Yearly Archives: 2022

Notes of Chapter 9 Urban Livelihoods Class 6th Civics

• There are more than five thousand towns and twenty seven big cities in India. 

→ Big cities like Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata etc. have more than a million people living and working here.

• The main reason for the increase in number of towns is migration. 

• Villagers move to cities because of better facilities such as water, electricity, sanitation, education for children, employment opportunities, etc.

In the Market

• There are almost one crore ‘street vendors’ in the country working in urban areas.

• There are many people who own shops in various markets of the city. 

→ These shops may be small or large and they sell different things. 

• Most business-persons manage their own shops or business. 

→ They employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers.

In the Factory-Workshop Area

• People employed in factories are mostly casual workers (called to work and have to leave according to the availability of work).

→ Casual workers have to work long hours in poor conditions without job security and other benefits.

In the office area

• Many workers in the city who work in offices, factories, and government departments where they
are employed as regular and permanent workers.

• They attend the same office or factory regularly. 

• They get a regular salary.

• Unlike casual workers they will not be asked to leave if the factory does not have much work.

Kalpattu village

• People in Kalpattu village are involved in different professions such as blacksmiths, teachers, washer men, weavers, barbers, mechanics, shopkeepers and traders.

→ There are also some shopkeepers and traders.

→ There are variety of small shops such as tea shops, grocery shops, barber shops, a cloth shop, a tailor and two fertiliser and seed shops.

• Most of the families earn a living through agriculture.

• Paddy is the main crop that is grown in irrigated lands.

Rural Livelihoods

• Nearly two-fifth of all rural families are agricultural labourers in India.

• There are some who have small plots of land while others are landless.

→ People do not have their own land, work on the fields of larger landowners to earn their living.

• In India, 80 percent of farmers have small sized lands and only 20 percent of large farmers cultivate most of the land in the villages.

• Many of large farmers have started other businesses such as shops, moneylending, trading, small
factories etc.

• Apart from farming, many people in rural areas depend upon collection from the forest, animal
husbandry, dairy produce, fishing etc.

• Rural people in different regions of the country grow different crops. 

→ But there are various similarities in their life situations and in the problems that they face.

• Some families in rural areas which thrive on large acres of lands, business and other activities.

• Most small farmers, agricultural labourers, fishing families, crafts persons in the villages do not find enough work to keep them employed throughout the year.

• Farmers often borrow money from traders and moneylenders to buy seeds and fertilisers.

• The cities are quite different from villages.

• There are organisations that takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, keeping the streets and the market clean, runs schools, hospitals and dispensaries, maintain gardens. 

→ In big cities, these organisations are called Municipal Corporation. 

→ In smaller towns it is called a Municipal Council.

The Ward Councillor

• They are elected by the people living of their ward.

• Groups of Councillors make a budget and the money is spent according to this.

• The Ward Councillors try and ensure that the particular demands of their wards are placed before the entire council.

Administrative Staff

• Commissioner and administrative staff are appointed people

• They implement the issues.

Functions of the Municipal Corporation or Municipal Council

• The Municipal Corporation looks after the street lights, drainage system, garbage collection, water supply etc.

How does the Municipal Corporation get its money?

• The Municipal Corporation collects taxes in the form of property tax, water tax, education tax, entertainment tax etc.

Area of the Police Station

• Every police station has a fixed area which comes under its control.

• All persons of a particular area can register complaints in their local police station. 

→ The complaints can vary from theft, injury, fight or accident. 

The work at the Police Station

• The report lodged is known as First Information Report (F.I.R.). 

• The Station House Officer (S.H.O.) is in charge of every police station. 

• To get a case registered, one has to report in writing at the police station. 

→ Then, the police officials examine the case and take action as per the law. 

• In the rural areas, disputes occur over land very often.

Maintenance of Land Records

• Measuring land and keeping land records is the main work of the Patwari.

• The Patwari is known by different names in different states – in some villages such officers are
called Lekhpal, in others Kanungo or Karamchari or Village Officer etc.

Functions of Patwari

• The Patwari maintains and updates the records of the village.

• Responsible for organising the collection of land revenue from the farmers and providing information to the government about the crops grown in this area.

Management of Land of Village

• All states in India are divided into districts. 

• These districts are further sub-divided known by different names such as tehsil, taluka, etc.

• At the head is the District Collector and under her are the revenue officers, also known as tehsildars.

• The revenue officers or tehsildars come under the district collector.

• The tehsildar is responsible for supervising the work of Patwari regarding collection of land revenue.

