from that in cities Wee Thanjavur?
Answer:
Craft production in Thanjavur was different from that of Kolkata in the following manner:

1. Craft production in Thanjavur was in the form of inlays work in copper and silver.
2. In Kolkata, it was in the form of cotton textiles, jute textiles, and silk textiles.
3. Thanjavur was a temple town and all lived in town.
4. Calcutta was a trading town and craftsmen lived in “Blacktown” areas.

9. Compare any one of the cities described in this chapter with a town or a village with which you are familiar. Do you notice any similarities or differences?
Answer:
Comparison between Surat and Delhi

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. What do temple towns represent? [Imp.]
Answer:  Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanization.

2. Why did the rulers endow temples with grants of land and money?
Answer:  They did so in order to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests, and celebrate festivals.

3. How did pilgrims contribute to the temples?
Answer:  They made donations.

4. What is bronze?
Answer:  Bronze is an alloy that contains copper and tin.

5. What is bell metal?
Answer:  Bell metal contains a greater proportion of tin than other kinds of bronze. This produces a bell-like sound,

6. How did temple authorities use their wealth?
Answer:  They used their wealth to finance trade and banking,

7. What did the Indian traders bring from Africa?
Answer:  They brought gold and ivory from Africa.

8. Name a few Indian spices which became an important part of European cooking. Ans. Pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, dried ginger, g. 9. What were craftspersons of Bidar famous for?
Answer:  They were famous for their inlay work in copper and silver,

10. What do the ruins of Hampi reveal?
Answer:  The ruins at the Hampi reveal a well-fortified city.

11. Why has Surat been called the gate to Mecca?[V. Imp.]
Answer:  Surat has been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.

12. What were the textiles of Surat famous for?
Answer:  The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders Le. zarL

13. What was special with the Surat hundis?                  [V. Imp.]
Answer:  The Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq, and Antwerp in Belgium.

14. Why did the Dutch and English East India Companies attempt to control Masulipatnam?
Answer: Because Masulipatnam became the most important port on the Andhra coast,

15. How did the European Companies gain control of the sea trade?
Answer:  They gained control of the sea trade by using their naval power,

16. What was the system of advances?
Answer:  Under the system of advances the weavers had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents.

17. Name the residence meant for the white rulers in Madras.
Answer:  Fort St. George.

18 Name the residence meant for the white rulers in Calcutta
Answer:  Fort St. William.

19. Mention some articles of trade on which temple authorities collected taxes.
Answer:  Sugar and jaggery, dyes, thread, and cotton, coconut, salt, areca nuts, butter, sesame oil and cloth.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What is the ‘lost wax’ technique? [V. Imp.]
Answer: ‘Lost wax’ technique was used to make Chola bronze statues. This technique involved several stages :

• First of all, an image was made of wax. This was covered with clay and left in sun to dry.
• It was then heated and a small hole was made in the clay cover. The molten wax was drained out through this hole.
• Then molten wax was poured into the clay mould through the hole. Once the metal cooled and solidified, the clay cover was carefully removed and the image was cleaned and polished.

2. What purpose did small towns serve? [V. Imp.]
Or
Describe various Junctions of small towns.
Answer:  Several small towns came to be seen in the sub-continent from the 8th century onward. These towns usually had a mandapika or mandi where nearby villagers came to sell their produce. These towns also had market streets called halta or hoot lined with shops.

There were also streets for different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar market, toddy makers etc.
Many traders came from far and near to these towns to buy local articles and sell products of distant places such as salt, camphor, horse, etc.

3. Find out about the present-day taxes on markets. Who collects these taxes? How are they collected and are they used for?
Answer:

• The present-day taxes on markets are collected as license fees of shops.
• MCD must collect these taxes.
• MCD does this work with the help of its various departments.
• The taxes collected by MCD are used in the welfare of the public, roads, sewage, electricity, water, etc.

4. Give an account of the architecture of Hampt
Answer: The architecture of Hampi was distinctive in several ways :

• Hampi was a well-fortified city. No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of these walls. The technique followed was to wedge them together by inter-locking.
• The buildings in the royal complex had splendid arches, domes and pillared halls with niches for holding sculptures.
• They also had well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as the lotus and corbels.

5. How was Hampi in its heyday in the 15-16th centuries? When did it fall into ruin?
Answer:  In its heyday in the 15-16th centuries Hampi was an important centre of commercial and cultural activities. Moors, which was a name used collectively for Muslim merchants, Chettis and agents of European traders such as the Portuguese, visited the markets of Hampi.

Temples were the hub of cultural activities. Temple dancers known as devadasis performed before the deities, royalty and masses in the many-pillared halls inthe Virupaksha, a form of Shiva, temple. The Mahanavami festival was one of the most important festivals celebrated at Hampi.

Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans.

6. What were the reasons for the decline of Swat? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Surat, which was an important trade centre during the Mughal period, began to decline towards the end of the seventeenth century. This was because of the following factors:

• Because of the decline of the Mughal Empire, Surat faced a huge loss of markets and productivity
• The control of the sea routes went into the hands of the Portuguese
• Surat could not complete with Bombay were the English East India Company shifted its headquarters in 1668.

7. What made the city of Masulipatnam populous and prosperous?
Answer:  The city of Masulipatnam was a centre of intense activity during the 17th century. Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control this city as it became the most important part of the Andhra coast. Qutb Shah rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices, and other items to prevent the trade from passing completely into the hands of the various East India Companies. This led to fierce competition among various trading groups such as the Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis, and European traders. As a result, the city became populous and prosperous.

8. How did the system of advances snatch the freedom of the weavers?
OR
How did the Indian Crafts persons lose their independence?
Answer:  The Indian textiles were in great demand in the European markets. As a result, the English began to make attempts to control the Indian craftspersons by appointing Indian traders as their agents. They introduced the system of advances under which the weavers had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents. Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their cloth or weaving their patterns. Instead, they had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the company agents. This system snatched the freedom of the Indian weavers. They began to be guided by someone else.

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Describe the trade activities of the big and small traders belonging to the medieval time.

Answer: There were many kinds of traders. These included the Banjaras and several traders especially horse traders.
The traders usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests. There were several such guilds in South India from the eighth century onwards—the most famous being the Manigramam and Nanadesi. These guilds traded extensively both within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China. There were also communities like the Chettiyars and the Marwari Oswal who went on to become the major trading groups of the country.

Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia, and China. They sold textiles and spices in these ports and exchange, brought gold and ivory from Africa; and spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery, and silver from Southeast Asia and China.

The towns on the west coast were home to Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish, and Syrian Christian traders. Indian spices and cloth sold in the Red seaports were bought by Italian traders and eventually reached European markets, fetching high profits. This ultimately drew European traders to India.

2. Describe Swat as a gateway to the West           [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period along with Cambay (now Khambat) and somewhat later, Ahmedabad. Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz. Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.

Surat was a cosmopolitan city inhabited by people of all castes and creeds. In the 17th century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories and warehouses at Surat. Several retail and wholesale shops could be found in Surat. These shops sold cotton textiles. Here, it is worth mentioning that the textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders, le. zari and had a market in West Asia, African and Europe.

The state provided all the facilities to the people who came to the city from all over the world. The Kathiawad seths or mahqjaxvs had huge banking houses at Surat. The Surat hundis were honoured in far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.

1. How is the ‘trabeate’ principle of architecture different from the arcuate?
Answer:
Trabeate principle of architecture is different from the arcuate principle in the following way:

1. In the trabeate principle, a horizontal beam is placed across two vertical columns and roofs, doors and windows are made.
2. In the arcuate principle, the bricks are joined in an arch shape on a wooden plank, put on two vertical columns, doors, windows, and roofs, and are made arch-shaped. The weight of the doors and windows is carried by arches. The keystone of the arch transfers the weight on the bases of the arch.

2. What is a shikhara?
Answer: A shikhara is the topmost pointed portion of a temple.

3. What is pietra dura?
Answer: Pietra-dura is the inlays (a series of pictures) that depicted the legendary Greek god Orpheus playing the flute.

4. What are the elements of a Mughal Chahar bagh garden?
Answer: Mughal Chahar bagh consists of four gardens. These gardens are placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels.

5. How did a temple communicate the importance of a king?
Answer:
The temples communicated the importance of a king in the following manner:

1. Name of the temples and the king were almost similar
   • Examples: King: Rajarajadeva.
   • Temple: Rajarajeshvara.
   • God: Rajarajeshvaram
2. The main Gods were identical in name with the kings.
3. Lesser deities were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.
4. Temple was the miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies.

6. An inscription in Shah Johan’s diwan-i khas in Delhi stated, “If there is Paradise on Earth it is here, it is here, it is here”. How was this image created?
Answer: Shah Jahan’s diwan-i khas was designed in such a way that it fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis. It was carefully planned. It was placed within a large courtyard. Behind the emperor’s throne there were a series of pietra-dura inlays. It depicted the legendiy god Orpheus playing the lute. The diwan-e khas was aimed to communicate that the king’s justice would treat the high and the low as equals, creating a world where all could live together in harmony. The diwon-i khas reflected the image of a paradise in itself.

7. How did the Mughal court suggest that everyone—the rich and the poor, the powerjul and the weak—received justice equally from the emperor?
Answer: The Diwan-i am of the Mughal court suggested that justice was made for all in an equal way. The construction of Shah Jahan’s audience hall was designed to communicate that the king’s justice was equal for the high and the low. Its aim was to create a world where all could live together in harmony. There was no difference between the rich and poor in the emperor’s court.

8. What role did the Yamuna play in the layout of the new Mughal city at Shahjahanabad?
Answer:
The Yamuna played the following role in the layout of the new Mughal city at Shahjahanabad.

1. The palace was commanded by the riverfront.
2. Only the specially favoured nobles like Dara Shukoh were given access to the river.
3. All others had to construct their houses far away from the river Yamuna.

9. The rich and powerful construct large houses today. In what ways were the constructions of kings and their courtiers different in the past?
Answer:
The constructions of kings and their courtiers were different in the past in the following ways:

1. Safety and security was a major consideration.
2. Diwan-i am was constructed for the general public.
3. The constructions were carried out on uplands and surrounded by water bodies.

10. Look at Figure 4. How could that building be constructed faster today?
Answer: Such buildings were usually constructed as a matter of pride in old days. It was very difficult to construct them but they were made possible with the help of skilled masons and labourers. Such buildings took a very long time and a number of labourers to be constructed. But now as technologies have advanced, we have many facilities, equipment, tools which can construct huge buildings very easily and in less time.

11. Find out whether there is a statue of or a memorial to a great person in your village or town. Why was it placed there? What purpose does it serve?
Answer: There is a very busy chowk in my village. We find there a statue of Subhash Chandra Bose and hence this chowk is known as Subhash Chowk. Subhash Chandra Bose was such a great person that he dared to challenge the British empire by forming his own army. He is now no more but his statue is there to inspire us. Its purpose is to encourage the youth to do something different and challenging.

12. Visit and describe any park or garden in your neighbourhood. In what ways is it similar to or different from the gardens of the Mughals?
Answer: The gardens of Mughals gardens were spread over a very large area. There was a large variety of flowers. They were well-decorated and protected. But the garden in my neighbourhood is not so large. Everyone has easy access to this garden. So the flowers are not safe. Thus, we don’t find any similarities.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. Why was limestone cement used in the construction of large structures? [V. Imp.]
Answer: Limestone cement was very high-quality cement, which, when mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete. This made the construction of large structures easier and faster.

2. How did the Persian court chronicles describe the Sultan?
Answer: Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God’.

3. Name the ruler who won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just – outside Delhi-i kuhna?
Answer: Sultan Iltutmish.

4. What are the special features of Humayun’s tomb?
Answer: (a) It has a central towering dome.
(b)It has a tall gateway (pishtaq).

5. What was maha mandapa?
Answer: It was the main hall in the temple where dances were performed.

6. Name the temple built by king Rajarajadeva.
Answer: Rajarajeshvara temple.

7. When was the tomb of Hanuman built?
Answer: It was built between 1562 and 1571.

8. Who constructed the Kandariya Mahadeva temple?
Answer: King Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty constructed the Kandariya Mahadeva temple.

9. Where was Shah Jahan’s capital in the early years of his reign?
Answer: It was at Agra

1o. What is the special feature of Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s capital?
Answer: Many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

11. Name the king who invaded Sri Lanka? Whom did he defeat?
Answer: King Shrimara Shrivallabha. He defeated the king, Sena I.

12. What was havellis?
Answer: They were large mansions of the merchants.

13. How did kings win the praise of their subjects? [V. Imp.]
Answer: They won the praise of their subjects by buildings structures meant for a public activity such as temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravanserais, and bazaars.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What type of structures were built by kings and their officers between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries? 
Answer: During this period kings and their officers built two kinds of structure
(A)Forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs
(B)Structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravanserais and bazaars.

2. Write a short note on the Kandariya Mahadeva temple.
Answer: The Kandariya Mahadeva temple dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 999 by the king Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty. The temple had an ornamented gateway that led to an entrance. It had the main hall known as maha mandapa where dances were performed. The image of the chief deity was kept in the main Shrine known as garbhagriha. This was the place for ritual worship where only the king and his kith and kin gathered.

3. Throw light on how the construction of the Rqjarqjeshvara temple was a very difficult task.                           [V. Imp.]
Answer: The Raj raj Ishvara temple was built in the early 11th century. It had the tallest shikhara amongst temples of its time. Its construction was a very difficult task. There were no cranes in those days. The 90 tonne stone for the top of the shikhara was too heavy to lift manually. Hence, the architects built an inclined path to the top of the temple, placed the boulder on rollers and rolled it all the way to the top. The path started more than 4 km away so that it would not be too steep. This was dismantled after the temple was built.

4. In what ways do you think the policies of Rajendra I and Mahmud of Ghazni were a product of their time? How were the actions of the two rulers different? [Imp.]
Answer: King Rajendra I looted the temples of the defeated rulers and seized prized statues from them. He these statues in the decoration of the Shiva temple, that he built in his capital in the early 11th century.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a contemporary of Rajendra I. He destroyed and looted the temples of defeated kings in order to win credit as a great hero of Islam. Thus, King Rajendra, I constructed a temple while Mahmud of Ghazni destroyed it. In this way, their actions were very much different.

5. Write a brief note on the Chahar bagh built by the Mughal rulers.
Answer: The Mughal emperors were very much interested in literature, art, and architecture. Babur, in his autobiography, described his interest in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled enclosures, and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. These gardens were called Chahar bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division into quarters. Beginning with Akbar, some of the most beautiful Chahar baghs were constructed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi.

6. When was Humayun’s tomb built? What are its special features?
Answer:  Humayun’s tomb was, built between 1562 and 1571. Its main features are:

• The central towering dome and the tall gateway known as pishtaqbecame important aspects of Mughal architecture. This tomb architecture was first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
• The tomb was placed in the centre of a huge formal Chahar baghand built in the tradition known as ‘eight paradises’ or hasht bihisht—a central hall surrounded by eight rooms.
• The building was constructed with red sandstone, edge with white marble.

7. Give an account of Shah Johan’s audience halls.       [Imp.]

Answer: Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque.
The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer, since everybody faced that direction when court was in session. The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by these architectural features.

The construction of Shah Jahan’s audience hall aimed to communicate that the king’s justice would treat the high and the low as equals creating a world where all could live together in harmony.

8. Who were involved in the building of the Qutb Minor?
Answer: The Qutb Minar is five storeys high. The first floor was constructed by Qutbuddin Aybak and the rest by Iltutmish around 1229. Over the years it was damaged by lightning and earthquakes and repaired by Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Tughluq, Firuz Shah Tughluq, and Ibrahim Lodi.

9. How can you say that Mughal rulers adapted regional architectural styles in the construction of their buildings? Explain with examples.
Answer: Mughal rulers were skilled in adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of their buildings.
For example:
In Bengal, the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut. The Mughals liked this ‘Bangla dome’ and used it their architecture.

In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri, many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

10. Describe how Shah Jahan adapted the riverfront garden in the layout of the Teg Mahal.

Answer: The Taj Mahal is the grandest architectural accomplishment of Shah Jahan’s reign. He adapted the river-front garden in its layout. Here, the white marble mansoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to control the access that nobles had to the river.