• They also perform administrative tasks like providing farmers with copies of their land records and hearing land disputes.

A New Law: Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005)

 • The Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005) came into force from September 2005.

• In the new law sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share in the land. 

• The same law will apply to all states and union territories of the country.

Gram Sabha

The Gram Sabha-a meeting of all adults who live in the area covered by a Panchayat (could be only one village or a few villages). In some states, the village meeting is held for each village. Anyone who is 18 years old or more with the right to vote is a member of the Gram Sabha. The Gram Sabha meeting often begins with the Panchayat President (who is also called the Sarpanch) and the members of the Panchayat (the Panchs) presenting a plan. Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas. Each ward elects a representative who is known as the Ward Member (Panch). All the members of the Gram Sabha also elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat President. The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanch form the Gram Panchayat, which is elected for 5 years. The Gram Panchayat has a Secretary who is also the Secretary of the Gram Sabha, who is not an elected person but is appointed by the government and is responsible for calling the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat and keeping a record of the proceedings.

The Gram Sabha makes the Gram Panchayat play its role and be responsible and it is where all plans for the work of the Gram Panchayat are placed before the people. The Gram Sabha prevents the Panchayat from doing wrong things like misusing money or favouring certain people and keeps an eye on the elected representatives and makes them responsible to the persons who elected them.

The Gram Panchayat-meets regularly- implement development programmes for all villages that come under it- work of the Gram Panchayat has to be approved by the Gram Sabha- Gram Sabhas form committees like construction and development committees in some states-committees include some members of the Gram Sabha-some from the Gram Panchayat who work together to carry out specific tasks.

The work of a Gram Panchayat includes:

1. The construction and maintenance of water sources, roads, drainage, school buildings and other common property resources.

2. Levying and collecting local taxes.

3. Executing government schemes related to generating employment in the village.

Sources of funds for the Panchayat:

• Collection of taxes on houses, market places etc.
• Government scheme funds received through various departments of the government – through the Janpad and Zila Panchayats.
• Donations for community works etc.

Three Levels of Panchayats

Panchayati Raj System is a process through which people participate in their own government. In rural areas, the Gram Panchayat- first tier or level of democratic government. The Panchs and the Gram Panchayat-answerable to the Gram Sabha-it is the members of the Gram Sabha who elected them. The idea of people’s participation in the Panchayati Raj system extends to two other levels. One is the Block level, called the Janpad Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti with many Gram Panchayats under it. Above the Panchayat Samiti is the District Panchayat or the Zila Parishad that actually makes developmental plans at the district level. With the help of Panchayat Samitis regulates the money distribution among all the Gram Panchayats. Each state in the country has its own laws with regard to Panchayats. The idea is to provide more and more space for people to participate and raise their voices.

Key Elements of A Democratic Government

South Africa is a country of several races including African American people who belong to South Africa, the whites who came there to settle, Indians who came as labourers and traders and so on. Earlier, the country was governed by Apartheid laws. Apartheid means separation on the basis of race. African people were divided into white, African American, Indian and other races. According to the law, these races were not allowed to mingle with each other, live near each other or even use common facilities.

The African National Congress, a group of people led the struggle against apartheid and their most well-known leader, Nelson Mandela fought the apartheid system for several years. Finally, they succeeded and in 1994 South Africa became a democratic country in which people of all races were considered equal.

Participation

Why do we have regular elections? It was already discussed in an earlier chapter that people make decisions in a democracy. People elect leaders to represent them via elections. These leaders can also take decisions on behalf of the people. It is believed that these representatives will keep in mind the voices and the interests of the people. Every Government is elected for a fixed period. In India, it is for five years and every Government that is elected is allowed to stay in power for only that period. However, if they want to continue to be in power, then they will have to be re-elected by the people. In this way, regular elections limit the power of the government.

Other ways of participating

Elections are held once every 5 years. Besides voting, people can participate in the process of the Government by taking an interest in its operations and criticising it when required. For example, In August 2005, when the ruling Government of the time increased the money people had to pay for the electricity, they expressed their disapproval very sharply by taking out rallies and organising a signature campaign. Even though the Government tried to explain and defend their decision, they finally listened to the people’s opinion and withdrew the increase.

If a country’s people are alert and interested in how the country is run, the democratic character of the government of that country will be stronger. So the next time we see a rally winding through the streets of our cities and towns or villages we should pause to find out what the rally is about, who is participating in it, and what they are protesting about. This will help to give us a sense of how our government works. While it is true that democracy allows the people to participate, it is not all the sections of people who are actually able to do so.