11.  What is the main feature of Shah Jahan’s new city of Shahjahanabad? [Imp.]
Answer: Shah Jahan constructed a new city namely Shahjahanabad in Delhi. In this city, the imperial palace commanded the river-front. Only especially favoured nobles like his oldest son Dara Shukoh were given access to the river. All others had to construct their homes in the city away from the River Yamuna.

                                                           LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1 Compare the reasons why temples were built and destroyed?                             [V. Imp.]
Answer: Kings built temples to show their devotion to God and their power and wealth. King Rajarajeshvara built the Rajarajeshvara temple for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Here, the names of the king and the god appear to be similar. The king took the god’s name because it was auspicious and he wanted to appear like a god. The largest temples were usually built by kings while the other, lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.

The temple was a miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies. As they worshipped the deities together in the royal temples, it seemed as if they brought the just rule of the gods on earth. Kings built temples but when they attacked one another’s kingdoms they often targeted these buildings. In the early 9th century when the Pandyan King Shrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated King Sena. he seized all the valuables such as the statue of the Buddha made entirely of gold and other golden images from various monasteries. King Sena II took revenge on this.

He invaded Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas in order to restore the gold statue of the Buddha. In the same way when in the early 11th century the Chola King Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital. He filled it with prized statues seized from defeated rulers. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni not only seized the valuables from the temples but . also destroyed them. He did it in order to win credit as a great hero of Islam Thus, rulers displayed their political might and military success by attacking and looting the places of worship of defeated rulers

1. Match the following:
mansab                         –  Marwar
Mongol                         –  governor
Sisodiya Rajput         –  Uzbeg
Rathor Rajput           –  Mewar
Nur Jahan                   –  rank
subadar                       –  Jahangir
Answer: 
mansab                              –       rank
Mongol                              –     Uzbeg
Sisodiya Rajput               –     Mewar
Rathor Rajput                  –     Marwar
Nur Jahan                        –     Jahangir
subadar                             –     governor

2. Fill in the blanks:

1. The capital of Mirza Hakim, Akbar’s half-bro: her, was …………………
2. The five Deccan Sultanate were Berar, Khandesh, Ahmadnagar,
3. If zat determined a mansabdar’s rank and salary, sewer indicated his………………………
4. Abul Faze, Akbar’s friend and counsellor, helped him frame the idea of …………. so that he could govern a society composed of many religions, cultures, and castes.

Answer:

1. Kabul
2. Bijapur, Golconda
3. number of horses maintained
4. administration

3. What were the central provinces under the control of the Mughals?
Answer: Panipat, Lahore, Delhi, Agra, Mathura, Amber, Ajmer, Fatehpur Sikri, Chittor, Ranthambhore and Allahabad.

4. What were the relationships between the mansabdar and the jagir?
Answer:
Relationship between the mansabdar and the jagir:

1. Mansabdars were those who joined Mughal service.
2. Jagirs were the salaries of the mansabdars in the form of revenue assignments.
3. It means mansabdars received jagirs as their salaries. Hence, mansabdars depended upon jagirs for their livelihood.

5. What was the role of the zamindar in Mughal administration?
Answer:  Zamtndars were powerful local chieftains appointed by the Mughal rulers. They exercised great influence and power. They collected taxes from the peasants and gave them to the Mughal emperor. Thus, they played the role of intermediaries. In some areas the zamindars became more powerful. The exploitation by Mughal administrators made them to rebellion. They got support from the peasants in rebelling against the Mughal authority.

6. How were the debates with religious scholars important in the formation of Akbar’s ideas on governance?
Answer:
In the 1570’s at Fatehpur Sikri Akbar started discussions on religion with people of different faiths. There were ulemas, Brahmanas, Jesuit Catholic priests and Zoroastrians.

1. These discussions took place in Ibadat Khana. These were about social and religious customs.
2. These interactions made him realise that religious scholars are bigots. They emphasize rituals and dogma.
3. Their teachings create divisions in society. This led to the idea of Sulh-i-Kul or ‘Universal peace’.

7. Why did the Mughals emphasise their Timurid and not their Mongol descent?
Answer:  The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis Khan, ruler of the Mongol tribes. From their father’s side they were the successors of Timur, the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. However, the Mughals did not like to be called Mongol because Mongol’s especially Genghis Khan’s, memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people. It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol competitors. On the other hand, the Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry, because it achieved good name in the history.

8. How important was the income from land revenue to the stability of the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
The income from land revenue is very important to the stability of the Mughal Empire as:

1. It was used for extension of empire, wars, etc.
2. Income is used to pay salaries/wages to army, bureaucrats, artisans and workers.
3. The administrative expenditure is dealt by this income.

9. Why was it important for the Mughals to recruit mansabdars from diverse backgrounds and not just Turanis and Iranis?
Answer:  The Mughal Empire expanded to different regions. Hence, it was important for the Mughals to recruit diverse bodies of people in order to make people comfortable with them. Apart from Turanis and Iranis, now there were mansabdars from Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other groups.

10. Like the Mughal Empire, India today is also made up of many social and cultural units. Does this pose a challenge to national integration?
Answer:
No, this does not pose a challenge to national integration because:

1. We have a unified system of government that has the same rules and regulations for all the citizens irrespective of religion, region, etc.
2. We have a constitution guarding the rights of all and specifying their duties.
3. Now we are unified as a nation, not as distinct states or regions of different rulers.

11. Peasants were vital for the economy of the Mughal Empire. Do you think that they are as important today? Has the gap in the income between the rich and the poor in India changed a great deal from the period of the Mughals?
Answer:  Peasants are as important today as they were during the Mughal Empire. They cultivate land and grow crops without which we cannot survive. They pay land revenue to the government which is used in various development work. We cannot think of a sound economy without them. They are the backbone of the country.

12. The Mughal Empire left its impact on the different regions of the subcontinent in a variety of ways. Find out if it had any impact in the city, village or region in which you live.
Answer:

• Yes.
• We have great architectural remains of this period which gives lots of information about construction, material styles, etc.
• Islam as a religion gave a distinct cultural flavour to the city.
• Urdu has enriched our literature, music, and art of writing.
• Mughal remains are great tourist attractions.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. Why was it a difficult task for rulers of the Middle Ages to rule the Indian subcontinent? 
Answer:  It was because people of diverse backgrounds and cultures lived here.

2. Who was Genghis Khan?
Answer: He was the ruler of the Mongol tribes, China and Central Asia.

3. Who was Babur?
Answer: He was the first Mughal emperor and reigned from 1526 to 1530

4. Name the battlefield where Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur?
Answer:  Panipat.

5. To whom did Babur defeat at Chanderi?[V- Imp.]
Answer:  Babur defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi

6. What forced Hwnayun to flee to Iran?
Answer: After being defeated by Sher Khan at Chausa in 1539 and Kanauj in 1540 Humayun fled to Iran.

7.  At what age did Akbar become the emperor of the Mughal Empire?
Answer: Akbar became the emperor of the Mughal Empire at the age of 13.

8. Who was the regent of Akbar?
Answer:  Bairam Khan.

9. How is Prince Khurram better known as in Indian History?
Answer: Price Khurram is better known as Emperor Shah Jahan in Indian History.

1o. Who was victorious in the conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan’s sons?
Answer: Aurangzeb was victorious.

11. Who fought guerrilla warfare?
Answer:  The Marathas fought guerrilla warfare.

12. What do you mean by the rule of primogeniture?           [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Under the rule of primogeniture the eldest son inherited his father’s estate.

13. What was the Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance?      [Imp.]
Answer: It was a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons.

14. What qualities of the Mughals enabled them to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains. is.

15 What does the term mansabdar refer to?
Answer: The term mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, te. a position or rank.

16. What was zat?
Answer:  Mansabdar’s rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noble’s position in the court.

17. What was jagir?
Answer:  Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments known as jagirs.

18. What was zabt?
Ans. It was the revenue collected on the basis of the schedule of revenue rates for individuals crops.

19. With whom did Akbar hold a discussion on religion?
Answer:  Akbar held discussions on religion with the Ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics, and Zoroastrians.

20. When did Mehrunnisa receive the title of Nur Jahan?
Answer:  After Mehrunnisa got married to Emperor Jahangir, in 1611 she received the title of Nur Jahan.