Finding another way to participate, people organise themselves into social movements that seek to challenge the government and its functioning. Members of the minority community like the Dalits, Adivasis, women and others often participate in this manner. If the people of a country are alert and interested in how the country is run, then the democratic character of the government is expected to be stronger.

Need to Resolve Conflict

It is seen that conflicts can lead to violence and death when one group decides that it is all right to use force to prevent the other group from protesting. Conflicts arise when people of varied cultures, religions, regions or economic backgrounds do not get along with each other, or when some among them feel they are being discriminated against. People may use violent methods to settle their differences, leading to fear and tension among others living in an area. The Government is responsible for resolving conflicts. Religious processions and celebrations also lead to conflicts sometimes. For example, the route a procession takes may lead to a conflict. The government, particularly the police, play an important role in getting representatives of concerned communities to meet and try and arrive at a solution. Nevertheless, there is also fear that violence may erupt, with people throwing stones or trying to disrupt the procession. The police is in charge of ensuring that violence does not take place.

Meanwhile, rivers too can become a source of conflict between states if it begins in one state, flows through another and ends in a third. Sharing of river water between different states that the river goes through can become an issue of conflict. An example is given. The Cauvery Water dispute that broke out between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is an example. The origins of a legal dispute over Cauvery waters date back to 1892 and by the late 1960s, both states and the Central government began to realize the gravity of the situation as the 50-year run of the 1924 agreement was soon coming to an end. The water stored in Krishna Raja Sagara dam in Karnataka was used for irrigating a number of districts and for meeting the needs of the city of Bengaluru. At the same time, the water stored in Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu was used for crops grown in the delta region of that state. A conflict arose because both dams are on the same river. The downstream dam in Tamil Nadu could only be filled up if the water is released from the upstream one located in Karnataka leading to water scarcity in one state, as both states can’t get as much water as they need for people in their states. This leads to conflict. The central government has to step in to see that a fair distribution is worked out for both states.

Equality and Justice

The key idea of a democratic government is its commitment to equality and justice, which are inseparable. The earlier practice of untouchability is now banned by law. They were earlier denied education, transport or medical facilities and even the chance to offer prayers. Dr Ambedkar and many others like him realised that such practices must not continue and justice can only be achieved when people are treated equally. The government also recognises this and makes special provisions for groups within society that are unequal.

A Government is needed for every country to make decisions and get things done ranging from decisions about where to build roads and schools, or how to reduce the price of onions when they get too expensive or ways to increase the supply of electricity. They also take actions on social issues and other important things like running postal and railway services. In the meantime, the Government is also in charge of protecting the boundaries of the country and maintaining peaceful relations with other countries. Also, at the time of any calamity, it is in charge of organising aid and assistance for the affected people.

If you are wondering how these are done or why it needs to be done, then you need to know that when people live and work together, there needs to be some organisation so that decisions can be made. There need to be some rules that apply to everyone. The territory of a country should be protected and resources have to be controlled. The government can exercise its power and make the decision, also implement the decision amongst the people living in their territory.

Levels of Government

Now that you know all that a Government is responsible for, do you know how it manages to do all these things? Government works in three different levels: at the local level (means in your village or town locality),

Laws and the Government

The Government makes laws that everyone living in the country has to follow. It cannot only make a decision but can enforce it as well. Given is an example. Everyone driving a motor vehicle is required to have a licence. Any person caught driving a vehicle without a licence can either be jailed or fined a large sum of money. Same as the decisions that the Government can take, people can also take some steps if they feel that a particular law is not being followed. An example of this is given here. If a person feels that they were not hired for a job because of their religion or caste, he or she may approach the court to claim that the law is not being followed. The court can then give orders about what should be done.

Types of Government

Who gives the government this power to make decisions and enforce laws? In a democracy, people give the government this power via elections in which people vote for particular persons and elect them. These elected people form the Government. In a democracy, the government has to give explanations of its actions and defend its decisions to the people. In a monarchy type of Government, the monarch (king or queen) has the power to make decisions and run the government. They may discuss matters with a small group of people, but the final decision-making power remains with the monarch. Unlike in a democracy, kings and queens have no need to explain or defend their actions or the decisions they make.

Democratic Governments

India is a democracy as a result of a long and eventful struggle of the Indian people. Other places in the world have also struggled to have democracies. The main feature of a democracy is that the people have the power to elect their leaders so it can be called as a rule by the people. The basic idea is that people rule themselves by participating in the making of these rules. Democratic governments are also usually referred to as representative democracies in which people do not participate directly but, instead, choose their representatives through an election process. These representatives meet and make decisions for the entire population. Meanwhile, a government cannot call itself democratic unless it allows what is known as a universal adult franchise, where all adults in the country are allowed to vote. However, it is not always like this. There was a time when governments did not allow women and the poor to participate in elections. In their earliest forms, governments allowed only men who owned property and were educated, to vote, meaning that women, the poor, the property-less and the uneducated were not allowed to vote. The country was governed by the rules and regulations made by a few men. In India, before Independence, only a small minority was allowed to vote and they, therefore, came together to determine the fate of the majority. Many people including Gandhiji shocked at the unfairness of this practice demanded that all adults have the right to vote, giving rise to the universal adult franchise.

Difference and Prejudice

A variety of things make us what we are- such as how we live, the languages we speak, what we eat, wear, the games we play and the things we celebrate are all influenced both by the geography and history of the place where we live. To get an idea about how diverse India is, just look at these points. Eight major religions of the world are practised in India and there are 1600 languages as people’s mother tongues and a hundred dance forms. However, this diversity is not always celebrated, the reason being people are more comfortable with those that look, dress and think like them. They may consider people who are different as strange or unfamiliar. They may have a preconceived idea about these people. One stereotype is considering villagers as ignorant and people in cities as money-minded and lazy. When our opinions about a sect of people are always negative then these become prejudiced against them. Prejudice means to judge other people negatively or see them as inferior. We can be prejudiced about many things: people’s religious beliefs, the colour of their skin, the region they come from, the accent they speak in, the clothes they wear and more. Owing to prejudices about others, we don’t want to form friendships with them and may even act in ways that hurt them

How familiar are you with gender differences? What does it mean to be a boy or a girl? The statement ”They don’t cry”, is generally associated with boys and men. Even as a child, when boys fall and hurt themselves, their parents and other family members often console them by saying “Don’t cry. You are a boy. Boys don’t cry.” Soon, even children start believing that crying is a sign of weakness. He also feels that people would tease him if he cries in front of them so refrains from crying. Another common statement is “This is the way boys are and this is how girls are.” We accept without even thinking, and start believing that each one of us must behave accordingly. We fit all boys and all girls into an image that society creates around us. When we fix people into one image we create a stereotype. Saying that those who belong to a particular country, religion, sex, race or economic background are “stingy,” “lazy,” “criminal” or “dumb,” is using stereotypes. There are stringy and generous people everywhere, in every country, religion, group whether rich or poor, male or female. Stereotypes stop us from looking at each person as a unique individual with his or her own special qualities and skills that are different from others.

Inequality and Discrimination

Discrimination occurs when people act on their prejudices or stereotypes and because of several reasons. People belonging to different religions can be an aspect of diversity, but, can also be a source of discrimination. Some people who may speak a certain language, follow a particular religion, live in specific regions or so may be discriminated against as their customs or practices may be seen as inferior. Further, the matter of different economic backgrounds is not a form of diversity but of inequality. Some people may experience both kinds of discrimination. They are poor and belong to groups whose culture is not valued. Tribals, some religious groups and even particular regions, are discriminated against for one or more of these reasons.

On being discriminated against

People engage in different kinds of work like teaching, carpentry, pottery, weaving, fishing, farming and more to earn a livelihood. Still, certain kinds of work are valued more than others. This belief is an important aspect of the caste system. In the caste system, communities/ groups of people were placed in a sort of ladder where each caste was either above or below the other. Those who placed themselves at the top of this ladder called themselves upper caste and saw themselves as superior. The groups who were placed at the bottom of the ladder were seen as unworthy and called “untouchables”. Caste rules were set which did not allow the so-called “untouchables” to take on work, other than what they were meant to do. Upper castes acted in ways, which did not give the so-called “untouchables” the same rights as they enjoyed.

Discrimination is not only limited to preventing Dalits from undertaking certain economic activities but it also denies them the respect and dignity given to others.

Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956) considered the father of the Indian Constitution is also the best-known leader of the Dalits. He was the first person from his caste who completed college education and went to England to become a lawyer. Dr Ambedkar believed that Dalits must fight the caste system and work towards a society based on respect for all persons.

Striving for Equality

The struggle for freedom from British rule also included within it the struggle of large groups of people who not only fought against the British but also fought to be treated more equally. Dalits, women, Tribals and peasants fought against the inequalities they experienced in their lives.