21. What power did the nobles exercise during Akbar’s reign?
Answer:  During Akbar’s reign the nobles commanded large armies and had access to large amounts of revenue.

 Short Answer Type Questions

1. Contrast the Mughals to their predecessors. [V. Imp.]
Or
How were the Mughals greater than their predecessors?
Answer:  Unlike their predecessors, the Mughals created a huge empire and accomplished what had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods of time. From the latter half of the 16th century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all the subcontinent. They imposed structures of administrations and ideas of governance that outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding rulers of the subcontinent could not overlook.

2. How did Babur become the ruler of Delhi?
Answer:  Babur succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12 years old. However, he had to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of the Uzbeks, a Mongol group. Babur wandered for several years. Then in the year 1504, he seized Kabul. In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at the battle of Panipat. Thus, he captured Delhi where he laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire. He became the first Mughal emperor and ruled from 1526 to 1530.

3. What do you know about the Mughal relations with other rulers especially the Rajputs? [Imp.]
Answer: It was the policy of the Mughal rulers to campaign constantly against rulers who were not ready to accept their authority. However, when the Mughal became powerful, many other rulers joined them willingly. There were several Rajputs who married their daughters into Mughal families in order to gain a high position. But at the same time, many resisted the Mughals. The Sisodiya Rajputs refused to accept Mughal authority for a long time. However, when they got defeat, the Mughals did not treat them badly. They honoured them by giving them their lands Le. watan back as assignments, Le. watan jagir. Thus the Mughals never humiliated their opponents even though they defeated them. This unique quality of theirs enabled them to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains.

4. Awangzeb, did not follow the Mughals’ policy and insulted Shivaji when he came to accept Mughal authority. What was the consequence of this insult? [Imp.]
Answer:  After being insulted by Aurangzeb Shivaji escaped from Agra and declared himself an independent king. Then, he resumed his campaigns against the Mughals. Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the Marathas and the Deccan Sultanate. He finally fled to Safavid Iran. Aurangzeb could not remain silent. He personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas who started guerrilla warfare, which was difficult to suppress.

5. Give an account of Todar Mai’s revenue system?
Answer:  Todar Mai was Akbar’s revenue minister. He carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices, and areas cultivated for a 10-year period, 1570-1580. On the basis of this data, the tax was fixed on each crop in cash.
Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. This revenue system came to be known as zabt. This system was prevalent in those areas where Mughal administrators could survey the land and keep careful accounts

7. Give an account of Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari.
Answer:  Abul Fazl, one of Akbar’s close friends and courtiers, wrote a three-volume history of the reign of Akbar. It was titled as Akbar Nama. The first volume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors and the second volume recorded the events of Akbar’s reign. Ain-i Akbari is the third volume. It deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the revenues, and the geography of his empire. The book also provides details about the traditions and cultures of the people living in India. The most interesting aspect of Ain-i Akbari is its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices, wages, and revenues.

8. What were the main features of Sulh-i Kul?   [Imp.] 
Answer: The idea of Sulh-i Kul was introduced by Akbar, the Great. Sulh-i Kul meant universal peace. Its main features are given below :

• The idea of Sul-i Kul was based on the idea of tolerance which did not discriminate between the people of different religions in Akbar’s realm.
• It focused on a system of ethics—honesty, justice, peace. These values were universally applicable.

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Divide Akbar’s reign into three periods and give details about them.
Or
Mention the major campaigns and events of Akbar’s reign.
Answer:  Akbar’s reign can be divided into the following three periods.

• 1556-1570. Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam Khan and other members of his domestic staff. He launched military campaigns against the Suris and other Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana to suppress the revolt of his half brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbeks. In the year 1568, he seized the Sisodiya Capital of Chittor and in 1569 Ranthambhor.
• 1570-1585. Military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa. These campaigns were complicated by the 1579-1580 revolt in support of Mirza Hakim.
• 1585-1605. During this period Akbar expanded his empire. He launched campaigns in the north-west. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids and Kashmir was annexed. Kabul was seized after the death of Mirza Hakim. Afterward, Akbar started his campaigns in the Deccan and soon he annexed Berar, Khandesh, and parts of Ahmadnagar.

2. Write a short note on Akbar’s administrative policies.         [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Akbar’s administrative policies were mentioned in Abul Fazl’s book the Akbar Nama, particularly in its third and last volume, the Ain-i Akbari In the book Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided into provinces known as Subas, governed by a Subadar. The Subadar carried out both political and military functions. Each province also had a financial officer or Diwan. For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the Subadar was supported by several officers, for example

• The military paymaster also is known as Bakhshi.
• The minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage or
• Military commanders called Faigdars, and
• The town police commander called Akbar’s nobles commanded huge armies and had access to large amounts of revenue.

Akbar wanted to govern his empire peacefully. Hence he gave utmost importance to the idea of tolerance because it did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm. He held religious discussions with the Ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics and Zoroastrians and came to the conclusion that the idea of sulh-i kul or ‘universal peace’ would work effectively. This idea focused on a system of ethics, honesty, justice and peace. These values were universally accepted.
Thus, Akbar’s administrative policies were based on considerate ideas,

3. Who were mansabdars? What were their responsibilities?
Answer:  The Mughals recruited diverse bodies of people in order to run the empire smoothly. Those who joined Mughal service were enrolled as mansabdars.

The term mansabdar referred to an individual holding a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities.

The mansabdars were assigned to military responsibilities. For this they maintained a specified number of sowar or cavalrymen. The mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their horses branded and then received money to pay them as salary.

4. Why did the peasantry suffer a lot during the last years of Aurangzeb’s reign? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Mansabdars, recruited by the Mughals to discharge Mughal services, received their salaries as revenue assignments known as jagirs. But most mansabdars did pot actually reside in or administer their jagirs. They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments which was collected for them by their servants while they served in some other part of the country.

Akbar managed to carefully assess these jagirs so that their revenues were roughly equal to the salary of the mansabdar. But Aurangzeb failed to do this. During his reign the actual revenue collected was often less than the granted sum. There was also a huge increase in the number of mansabdars, which meant a long wait before they received a jagir. These created a shortage in the number of jagirs.

As a result, many jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue as possible while they had a jagir. As Aurangzeb could not control these developments, the peasantry suffered a lot. They had to give the revenue under all circumstances which made their life miserable.

5. Write in brief about the Mughal Empire in the 17th century and afterward.[Imp.]
Answer:
(a) The influence and power of the Mughals were at the height during the 17th century. The sheen of their administrative and military efficiency brought great economic and commercial prosperity to the Empire. They had a huge treasure of wealth. They led a highly luxurious life. But the common mass had to face the curse of poverty.

( b) The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spend a great deal of their income on salaries and goods. This expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantry who supported them with goods and produce. But the scale of revenue collection left very little for investment in the hands of the peasants and artisans. The poorest among them led a very miserable life. It was not possible for them to invest in additional resources like tools and supplies in order to increase productivity. However, the wealthier peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants, and bankers profited in this economic world.

(c) The Mughal elites exercised a great deal of power in the late 17th century. With the decline of Mughal power and influence, many nobles became independent. They constituted new dynasties and held command of provinces, such as Hyderabad and Awadh.

1. Which ruler first established his or her capital at Delhi?
Answer: The Tomara Rajputs were the first rulers who established their capital at Delhi.

2. What was the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans?
Answer:  It was Persian.

3. In whose reign did the Sultanate reach its farthest extent?
Answer: The Sultanate reached its farthest extent during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq.

4. From which country did Ibn Battuta travel to India?
Answer:  Ibn Battuta belonged to Morocco, Africa and travelled to India.

5. According to the ‘circle of justice’ why was it important for military commanders to keep the interests of the peasantry in mind?
Answer:
According to the ‘circle of justice’ it was important for military commanders to keep the interest of peasantry in mind. As is clear from the following:

1. A king survived on soldiers.
2. Soldiers worked for salaries.
3. Salaries came from revenue collected from peasants.
4. Peasant would pay revenue when they are prosperous and happy. This in turn will happen when there is justice and honest governance.

6. What is meant by the ‘internal’ and ‘external’ frontiers of the Sultanate?
Answer:  The ‘internal’ frontier means the hinterland of the garrison town.

The ‘external’ frontier means the areas beyond the hinterland of the garrison towns.

7.  What were the steps taken to ensure that muqtis performed their duties? Why do you think they may have wanted to defy the orders of the Sultans?
Answer:
Steps taken to ensure that the muqtis performed their duties well:

1. Appointment of accountants to check the amount collected by the muqtis.
2. Collection of revenues only which were prescribed by the state, not more than that in any circumstances.
3. Fixation of limit to keep the required number of soldiers.
4. They might be shifted to another area.
5. The muqtis may have wanted to defy the orders of the Sultans because restrictions imposed on them were very rigorous.
6. Their appointment was temporary.

8. What was the impact of the Mongol invasions on the Delhi Sultanate?Ans. The Delhi Sultanate mobilised a large standing army in Delhi. It posed a big administrative challenge.
Answer:

• Alauddin Khalji constructed a new garrison town at Siri for his soldiers. He imposed taxes on land to feed the army at the rate of 50 percent of peasant’s yield. He began to pay the soldiers in cash.
• Muhammad Tughluq shifted people of Delhi to Daulatabad in south and thus converted Delhi into a garrison town. He also disbanded the army. He also paid the soldiers in cash.

9. Do you think the authors of tawarikh would provide information about the lives of ordinary men and women?
Answer:  I don’t think like that. It is because the authors of tawarikh lived in cities mainly Delhi. They were not in touch of village people. They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. They had nothing to do with common mass. Hence, it was obvious that the information provided by them would lack ordinary men and women.

10.  Raziyya Sultan was unique in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. Do you think women leaders are accepted more readily today?
Answer:
We think that even today women leaders are not accepted more readily. We can see this in respect of 33% reservation of women in parliament.

11. Why were the Delhi Sultans interested in cutting down forests? Does deforestation occur for the same reasons today?
Answer:
The Delhi Sultans were interested in cutting down forests to expand their kingdom which was till then restricted to the Delhi Sultanate.

No, deforestation does not occur for the same reasons today. Today it occurs for additional land for habitation, road expansion, road construction, industries, and urbanization.

12. Find out whether there are many buildings built by the Delhi Sultans in your area. Are there any other buildings in your area that were built between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries? Describe some of these buildings, and draw sketches of them.
Answer:
Yes, there are several. Some of them are Buildings built between 12th and 15th century

• Jamali-Kamali Mosque.
• Sirifort.
• Begumpuri Mosque.
• Moth Ki Masjid.
• Raziyya’s Tomb.
• Qutb Minar.
• Tugalakabad Fort
• Firuz Shah Kotla
• Purana Quila .

Sketches: Do this yourself.
Other Buildings
• Lai Quila, Jama Masjid.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. Who defeated the Tomara Rajputs and when?
Answer:  The Chauhans of Ajmer defeated the Tomara Rajputs in the middle of the 12th century.

2. When did the Delhi Sultanate lag its foundation?
Answer: The Delhi Sultanate laid its foundation in the beginning of the thirteenth century.

3. Name the five dynasties that together made the Delhi Sultanate.
Answer:

• Early Turkish rulers (1206—1290)
• Khalji dynasty (1290—1320)
• Tughluq dynasty (1320—1414)
• Sayyid dynasty (1414—1451)
• Lodi dynasty (1451—1526).

4. Mention the sources that provide a lot of information about the Delhi Sultans.[V. Imp.]
Answer:  Inscriptions, coins, architecture and history written in Persian by learned authors are some of the most important sources that provide a lot of information about the Delhi Sultans.

5. Why did the authors of tawarikh write their histories for Sultans?
Answer: They did so in the hope of rich rewards.

6. Why was Raziyya removed from the throne? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Being a woman ruler she was not favoured by anyone. She ruled just for four years and was finally dethroned in 1240.

7. What is a mosque called in Arabic?
Answer:  It is called a masjid.

8. What is the literal meaning of mosque?
Answer:  It refers to a place where a Muslim prostrates in reverence to Allah.

9. What is called the qibla?
Answer:  The direction towards which Muslims turn while offering prayer or namaz.

10. Why did the early Delhi Sultans favour their slaves?
Answer:  The slaves were totally dependent on their master. Therefore the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.

11. What was the duty of the muqtis?
Answer:  The duly of the muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas.

12. Why were accountants appointed by the state?
Answer: They were appointed to check the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis.

13. Why did the authors of Persian tawarikh criticise the Delhi Sultans? [Imp.]
Answer: They did not like the Sultanate’s policy of appointing the ‘low and base-born’ to high offices.

14. Name the three types of taxes collected during the Sultanate period.
Answer:

1. 1. Tax on cultivation called Kharcy and amounting to about 50% of the peasant’s yield.
2. Tax on cattle
3. Tax on houses.

15. For how many years the Suri dynasty rule?
Answer:  The Suri dynasty ruled for only 15 years.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. Who were the authors of tawarikh? Write in brief about them.          [Imp.]
Answer:  The authors of tawarikh were learned men. They were secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers who recounted events as well as advised rulers on governance, emphasising the importance of just rule. The authors of tawarikh lived in cities mainly in Delhi and therefore they were cut off from the village. They used to write histories in praise of the Sultans and in return got rich rewards. These authors advised rulers that they should follow an ideal social order based on birthright and gender distinctions. Common mass had nothing to do with their ideas.

2. Who was Raziyya? Why was she not accepted as a Sultan inspite of being talented? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Raziyya was Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter. She became Sultan in 1236. She was very talented. According to the chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i-Siraj, she was more able and qualified than all her brothers. But she was not accepted when she became a ruler. Those were the days when women were not allowed to enjoy independent identity. They were supposed to be subordinate to men. This led to her removal from the throne in 1240.

3. What were the four stages in the making of a manuscript?
Answer:
The four stages in the making of a manuscript are:

• Preparing the paper
• Writing the text
• Melting gold to highlight important words and passages
• Preparing the binding.

4. How did the Khaljis and Tughluqs help the people of humble birth? How did it lead to political instability?
Answer:  The Khaljis and Tughluqs raised people of humble birth who were often their clients, to high political positions. They were appointed as generals and governors. However, this also introduced an element of political instability. Slaves and clients, the people of humble birth, were loyal to their masters and patrons but not to their heirs. Now Sultans had their own servants. As a result the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict between the old and the new nobility.

5. Why did large parts of the subcontinent remain outside the control of the Delhi Sultans? What were the repurcussions? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the control of the Delhi Sultans because they were very far from Delhi. For example, it was difficult to control Bengal from Delhi. This helplessness of the Delhi Sultans paved the way for distant provinces to get independence. Even in the Gangetic plain there were forested areas that Sultanate forces could not penetrate. It was a golden opportunity for the local chieftains to establish their rule in these regions.

6. How did the chieftains arrange for their defence?
Answer:  The chieftains fortified themselves in mountains, in rocky, uneven and rugged places as well as in bamboo groves. The bamboo had unique features. It was strong and even fire could not affect it because its several party were intertwined making them very strong. The chieftains lived in these forests which served them as rampart. They had everything necessary for life such as cattle, crops, water, etc. inside the forests. Thus, they were safe. Only powerful armies could subdue them.

7. Why did Alauddin control the prices of goods in Delhi? What did he do for this?
Answer:  Alauddin gave great importance to his soldiers because it was they who could defend the Sultanate from outsiders. He decided to pay their salaries in cash rather than iqtas. The soldiers would buy their supplies from merchants in Delhi and it was thus feared that merchants would raise their prices. To stop this, Alauddin controlled the prices of goods in Delhi. For this Alauddin instructed officers to carefully survey prices. The merchants who did not sell their goods at the prescribed rates were punished.

8. Describe in brief Tughluq’s policy of ‘token’ currency.
Answer:  Tughluq did not control prices of the goods. Instead, he used a token currency, made out of cheap metals, and not of gold and silver. People in the 14th century did not believe in these coins. They saved their gold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to the state with this token currency. This cheap currency could be counterfeited easily.

9 Who was Sher Shah Sur? What do you know about his administration?[V. Imp.]
Answer:  Sher Shah Sur (1540—1545) established a powerful state. He started his career as the manager of a small territory for his uncle in Bihar and eventually challenged and defeated the Mughal Emperor Humayun. Sher Shah captured Delhi and established his own dynasty known as the Suri dynasty. Although the Suri dynasty ruled for only a short period i.e. 15 years, it introduced an administration that borrowed elements from Alauddin khalji and made them more efficient. The great emperor Akbar followed the techniques of Sher Shah’s administration while consolidating the Mughal Empire.

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Give an account of Alauddin’s administrative measures.              [V. Imp.]
Answer:  During the reign of Alauddin Khalji Mongol attacks increased. It was a huge administrative challenge for the Sultan. He introduced several administrative measures:

1. Alauddin Khalji raised a large standing army as a defensive measure.
2. He constructed a new garrison town known as Siri for his soldiers.
3. The soldiers had to be fed. This was done through the produce collected as tax from lands between the Ganga and Yamuna. Tax was fixed at 50% of the pleasant’s produce.
4. He paid his soldiers cash salaries rather than iqta. This was done in order to make soldiers able to buy their supplies from merchants in Delhi. It was feared that merchants would raise their prices. In order to stop this Alauddin controlled the prices of goods in Delhi. Prices were carefully surveyed by officers and merchants who did not sell at the prescribed rates were punished.

Alauddin’s administrative measures were successful because he efficiently withstood the threat of Mongol attacks.

2. Give an account of Muhammad Tughluq’s administration.
Answer:  The early years of Muhammad Tughluq’s reign faced Mongol attacks, which were curbed by Tughluq’s sincere efforts.

1. He took several administrative measures like Alauddin Khalji he also raised a huge standing army in Delhi.

2. He got emptied the oldest of the four cities of Delhi (Delhi-i Kunba) in order to garrison his soldiers there. The  residents of the old city were sent to the new capital of Daulatabad in the south.

3. He made arrangements for the collection of produce as tax to feed the soldiers. As it was very difficult to  maintain a large number of soldiers the Sultan levied additional taxes which coincided with famine in the area.

4. Muhammad Tughluq paid soldiers cash salaries. For this he introduced ‘token’ currency made of cheap metals. People in the 14th century did not trust these coins. They saved their gold and silver coins and paid  all their taxes to the state with this token currency.

3. ‘Muhammad Tughluq’s administrative measures were a failure’. Explain withexamples.
Answer:
Muhammad Tughluq’s administrative measures were a failure, we can prove this statement with following points:

1. He campaigned into Kashmir which was finally a disaster. He then gave up his plans to invade Transoxiana and disbanded his large army.
2. His administrative measures created problems. He shifted the residents of the old city to the new capital of Daulatabad in the south. People did not like this step taken by Muhammad Tughluq. They resented collectively.
3. Tughluq, in order to meet the expense of maintaining a large number of soldiers, levied additional taxes which increased the burden of common people.
4. The famine in the Ganga-Yamuna belt led to widespread rebellion.
5. Muhammad Tughluq’s policy of ‘token’ currency also proved a failure. People of the 14th century did not trust this currency. They were very smart. They saved their gold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to the state with the token currency. This cheap currency could also be counterfeited easily.

1. Match the following:
Gwjara-Pratiharas    –      Western Deccan
Rashtrakutas             –       Bengal
Palos                           –     Gujarat and Rajasthan
Cholas                         –        Tamil Nadu
Answer: 
Gurj ara-Pratiharas        –   Gujarat and Rajasthan
Rashtrakutas                   –   Western Deccan
Palas                                 –    Bengal
Cholas                               –   Tamil Nadu

2. Who were the parties involved in the ‘tripartite struggle’?
Answer: The parties involved in the tripartite struggle were Gurjar-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties.

3. What were the qualifications necessary to become a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola Empire?
Answer:
The working of a sabha according to the Uttaramerur inscription is given below:

1.  All those who wish to become members of the sabha should be owners of the land from which land, revenue is collected.
2. They should have their own homes.
3. They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.
4. They should have knowledge of the Vedas.
5. They should be well-versed in administrative matters and honest in all dealings.
6. If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last three years, he cannot become a member of another committee.
7. Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as those of his relatives, cannot contest the elections.

4. What were the two major cities under the control of the Chahamanas?
Answer:  Delhi and Ajmer were the two cities under control of the Chahamanas.

5. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?
Answer:
Rashtrakutas became powerful in the following manner:

1. Rashtrakutas were subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
2. In the mid-eighth century Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukyan overlord.
3. He performed a ritual called Hiranya-garbha with the help of Brahmanas.
4. This ritual was, then, considered to lead the rebirth of the sacrificer as Kshatriya, even if he was not Kshatriya by birth.

6. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?
Answer:  The new dynasties gained power and wealth. Thereafter they declared themselves to be maha-samantas or mahamandaleshwara. Many of such kings adopted high sounding titles like maharaja-adhiraja or tribhuvana-chakravartin. They also deputed learned brahmanas to depict them as valiant, victorious warriors. Their activities were recorded in Prashastis. They tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples.

7. What kind of irrigation works were developed in the Tamil Nadu?
Answer:
Large scale cultivation was developed in Tamil Nadu and in many cases artificial irrigation became necessary. A variety of methods were used:

• Wells were dug
• Huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater
• Canals were constructed

All this work required planning, organizing labour and resources. Decisions were taken collectively on the usage of water. New rulers and people took an active interest in these activities.

8. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?
Answer:
Splendid temples and bronze sculptures of the Cholas:

1. Rajaraja and Rajendra built big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
2. They are architectural and sculptural marvels.
3. Chola temples often became the centre of settlements around them.
4. These were centres of craft production.
5. Temples were also endowed with land by both rulers and others.
6. The produce of this land went to maintain all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it.
7. They included priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc.
8. In other words, temples were not only places of worship; but also the hub of economic, social and cultural life.
9. Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most important.
10. Chola bronze images are amongst the finest in the world.
11. Most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees also.

9. Look at Map 1 once more and find out whether there were any kingdoms in the state in which you live.
Answer:  The answer may vary as per the students’ state where they live. So the students should answer this question on the basis of their individual study of the Map.

10. Contrast the ‘elections’ in Uttaramerur with present day panchayat election?
Answer:  The system of election in Uttaramerur was quite different from that of the present day panchayat elections. In the Uttaramerur election, the names of the persons eligible to be members of the committees were written on small tickets of palm leaves. The tickets were put into an earthenware pot. Thereafter a young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one for each committee. But the present day panchayat members are elected through a general election.

The names of the total members are printed with a symbol allotted to them on a paper called ballot paper. The voter put a stamp over their choice and drops it in a ballot box. Votes are counted and the winners’ name is declared by the Returning Officer. Every procedure is organized by a statutory body.

11. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with any present-day temple in your neighbourhood, highlighting any similarities and differences that you notice.
Answer:  Attempt yourself.

12. Find out more about taxes that are collected at present. Are these in cash, kind, or labour services?
Answer:
Taxes collected at present.

• Land tax
• Income tax
• Wealth tax
• Sale tax
• Property tax
• Excise tax
• VAT (value-added tax)
• Service tax
• Education cess {tax)
• Tax on electricity
• Water tax

These taxes are generally in cash

 Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. Who was Dantidurga?
Answer: Dantidurga was a Rashtrakuta chief who turned out to be a kshatriya after performing a ritual known as hiranya-garbha.

2. What was called ‘rent’?
Answer:  Resources obtained from the producers were called ‘rent’.

3. Who paid revenue?
Answer:  The traders paid revenue

4. What were ‘prashastis’?
Answer:  Prashastis were the details depicting the rule and personality of the rulers

5. Who were the writers of Prashastis?
Answer:  The learned brahmanas were the writers of the Prashastis.

6. Who was Kalhana?
Answer: Kalhana was a great Sanskrit poet from Kashmir.

7. What was ‘tripartite struggle’?             [V. Imp.]
Answer:  The tripartite sruggle was a long drawn conflict among the rulers of Gurjara- Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties for control over Kanauj.

8. Who wrote Kitab al-Hind?
Answer:  A great Arab poet al-Baruni wrote Kitab al-Hind

9. Who was Prithviraja in ?
Answer: Prithviraja III was afamous Chauhan ruler of Delhi and surrounding regions during 1168-1192.

10. Who destroyed the temple of Somnath?
Answer: Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, a ruler of Afghanistan, destroyed the temple of Somnath.

11 Why are the temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram famous for?[V. Imp.]
Answer:  These temples are famous for their architectural and sculptural marvels.

12. What was called as ‘ur’?
Answer:  The settlements of peaseants were called as ‘ur’.

13. What were called ‘nadu’?
Answer: The larger units of the groups of ‘ur’ were called ‘nadu’.

14. What was known as ‘brahmadeya’?
Answer: The land gifted to Brahmanas was called as ‘brahmadeya’.

15. Define ‘nagarams’.
Answer:  ‘Nagarams’ were the associationa of traders

16. What was ‘sabha’?
Answer:  An assembly of prominent Brahmanas that looked after brahmadeya was called ‘sabha’.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. Trace out the emergence of the new class of rulers.  [V. Imp.]
Answer: During the seventh century a new class of rulers emerged. They were the subordinates or samantas under the influence of big landlords or warriors. Later they themselves gained power and wealth and declared themselves to be maha- samantas, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a circle or region)

2. Who was Dantidurga? How did he became a kshatriya?
Answer: Dantidurga was a Rashtrakuta chief in Deccan. Initially, Rashtrakutas were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. Dantidurga, in the mid-eighth century, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual known as ‘hiranya-garbha’. It was thought to lead to the rebirth of the sacrificer as a kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

3. How was the financial position controlled in these states?    [V. Imp.]
Answer:  These states were closely associated with peasants, traders, and Brahmanas. The resources were obtained from peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans who were the producers. They were compelled to surrender part of what they produced. The traders had to pay revenue. The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally from influential families or from the close relatives of the kings.

4. Write a note on ‘Prashastis’.
Answer:  Prashastis, often written by learned Brahmanas, were details of the functioning of a king. They may not be literally true. They tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves—as valiant, victorious warriors etc. Brahmanas were rewarded by grants of land which were recorded on copper plates.

5. Who was Kalhana? Why was he famous for?
Answer:  Kalhana was a great Sanskrit poet who wrote a long Sanskrit poem depicting the ruler of Kashmir. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts. He was different from the writers of Prashastis for he was often critical about rulers and their policies.

6. Why were the temples first targets of the conquerors?      [V. Imp.]
Answer:  It was the trend to demonstrate power and resources by building large temples. The rulers often invested a lot in the decoration and maintenance of the temples. So the foreign conquerors made them target first. The most prominent example of it was the temple 6f Somnath in Gujarat looted several times by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazani who came from Afghanistan. Much of the wealth he carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazani.

7. Who was Prithvirqja III? Who defeated him?
Answer:  Prithviraja III (1168-1192) was a Chahamanas, later known as Chauhan ruler. He ruled over the regions around Delhi and Ajmer. He defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori, an Afghan conqueror in 1191. But only one year after it in 1192 he was defeated by Ghori. It was the end of his rule and life both.

8. What was the role of temples during Chola kingdom? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  The Chola rulers like Rajaraja and Rajendra built two great temples of Thanjavur and Ganaikonda-cholapuram respectively. Temples were the nuclei of settlements during this period. They were the centres of craft production and also controlled the financial aspects related to them. Hence they were not only the religious centres but also the hub of economic, social, and cultural life as well.

9 Describe the irrigation system of the Chola kingdom.    [Imp.]
Answer: The irrigation system during the Chola ruler was much improved. A variety of methods were applied to it. Many wells were dug; huge tanks were also constructed to collect water. The kings themselves took interest in organizing labour and resources and extensive planning.

10. What was the system of election of committee members for Sabha?
Answer:  The Sabha had separate committees to manage the works of irrigation and other works of gardens, temples, etc. The members of each committee were elected through a strict process. Names of eligible candidates were written on small tickets of palm leaf. The tickets were put into an earthenware pot. A young boy was asked to take out the tickets one by one for each committee.

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Write a note on Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni  [Imp.]
Answer:  Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a ruler of Afghanistan from 997 to 1030. He was an ambitious king and so made all efforts to extend his control over far off regions. He extended his control over parts of Central Asia, Iran, and the north­western part of the subcontinent. Almost every year he raided the subcontinent targeting wealthy temples. The temple of Somnath in Gujarat was the worst victim of his raids. Much of the wealth he carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. Ghazni was fond of knowing more about the people he conquered. He entrusted a scholar named al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent. The al- Biruni’s account, an Arabic work titled as Kitab al-Hind, is still an important source for historians.

2. How did the Cholas rise to power? Trace out the role of Rajaraja I in this rise.[V. Imp.]
Answer:  Cholas belonged to a minor chiefly family known as Muttaraiyar that held power in the Kaveri delta. They worked as subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, a member of the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. ‘Hie town of Thanjavur and the temple for goddess Nishmbhasudini are some of his great creations. Vijayalaya’s successors conquered neighboring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power.

The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom.Rajaraja I was the most powerful Chola ruler. He became king in 985 and expanded control over most of these areas. He was well known for the reorganization of the administration of his empire. His son Rajendra I continued his policies an even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and contries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions. The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram built by them are architectural marvels.

Question 1. Who was considered a ‘foreigner’ in the past?
Answer:  The term ‘foreigner’ is used in the sense of a person who is not an Indian. In the medieval period it was applied to any stranger who appeared, say in a given village, someone who was not a part of that society or culture. In this sense a forest-dweller was a foreigner for a city-dweller. But two peasants living in the same village were not foreigners to each other, even though they may have had different religious or caste backgrounds.

Question  2. State whether true or false:

• We do not find inscriptions for the period after 700.
• The Maraihas asserted their political importance during this period.
• Forest-dwellers were sometimes pushed out of their lands with the spread of agricultural settlements.
• Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban controlled Assam, Manipur and Kashmir.

Answer:  (a) False; (b) False; (c) True; (d) False

Question 3. Fill in the blanks:
(a) Archives are places where………….. are kept.
(b) …………….was a fourteenth-century chronicler.
(c) ……., ……., ………, ……… and ………… were some of the crops introduced into the subcontinent during this period.
Answer:  (a) Manuscripts
(b) Ziyauddin Barani
(c) Potatoes, com, chillies, tea, coffee.

Question 4. List some of the technological changes associated with this period.
Answer:
Some of the technological changes associated with this period are:

1. Persian wheel in irrigation.
2. Spinning wheel.
3. Fire-arms in combat.

Question 5. What were some of the major religious developments during this period?
Answer:  Some of the major significant religious developments occurred in Hinduism. The worship of new deities, the construction of temples by royalty and growing importance of Brahmanas, the priests, as dominant groups in society were the new changes. Brahmanas’ importance grew due to their knowledge of Sanskrit language. They were patronized by the Emperors. The idea of bhakti emerged among people. The merchants and migrants brought with them the teachings of Quran, the holy book of Muslims.

Question 6. In what ways has the meaning of the term ‘Hindustan’ charged over the centuries?
Answer:
The meaning of the term ‘Hindustan’ has changed over the centuries in the following manner:

1. In the thirteenth century Minhaj-i-Siraj used the term ‘Hindustan’. He meant areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between Ganga and Yamuna. He used this term in a political sense that were a part of the dominions of the Delhi Sultanate. The term never included South India.
2. In the sixteenth century poet Babur used the term ‘Hindustan’ to describe the geography, the fauna and the culture of the inhabitants of the subcontinent.
3. In fourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau used the term ‘Hind’ in the same sense as Babur did in the sixteenth century.
4. ‘Hindustan’ did not carry the political and national meanings as the term ‘India’ does today.

Question  7. How were the affairs of jatis regulated?
Answer:
The affairs of jatis were regulated in the following way:

1. Jatis formed their own rules and regulations.
2. There was an assembly of elders called jati panchayat.
3. It enforced the rules and regulations.
4. Jatis were also directed to follow the rules of the village.
5. Several villages were governed by a chieftain.

Question 8. What does the term pan-regional empire mean?
Answer:  The term ‘pan-regional’ was used in the sense of the areas of empires spanning diverge regions. The dynasties like Cholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs, and Mughals extended their empires pan-regional. Though, not all these empires were equally stable or successful. But pan-regional rule altered the character of the regions. Most of the regions across the subcontinent were left with the legacies of the big and small states that had ruled over them. The emergence of many distinct and shared traditions in governance the economy elite cultures and languages were some of the prominent factors that took place as a result of pan-regional rules.

Question 9. What are the difficulties historians face in using manuscripts?
Answer:
Historians faced a lot of difficulties while using manuscripts because:

1. There was no printing press in the 13th and 14th centuries. Scribes in those days made manuscripts by hand.
2. To copy was not an easy exercise. Scribes could not read the handwriting of the other writers.
3. They were forced to guess. So there were small but significant differences in the copy of the scribed.
4. These small words or sentences here and there grew over centuries of copying.
5. The manuscripts of the same text became a great extent different from the original.

Question 10. How do historians divide the past into periods? Do they face any problems in doing so?
Answer:
Historians divide the past into periods on the basis of continuity. This continuity is further based on:

1. Coins
2. Inscriptions
3. Architecture
4. Textual records

But they face difficulties in doing so as discontinuity exists.

1. Textual records increased tremendously.
2. They gradually displaced other types of available information.

Thousand years of human history (or of any country or region) witnessed a number of changes. After all, the ancient history of India is different from that of the other two periods i.e., the medieval period and modem period. Therefore describing the entire period as one historical unit is not an easy task.

Question 11. Compare either Map 1 or Map 2 with the present-day map of the subcontinent listing as many similarities and differences as you can find.
Answer:  Map 1 and Map 2 given in the NCERT Textbook represent two different times. Map 1 was made in 1154 CE by al-Idrisi, an Arab geographer. This section is a detail of the Indian subcontinent from his larger map of the world. Map 2 was made by a French cartographer in 1720. Both maps are quite different from each other, even though they represent the same area. In Map 1 we find south India at the place where we would expect to find north India and Sri Lanka is the island at the top. The place names are in Arabic. Some familiar places like Kanauj in Uttar Pradesh have been spelt as Qanauj. In comparison to this Map 2 was made nearly 600 later after Map 1. By that time information about the subcontinent had changed a lot. This map appears to be more familiar to us. The coastal areas, particularly, are more detailed.

Question 12. Find out where records are kept in your village or city. Who writes these records? Is there an archive? Who manages it? What kinds of documents are stored there? Who are the people who use it?
Answer:

1. Records are kept in our city at the archives. These records are written by the officials of the Revenue Department.
2. The in charge of the Archives/ Deputy Director of Archives manages these records.
3. Rare manuscripts, government records, and other valuable books, etc. are stored there.
4. Scholars, researchers, and government officials use them.

V. Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Who was al-Idrisi?
Answer:  al-Idrisi was an Arab cartographer.

Question 2. Who is a ‘cartographer’?
Answer:  Cartographer is one who draws a map.

Question 3. What difference do you notice in the map drawn by al-Idrisi?
Answer: In the map drawn by al-Idrisi we find a completely different view. Here south India is shown at present North India and Sri Lanka is the island at the top

Question 4. Who used the term Hindustan for the first time and when?
Answer:  Minhaj-i Siraj used the term ‘Hindustan’ for the first time in the thirteenth century.

Question 5. What sources do historians use for the study of a particular period of history?[V. Imp.]
Ans. The historians use sources like coins, inscriptions, architectures, and textual records for the study of a specific period.

Question 6. What do you mean by archives?
Answer:  Archives were the places where manuscripts were collected.

Question 7. Who were scribes?
Answer: Scribes were those professionals who used to copy down the manuscripts.

Question 8. How did the scribes copy down the manuscripts?
Answer: Scribes copied down the manuscripts by hand.

Question 9. What changes took place during 700 and 1750? [V. Imp.]
Answer: Many technologies like the Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, and firearms in combat made their appearance. Some new foods and beverages like potatoes, corn, chilies, tea, and coffee also arrived in the subcontinent.

Question 10. What factors contributed to a variety of developments?
Answer: The new technologies and innovations came to the subcontinent with the people who came from other areas and settled here.

Question 11. What were the new groups of people to be prominent at this age? [V. Imp.]
Answer: Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms, and Kayasthas were the groups which came to be prominent in this age. They availed most of the opportunities of society.

Question 12. What do you mean by Jati Panchayat?
Answer: Jati Panchayat was the assembly of elders that controlled the conduct of the members of their jati They had their own rules and regulations.

Question 13. Who was the Chief of the village?
Answer: Villages were controlled by a Chieftain. Even the smaller Jati Panchayats were bound to follow the village administration.

Question 14. What was the stretch of Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban’s Empire?
Answer: According to a Sanskrit Prashasti Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban’s empire was stretched from Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in Afghanistan in the west. It also included all of south India (Dravida)

Question 15. Why did Brahmanas dominate in society during this period? [Imp.]
Answer: Brahmanas were the only class of people who were proficient in the Sanskrit language. This was the reason that made them prominent.

Question 16. Who were the patrons?
Answer:  Patrons were a group of rulers and rich class of people who provided protection and livelihood to the Brahmanas, artists, and poets.

Question 17. What was the major development of this age?
Answer: The emergence of the idea of bhakti was the major development of this age.

Question 18. How history was divided by historians during the middle of the nineteenth century?
Answer: The British historians divided the history of India into three periods—:P

• Hindu,
• Muslim and
• British.

Question 19. What was the basis of such division?
Answer: Such division was made on the basis of the religion as the historians did not consider any aspect more prominent other than the developments in religions.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.  What difference do you trace out in the region of Hindustan of the thirteenth century and the modem India?
Answer: The term ‘Hindustan’ in the thirteenth century implied the areas of Punjab, Haryana, and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna. Minhaj-i Siraj used the term in a political sense for lands consisting of a part of the dominions of the Delhi Sultanate. The areas included in this term shifted with the extent of the Sultanate. However, it never included south India.

Question 2. What does time mean for historians? How does it help them? [V. Imp.]
Answer:  Time, for historians, doesn’t mean just a passing of hours, days, or years. Instead, it reflects changes in social and economic organization, in the persistence and transformation of ideas and beliefs. In order to study historical developments historians divide the past into large segments. It makes the study convenient. The historians study different aspects of the specific period and then assess the comparative developments their impact on society and their contribution to the future generations.

Question 3. What do you mean by pan-regional rule? What was its impact? [V. Imp.]

Answer:  Pan-regional rule applies to the trend of extending the empire to the region beyond one’s own state. With the decline of the Mughal Empire in the eighteenth century, many regional states emerged. Consequently, a chance of sharing different traditions in the realms of governance, economy, elite cultures, and languages was brightened. People knew a lot of new things, manners, etc, without losing their own culture and identity.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1. What was the process of copying the manuscript? What were its drawbacks? [Imp.]
Answer: As there was no printing press during the period between 700 and 1750, Scribes used to copy down the manuscripts which were hand-written. Sometimes it was difficult to recognize the original script. So the Scribes used their own way of interpreting the facts. Consequently, there were differences were found in the copies written by different Scribes. As all the copies were handwritten, it was difficult to recognize which was the original one. It was the drawback of such copying.

Question 2. Trace out the major changes in society during 700 and 1750? What was its main reason? [V. Imp.]
Answer: A number of changes took place in society between 700 and 1750. This period traced the technological appearance of Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving and firearms in combat. Potatoes, com, chilies, tea, and coffee were some of the new foods and beverages. These developments came with the arrival of the people who migrated to this land. As a result this period saw various changes in the economic, political, social and cultural life,

Question 3. What was the change in the religion of the time? Trace out major developments? [V. Imp.]
Answer: The period between 700 and 1750 witnessed major changes in religion. It was seen prominently in Hinduism. The worship of new deities, the construction of temples by royalty, and the growing importance of Brahmanas, the priests, as dominant groups in society were some of the major developments.

The idea of bhakti emerged. Merchants and migrants brought the new teachings of the ‘Quran’, the holy book of the Muslims. A class of patrons emerged. They were the rulers who provided shelter and protection to the ulemas—the learned theologians and jurists. Muslims were divided into two groups—Shia and Sunni. Shia Muslims believed in Prophet Muhammad’s authority while the Sunnis accepted the authority of the early leaders—Khalifas.