When India became a nation in 1947 our leaders too were concerned about the different kinds of inequalities that existed. Writers of the Constitution of India (a document that laid out the rules by which the nation would function) were aware of the ways in which discrimination had been practised in our society and how people had struggled against this. Many leaders of these struggles such as Dr Ambedkar had also fought for the rights of the Dalits. So these leaders set out a vision and goals in the Constitution to ensure that all the people of India were considered equal. This equality of all persons is seen as a key-value that unites us all as Indians. The Constitution placed responsibility on the government to take specific steps to realise this right to equality for poor and other such marginal communities. They believed that respect for diversity was a significant element in ensuring equality. They said that the government must treat all religions equally and no one language, religion or festival should become compulsory for all to follow. Therefore, India became a secular country, where people of different religions and faiths have the freedom to practise and follow their religion without any fear of discrimination. Though these ideals are enshrined in our Constitution, inequalities exist even today

If three children of the same age are asked to draw human figures, every drawing will be different from each other. This is because everyone has a unique drawing style. Children not only do not look exactly like each other but also differ in terms of the language they speak, their cultural backgrounds, the religious rituals they observe and, of course, the way they draw! In the same way, if they are asked to fill in details about themselves, the answers would vary for each child. This helps students to recognize what they have in common with their classmates or how different they are from each other.

Making friends

How easy is it to make friends with someone who is very different? Given in the textbook is the example of two friends, who despite speaking different languages still communicated with each other, as it was important for them. They belonged to different religious and cultural backgrounds as well, emphasizing on the aspect of diversity. Apart from these differences, it can be seen that while one attended school, the other had to sell newspapers.

It is seen that some people may not have enough to eat or wear and sometimes not even a place to live. This is not just about differences but can be called an inequality. Inequality arises when a person does not have the resources and opportunities that are otherwise available to other persons. The caste system is another main example of inequality. Society is divided into different groups based on the work that people do and they were supposed to remain in those groups. For example, children of potters had to continue as potters. This was considered to be irreversible and for this reason, it was not considered necessary for the people to know anything more than was required for their profession. This encouraged inequality.

What does diversity add to our lives?

Imagine a world, where everything was the same. Other than the same two colours red and white, same food (maybe potatoes!), the same two animals, for example, the deer and the cat, and snakes and ladders, the same game, there was nothing different. There would be no diversity and it would be dull. Even the story writers will not have anything to write about, as most depend on ideas drawn from their experiences and real-life encounters to make stories more interesting and fun.

Diversity In India

India the land of many diversities include different languages, various types of food, different festivals, different religions and so on. At the same time, there are also many things that are similar.

How do we explain Diversity?

Sometime before 200 years ago, before the age of trains, aeroplane and bus or car, people used to travel by ships, on horses, on camels or on foot. They travelled in search of new places to settle in or people to trade with. At times, they stayed back at a place for a long time. Some others left their homes because of the scarcity of food caused by droughts and famine. Some made their home at the new places and gave rise to a mix of the old and new in their food, language, music, religion and so forth.

Various cultural influences help to shape life and culture in some regions that become very diverse because of their unique histories. In a similar way, diversity also comes about when people adapt their lives to the geographical area in which they live. For example, living near the sea is quite different from living in a mountainous area. Eating habits and clothing of people differ in each of these regions. The kind of work they do is also different.

For example: Ladakh is a desert in the mountains in the eastern part of Jammu and Kashmir, where very little agriculture is possible as this region does not receive any rain and is covered in snow for a large part of the year. For drinking water, people depend on the melting snow during the summer months. People here keep sheep and goats. Goats produce pashmina wool, which is prized and the shawls made of this wool fetch a lot of money. People eat meat and milk products like cheese and butter. Each family owned some goats, cows and dzos (yak-cows). Meanwhile, the place also attracted traders despite being a desert. It was considered a good trade route as it had many passes through which caravans travelled to today’s Tibet. These caravans carried textiles and spices, raw silk and carpets. Buddhism came to Tibet via Ladakh (also called Little Tibet). Islam was introduced in this region over 400 years ago and it has a significant Muslim population. Ladakh has a very rich oral tradition of songs and poems. Local versions of the Tibetan national epic the Kesar Saga are performed and sung by both Muslims and Buddhists.

Kerala is a state in the southwest corner of India surrounded by the sea on one side and hills on the other. A number of spices like pepper, cloves and cardamoms are grown on the hills, making this region an attractive place for traders (Jewish and Arab traders being the first to arrive). The Apostle of Christ, St. Thomas came here nearly 2000 years ago and is credited with bringing Christianity to India. Many Arab traders also came and settled down here. Ibn Battuta, who travelled here a little less than 700 years ago, wrote a travelogue describing the lives of Muslims and said that they were a highly respected community. Portuguese discovered the sea route to India from Europe when Vasco da Gama landed with his ship. All these various historical influences resulted in people of Kerala practising different religions such as Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism. The fishing nets called cheena-vala used here look exactly like the Chinese fishing nets. Even the utensil used for frying is called the cheenachatti. It is believed that the word cheen could have come from China. The fertile land and climate are suited to growing rice and a majority of people here eat rice, fish and vegetables.

Kerala and Ladakh quite different in terms of their geographical features have a history with similar cultural influences. Both regions were influenced by Chinese and Arab traders. The geography of Kerala allowed for the cultivation of spices, while the special geographical location of Ladakh and its wool drew traders to these regions. Meanwhile, the influence of diverse cultures is not merely a thing of the past. Even present lives are all about moving from place to place for work and with each move, the cultural traditions and way of life slowly become part of the new place people reside in. Similarly, in their own neighbourhoods, people from several communities live close to each other. Daily lives are about the ways in which they can do things together and hear stories about each other’s lives, customs and traditions.

Unity In Diversity

India’s diversity is a source of its strength. Women and men from different cultural, religious and regional backgrounds came together to oppose British Rule in India. India’s freedom movement involved thousands of people from different backgrounds. They worked together to decide joint actions, went to jail together, and found different ways to oppose the British. British thought to divide the Indians, because they were so different and then continued to rule them. However, the people showed how they could be different yet united in their battle against the British. There is also a song sung after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar composed in memory of the brave people who were killed by a British General. The songs and symbols that emerged during the freedom struggle serve as a constant reminder of the Country’s rich tradition and respect for diversity. The Indian flag was also used as a symbol of protest against the British. According to the Book, “The Discovery of India”, by Jawaharlal Nehru, Indian unity is not imposed from the outside but rather, “It was something deeper and within its fold, the widest tolerance of belief and custom was practised and every variety acknowledged and even encouraged.” It was Nehru, who coined the phrase, “unity in diversity” to describe the country.

The iron pillar on pillar

The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, shows the outstanding skill of Indian crafts persons. It is made of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago. The date has been inscribed on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra, who probably belonged to the Gupta dynasty. One interesting fact of the pillar is that it has not rusted in all these years.

Buildings in brick and stone

Stupas also reflect the skills of crafts persons that have survived. The word stupa means a mound. Stupas can be of different kinds round and tall, big and small, which will have certain common features. At the centre of the stupa, a small box will be placed, which contained bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins.

This box, known as a relic casket, was covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on top. And then, the dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs.

A path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa surrounded with railings. The entrance of the path was through gateways. Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture.

During this period, some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines. The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of the chief deity was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity.

Bhitargaon, a tower, known as the shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place. Most temples also had a space known as the mandapa a hall where people could assemble.

How were stupas and temples built?

Building stupa and temple went through several stages. Kings or queens wanted to builds these stupas or temples, which was an expensive affair. To start building these sculptures, good quality stone had to be found quarried, and transported to the place chosen for the new building. Here, these rough blocks of stone had to be shaped and carved into pillars, and panels for walls, floors and ceilings. After these, it had to be placed in precisely the right position.

To build these splendid structures, kings and queens spent money from their treasury to pay the crafts persons. Besides, when devotees came to visit the temple or the stupa, they often brought gifts, which were used to decorate the buildings.

Others who paid for these decorations were merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths, and hundreds of men and women who are known only by their names, which were inscribed on pillars, railings and walls.

Painting

Ajanta is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. Most of these were monasteries for Buddhist monks, and some of them were decorated with paintings.

The world of books

During this period, some of the best-known epics were written. Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods.

A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi. Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly accused of theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan to death. Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice and destroyed the entire city of Madurai.

Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.

Recording and preserving old stories

A number of Hindu religious stories were written down around the same time. These include the Puranas, meaning old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped.

The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women and Shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them.

Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time. The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins. The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. Valmiki is the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.

Stories told by ordinary people

Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced, and performed plays. Some of these are preserved in collections of stories such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, which were written down around this time. Stories from the Jatakas were often shown on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places such as Ajanta.

Writing books on science

Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle.