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Class 12 History Quick Revision notes Chapter 7 An imperial capital Vijayanagara

Key concepts in nutshells

• The Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans – Harihara and Bukka asserted their independence of the Delhi sultanate and established the kingdom of Vijaynagar on AD 1336.
• Kings and trading class – The warfare depended mainly upon powerful cavalry. The Portuguese settled on the west coast of India in attempted to establish their trading and military stations.
• The climax and decline of Vijay Nagar empire – Krishadeva Raya was an able administrator, He built dams for irrigation. He builds magnificent places and temples. Its ruler Rama Raya was miserably defeated on the battlefield of (Rakshasi – Tangadi) Talikota in A.D.1565. The victorious armies plundered and destroyed the city of Vijaynagar.
• Vijaynagar Hampi Architecture – The Vijaynagar architecture (Hampi Architecture) of the period (1336-1365) was unique building style evolved by the imperial Vijaynagar empire.
• Hampi Bazar – Portuguese travellers Paes and Nuntiz visited Hampi in the mid 1500 century. They give an account of Hampi Bazar thus “in this street lived many merchants and there you will find all sorts of rubies, diamonds pearls and cloths that you may wish to buy.
• Building and places – we know today about the Vijaynagar palaces and buildings are derived from the archeological excavations at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived.
• Kings royal enclosure – Another important building at Hampi is the kings royal enclosure. Paes tells against the gate there were two circles in which there were the dancing women richly arrayed with many jewels of gold and diamonds and many pearls.
• Mahanavami dibba – The Mahanavami dibba is located on one of the highest points in the city. It is a very large platform rising from a base of about 11000 feet to height of a 40 feet. It seems that is supported a wooden structure.
• Forts of Vijay nagar – in the constant struggle for power, fort and fortified settlements were a potent symbol of authority. The rulers of Vijaynagar empire created the cities with the main object of protection against invasions. The city itself was a fortress and designed as such in every manner.
• Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of the both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century.
• In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted.
• One of the most prominent water work to be seen among the ruins in the Hiriya canal.
• In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in evidence.
• Best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gate ways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signaled the presence of the temple from a great distance.
• The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes.
• Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organized and used, how they were built, with what materials and techniques.

History of Vijayanagara 
Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century. In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted. Although it fell into ruin in the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries it remained in the memories of people living in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab, as Hampi, a name derived from that of the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.

1.  The Discovery of Hampi: The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie. An employee of the English East India Company, he prepared the first survey map of the site. Much of the initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
2. Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans: According to tradition and epigraphic evidence two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. This empire included within its fluctuating frontiers peoples who spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions. The Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary rulers – including the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa – for control of the fertile river valleys. The rulers of Vijayanagara, who called themselves rayas.
3. The warfare depended mainly upon powerful cavalry. The Portuguese settled on the west coast of India in attempted to establish their trading and military stations.
4. Trade in Vijaynagar: Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for such cities, which boasted of a wealthy population that demanded high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
5. The climax and decline of Vijaynagar empire: 
   1. The first dynasty, known as the Sangama dynasty, exercised control till 1485. They were supplanted by the Saluvas, who were replaced by the Tuluvas in 1503.
   2. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
   3. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples.
   4. Strain began to show within the imperial structure following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529. His successors were troubled by rebellious nayakas or military chiefs.
   5. During this period, as indeed earlier, the military ambitions of the Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting alignments. Eventually this led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara.
   6. Although the armies of the Sultans were responsible for the destruction of the city of Vijayanagara, relations between the Sultans and the rayas were not always or inevitably hostile.
   7. In fact the Vijayanagara kings were keen to ensure the stability of the Sultanates and vice versa.
6. The rayas and the nayakas:
   1. Nayakas were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters. They moved from one area to another, and in many cases were accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle. They usually spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas submitted to the authority of the kings of Vijayanagara but they often rebelled and had to be subdued by military action.
   2. The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. They were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area.
   3. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control.

Vijayanagara – The Capital and its Environs
Vijayanagara, was characterised by a distinctive physical layout and building style:

1. Water Resources: Vijayanagara had the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction. A number of streams flow down to the river from the granite hills. Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes. For the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements had to be made to store rainwater. The most important such tank was built in the early years of the fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya canal.
2. Fortifications and roads: Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the fortifications, and mentioned seven lines of forts which encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. What was most significant about this fortification is that it enclosed agricultural tracts. The archaeologists have also found evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the urban core. This tract was serviced by an elaborate canal system drawing water from the Tungabhadra. A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the royal centre, within which each set of major buildings was surrounded by its own high walls. Roads generally wound around through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most important roads extended from temple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.
3. The urban core: Archaeologists have found evidence of the houses of ordinary people along the road. Fine Chinese porcelain were also found from Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques were located there but had their architecture like that of the mandapas found in the temples of Hampi. Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples which proves a variety of cults existed and were supported by different communities.

The Royal Centre
The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. About thirty building complexes have been identified as palaces. One difference between these structures and temples is that the latter were constructed entirely of masonry, while the superstructure of the secular buildings was made of perishable materials.

1. The mahanavami dibba: The “king’s palace” has two of the most impressive platforms, usually called the “audience hall” and the “mahanavami dibba”. The entire complex is surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them. The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular intervals. Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings. Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of the Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October. The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion.
2. Other buildings in the royal centre: One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travellers in the nineteenth century. While most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were several in the royal centre as well. One of the most spectacular of these is one known as the Hazara Rama temple.

The Sacred Centre

1. The sacred centre was situated on the rocky northern end on the bank of the river Tungabhadra. According to local tradition, these hills sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.
2. Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas.
3. Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine – often, the deity was explicitly or implicitly identified with the king. Temples also functioned as centres of learning.
4. The rulers and others often granted land and other resources for the maintenance of temples. temples developed as significant religious, social, cultural and economic centres.
5. It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha.
6. In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features (like Gopurams and mandapas) were in evidence.
7. The raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance.
8. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.
9. The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. While inscriptions suggest that the earliest shrine dated to the ninth-tenth centuries, it was substantially enlarged with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire.
10. Just as the nayakas continued with and elaborated on traditions of fortification, so they did with traditions of temple building. In fact, some of the most spectacular gopurams were also built by the local nayakas.

Conclusion:
Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organised and used, how they were built, with what materials and techniques. Although wooden structures are lost, and only stone structures survive, the descriptions left by travellers allow us to reconstruct some aspects of the vibrant life of the times. They convey ideas which the builders or their patrons wished to project.

Time Line 1Major Political Development
C. 1200 1- 1300	Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (1206)
c. 1300 – 1400	Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336?): establishment of the Bahman kingdom (1347): sultanates in jaunpur, Kashmir and madura
c. 1400 – 1500	Establishment of the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa (1435); establishment of the sultanates of ahmadnagar, Bijapur and berar (1409)
c. 1500 – 1600	Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese (1510); collapse of the Bahmani kingdom, emergence of the sultanate Golconda (1518); Establishment of the Mughal empire byBabur (1526)
Time Line 2Land marks in the Discovery and Conservation of Vijayanagara
1800	Colin Mackenzie visits Vijayanagara
1856	Alexander Green law takes the first detailed photographs of archaeological remains at Hampi
1876	J.F Fleet begins documenting the inscriptions on the temple walls at the site
1902	Conservation beings under John Marshall
1986	Hampi Declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO

Class 12 History Quick Revision notes Chapter 6 Bhakti Sufi Traditions

Key concepts in nutshell

• From eighth to eighteenth century striking features was a visibility of wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture and texts.
• There was integration of cults – composition, compilation and  presentation of puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verses.
• Explicitly meant to be accessible to women and shurdas who were generally excluded from vedic learning.
• Tantric forms of worship – more prevalent among women. Often associated with the goddess were forms of worship that were classifies as Tantric. Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent they were open to women and men, and practitioners often ignored differences of caste and class within the ritual context.
• Bhakti traditions classified into saguna (with athesist) and nirguna (without from attracts worship of abstract form).
• The Alvars and Narayanars of Tamil Nadu – The worshippers of Vishnu and Nayanars – devotees of Shiva – common features – traveled singing hymns in Tamil.
• Alvars and Nayanars initiated movement against caste system & dominance of Brahamans. Nalayira Divyaprabandanam – important composition of Alvars equal to four Vedas.
• Status of women – composition of Andal (a women Alvar) popular, songs of Karaikkal Ammaiyar – were widely sung.
• State patronage in south for Vedic gods rather than Jainism & Buddhisn, cholas patronized brahamnical tradition, making land grant as to lord shiva at Gangaikonda Cholapuram bronze sculpture of shiva.
• Singing of hymns under royal patronage were encountered – Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal image of Appan, Sambandan and sundarar in Shiva emples.
• Karnataka saw a new movement under basavanna a brahamana in court of Chalukyan ruler – his followers Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayat wearers of Linga) – important community to this day – who worship shiva in form of a linga. Of the group of Sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the most influential.
• By the sixteenth century the shrine had become very popular, in fact it was the spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer that inspired Akbar to visit the tomb.
• He went there fourteen times, sometimes two or three times a year to seek blessings for new conquests, fulfillment of vows and the birth of sons. He also had a mosque constructed with the composer of the dargah.
• Lingayats challenged ida of caste and questions the theory of rebirth.They encountered remarriage of widows. North India saw the emergence of Rajput states which patronized Brahmans – performed secular and ritual function. The Naths, Jogis, siddhas also.
• Through guided by ulema, rulers followed a flexible policy granting religious tax exemptions to non Muslims sometimes.
• Those who accepted Islam in India accepted in principal the five pillars of faith but these were overlooked with diversion in practice derived from local customs and affiliations (sunni, shia) some like in Malabar court adopted local language Sufism – Sufis were critical of dogmatic definitions & scholastic method of interpreting – Quran.
• They emphasized interpretation of Quran on basis of personal experiences. Chishtis – were a part of Sufis – hospices of khangah were small room & hall for students to live and pray.
• Life in chisti khangah was like the life of a monastery & catered to all travellers rich or poor. Shaikh Nizamuddin chishti had many followers.
• The practice of visits to dargahs gained prominence by 14th century – shrines became very popular.
• Also music, dance and mystical chants were performed to evoke divine ecstasy. The Bhakti movement saw the emergence of poet saint like kabir where poems written in form in which every meaning are inverted.
• The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings. These suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna Bhakti.
• Guru Nanak’s Hymns in the Adi Granth Sahib called “Gurubani”, are composed in various languages. Mirabai (c. fifteenth – sixteenth centuries) is perhaps the best known woman poet within the Bhakti traditions.
• She defied her husband and did not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother, in stead recognizing Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu as per lover.
• Historaians draw on a variety of sources to reconstruct histories of religious traditions.
• Virtually all these religious traditions continue to flourish to date.

A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices

1. The Bhakti Movement, Islam and Sufi Movement played an important role in the history of medieval India during eighth to eighteenth century.
2. Historians suggest that there were at least two processes –  one was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This is evident through the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning.
3. The second process was that of the Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. In fact, many beliefs and practices were re-shaped through a continuous dialogue between “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land.
4. Instances of integration are evident amongst goddess cults. For example, worship of the goddess, often simply in the form of a stone smeared with ochre, was evidently widespread.
5. Often associated with the goddess were forms of worship that were classified as Tantric.
6. Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent – they were open to women and men, and practitioners often ignored differences of caste and class within the ritual context. Many of these ideas influenced Shaivism as well as Buddhism, especially in the eastern, northern and southern parts of the subcontinent.
7. The divergence is perhaps most stark if we compare Vedic and Puranic traditions.
8. The principal deities of the Vedic pantheon, Agni, Indra and Soma, become marginal figures. Rather there were glimpse of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess in Vedic mantras and had little in common with the elaborate Puranic mythologies.
9. In spite of these obvious discrepancies, the Vedas continued to be revered as authoritative.
10. there were sometimes conflicts as well – those who valued the Vedic tradition often condemned practices that went beyond the closely regulated contact with the divine through the performance of sacrifices or precisely chanted mantras.
11. Those engaged in Tantric practices frequently ignored the authority of the Vedas.
12. Devotees often tended to project their chosen deity, either Vishnu or Shiva, as supreme. Relations with other traditions, such as Buddhism or Jainism, were also often fraught with tension if not open conflict.
13. The singing and chanting of devotional compositions was often a part of such modes of worship. This was particularly true of the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects.

The Bhakti Traditions

1. The early bhakti tradition evolved and was characterised by remarkable diversity. It accommodated and acknowledged women and the “lower castes”, who were considered ineligible within orthodox Brahmanical framework, while Brahmanas remained important intermediaries between gods and devotees in several forms of bhakti.
2. Historians of religion often classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories: saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes).
3. Alvars: Some of the earliest bhakti movements (sixth century) were led by the Alvars (literally, those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
4. The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or attempted to reform the system.
5. Their compositions were as important as the Vedas. One of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas.
6. Women’s participation could be widely seen through the presence of women devotees like –  Andal, a woman Alvar who saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity; and Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a devotee of Shiva who adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal. Their very existence and their compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.
7. From the second half of the first millennium there is evidence for states, including those of the Pallavas and Pandyas (c. sixth to ninth centuries CE). Buddhism and Jainism had been prevalent in this region and received occasional royal patronage.
8. One of the major themes in Tamil bhakti hymns is the poets’ opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. The reason behind this hostility was the competition between members of other religious traditions for royal patronage
9. Rulers tried to win their support of Nayanars and Alvars.
10. The Chola kings often attempted to claim divine support and proclaim their own power and status by building splendid temples that were adorned with stone and metal sculpture to recreate the visions of these popular saints who sang in the language of the people.
11. These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples under royal patronage.

. The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka

1. In twelfth century, there emerged a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68) who was initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king. His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
2. They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga, and men usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder.
3. Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the Dharmashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead. They also questioned the theory of rebirth.
4. The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras.
5. These won them followers amongst those who were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order.

Religious Ferment in North India

1. In north India this was the period when several Rajput states emerged. Brahmanas occupied positions of importance, performing a range of secular and ritual functions. There seems to have been little or no attempt to challenge their position directly.
2. At the same time other religious leaders, who did not function within the orthodox Brahmanical framework, were gaining ground. These included the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas.
3. Many of these new religious leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas, and expressed themselves in languages spoken by ordinary people. Although they were poluar but were not in a position to win the support of the ruling elites.
4.  The coming of the Turks which culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in thirteenth century added a new element which undermined power of many of the Rajput states and the Brahmanas who were associated with these kingdoms.

New Strands in the Fabric Islamic Traditions

1. From the seventh century, with the advent of Islam, the north-western regions became part of what is often termed the Islamic world.
2. Arab merchants frequented ports along the western coast in the first millennium CE. Central Asian peoples settled in the north-western parts of the subcontinent during the same period.
3. In 711, an Arab general named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, which became part of the Caliph’s domain.
4. In the thirteenth century) the Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate which was followed by the formation of Sultanates in the Deccan and other parts of the subcontinent.
5. Islam continued to be an acknowledged religion of rulers in several areas even with the establishment of the Mughal Empire in the sixteenth century as well as in many of the regional states that emerged in the eighteenth century.
6. Muslim rulers were to be guided by the ulama, who were expected to ensure that they ruled according to the shari‘a.
7. Rulers often adopted a fairly flexible policy towards their subjects. Several rulers gave land endowments and granted tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious institutions and also expressed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim religious leaders. These grants were made by several Mughal rulers, including Akbar and Aurangzeb.
8. Popular Practice: Islam permeated far and wide, through the subcontinent, amongst different social strata.
   1. All those who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five “pillars” of the faith: that there is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger (shahada); offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat ); giving alms (zakat); fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm); and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).
   2. The universal features were often overlaid with diversities derived from sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi‘a), and the influence of local customary practices of converts.
   3. Arab Muslim traders who settled in Kerala adopted the local language, Malayalam.
   4. The complex blend of a universal faith with local traditions is best exemplified in the architecture of mosques.
9. Names for communities:
   1. The terms ‘Hindu’ and ‘Muslim’ did not gain currency for a very long time. Historians point out that the term musalman or Muslim was virtually never used.
   2. people were occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they came.
   3. the Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka, Tajika were people from Tajikistan and Parashika were people from Persia.
   4. Sometimes, terms used for other peoples were applied to the new migrants. Like, the Turks and Afghans were referred to as Shakas and Yavanas (a term used for Greeks).
   5. A more general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating that they did not observe the norms of caste society and spoke languages that were not derived from Sanskrit.
   6. Such terms had derogatory connotation but it never denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims in opposition to Hindus.
   7. The term “Hindu” was used in a variety of ways, not necessarily restricted to a religious connotation.

The Growth of Sufism
Who were sufis?

1. In the early centuries of Islam a group of religious-minded people called sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.
2. They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and sunna (traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
3. Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following His commands, and by following the example of the Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect human being.
4. The sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal experience.

Khanqahs and silsilas:

1. By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well-developed movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices. Institutionally, the sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian). He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa). He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between inmates as well as between laypersons and the master.
2. The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth century.
3. When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah, a Persian term meaning court) became the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave. This was because people believed that in death saints were united with God, and were thus closer to Him than when living. Thus evolved the cult of the shaikh revered as wali.

Who were radical or be-shari‘a sufis?
Some mystics took to radical interpretation of sufi ideals. Many scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism. They were known by different names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc. Because of their deliberate defiance of the shari‘a they were often referred to as be-shari‘a, in contrast to the ba-shari‘a sufis who complied with it.
The Chishtis in the Subcontinent

1. Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the most influential.
2. Chishti khanqah: The khanqah was the centre of social life. A well-known example is the Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice (of fourteenth century) on the banks of the river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur, on the outskirts of what was then the city of Delhi.
3. The inmates included family members of the Shaikh, his attendants and disciples. The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where he met visitors in the morning and evening.
4. On one occasion, fearing a Mongol invasion, people from the neighbouring areas flocked into the khanqah to seek refuge.
5. There was an open kitchen (langar), run on futuh (unasked-for charity).
6. Visitors: From morning till late night people from all walks of life visited there. Hindu jogis (yogi) and qalandars – came seeking discipleship, amulets for healing, and the intercession of the Shaikh in various matters. Other visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani, all of whom wrote about the Shaikh.

Major Teachers of the Chishti Silsila
SUFI TEACHERS	YEAR OF DEATH	LOCATION OF DARGAH
Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi	1235	Ajmer (Rajasthan)
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar kaki	1235	Delhi
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj – j Shakar	1265	Ajodhan (Pakistan)
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya	1325	Delhi
Shaikh Nariruddin Chiragh – i Delhi	1356	Delhi

Chishti devotionalism: ziyarat and qawwali

1. Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints is prevalent all over the Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking the sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat).
2. People expressed their devotion at the dargahs of the five great Chishti saints for more than seven centuries.
3. The most revered shrine of these is that of Khwaja Muinuddin,  of fourteenth century, popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).
4. It was evidently popular because of the austerity and piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual successors, and the patronage of royal visitors.
5. By the sixteenth century the shrine had become very popular; in fact it was the spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer that inspired Akbar to visit the tomb. He went there fourteen time.
6. Also part of ziyarat is the use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy.
7. The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through ‘sama‘ (literally, “audition”) or performance of mystical music. Sama‘ was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.

Languages and communication:

1. The Chishtis adopted local languages. In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people.
2. Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.
3. Some composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory. For example, the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of the soul’s journey to the divine. Such poetic compositions were often recited in hospices, usually during sama.
4. A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur, Karnataka. These were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this region during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
5. These poems were probably sung by women while performing household chores like grinding grain and spinning. Other compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies and shadinama or wedding songs. It is through this medium that Islam gradually gained a place in the villages of the Deccan.

Sufis and the state

1. A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power. However, this was by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political power.
2. The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites. The Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts (auqaf ) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).
3. The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind.
4. Kings did not simply need to demonstrate their association with sufis; they also required legitimation from them.
5. There were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. To assert their authority, both expected that certain rituals be performed.

New Devotional Paths Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India
Many poet-saints engaged in explicit and implicit dialogue with these new social situations, ideas and institutions.
Kabir: 

1. Kabir (fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) is one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint in this context.
2. Kabirdas (Kabir itself is an Arabic word meaning “great”), was raised by a poor Muslim family belonging to the community of weavers or julahas, who were relatively recent converts to Islam.
3. Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions.
4. The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh; the Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan, and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib. 
5. Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects; and some are composed in the special language of nirguna poets, the sant bhasha. Others, known as ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted.
6. The range of traditions Kabir drew on to describe the Ultimate Reality include Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used terms drawn from Vedantic traditions, alakh (the unseen), nirakar (formless), Brahman, Atman, etc.
7. Diverse and sometimes conflicting ideas are expressed in these poems. Some poems draw on Islamic ideas and use monotheism and iconoclasm to attack Hindu polytheism and idol worship; others use the sufi concept of zikr and ishq (love) to express the Hindu practice of nam-simaran (remembrance of God’s name).
8. His valuable legacy, which is relevant for later generations, was claimed by several groups which is most evident in later debates about whether he was a Hindu or a Muslim by birth.

Baba Guru Nanak

1. Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in a village called Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi in the predominantly Muslim Punjab.
2. He also travelled widely and spent most of his time among sufis and bhaktas.
3. The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings. These suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna bhakti.
4. He rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
5. For Baba Guru Nanak, the Absolute or “rab” had no gender or form.
6. He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name, through hymns called “shabad ” in Punjab.
7. His attendant was Mardana who played the rabab when Nanak used to sing the ragas.
8. Baba Guru Nanak organised his followers into a community.
9. He set up rules for congregational worship (sangat) involving collective recitation.
10. He appointed one of his disciples, Angad, to succeed him as the preceptor (guru), and this practice was followed for nearly 200 years.
11. The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan, compiled Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns along with those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (also known as Raidas) and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib.  These hymns, called “gurbani”.
12. In the late seventeenth century the tenth preceptor, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib.
13. Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth.

Mirabai

1. Mirabai (fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) is the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
2. He bhajans were transmitted orally for centuries.
3. She was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar who was married against her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, Rajasthan. She defied her husband and did not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother, instead recognising Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu, as her lover.
4. Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escaped from the palace to live as a wandering singer composing songs that are characterised by intense expressions of emotion.
5. her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker, which indicates her defiance of the norms of caste society.
6. After rejecting all her comforts, she donned the white robes of a widow or the saffron robe of the renouncer.

Conclusion

1. The devotional worship of god with ultimate objective of attaining moksha (salvation) is called Bhakti. The word ‘Bhakti’ was derived from the root word ‘Bhaj’ meaning to adore. The impact of bhakti movement on the Indian society was significant and far-reaching.
2. Virtually all these religious traditions continue to flourish to date. This continuity has certain advantages for historians as it allows them to compare contemporary practices with those described in textual traditions or shown in old paintings and to trace changes.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society

• Many foreign travellers visited India during medieval period. They came to India for several motives.
• Most of the travellers who came to India wrote their accounts.
• The accounts of these travellers dealt with various aspects. Some travellers accounts deal with the affairs of the court whereas few accounts are focussed on religious issues.
• Some travellers create about the contemporary style of architecture and monuments, whereas other depicts the social and economic life.
• The travellers who visited India presented the true picture of Indian civilisation in their accounts.
• Al-Biruni, a great scholar of central Asia, came to India in the 11th century. He arrived India during the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Al-Biruni was bom on 4 Sept. 973 at Khwarizm in Uzbekistan.
• Al-Biruni was well-versed in many languages. Languages such as Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit were known to him.
• Al-Biruni’s most outstanding work ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ was written in Ghazni and was concerned India. It was also known as Tarikh-ul-Hind and Tahqiq-ma-lil-Hind.
• Al-Biruni has thrown a light on caste system prevailing in the Hindu society.
• According to Al-Biruni’s description India’s economic condition was very good.
• Al-Biruni’s real name was Abu-Abdullah Muhammad. He was fond of travelling and wanted to increase his knowledge by establishing his contact with the people of different countries.
• He travelled thirty years of his life.
• The great traveller of Morocco died in 1377, but the account written by him ‘Rihla’ is of immense wealth.
• After returning to Morocco in 1354 he (Ibn Battuta) was ceremoniously welcomed by ‘Sultan’, Abu Iram.
• Sultan Abu Iram appointed Ibijuzayy to help Battuta to compile his account ‘Rihla’.
• Rihla was written in Arabic. In it describe whatever he saw in India.
• Undoubtedly Tlihla’ is considered as an invaluable source of Indian History in the 14th century.
• Francois Bernier was a French traveller who came to India in 17th century.
• Francois Bernier was a great French doctor, philosopher and an historian who remained in India from 1656 to 1688 and wrote his famous book entitled. “Travels in the Mughal court”.
• Francois has given great detail about Indian Kharkhenas. Town, land ownership system and social evil, i.e. sati system.
• Abdur Razzaq the great Iranian scholar came to India in 15th century. He was born in 1413 and was appointed the Qazi of Samarqand under Shah Rokh Khan.
• Abdur Razzaq stayed in the court of Vijayanagara empireDeva Raya II from 1442-1443 and gave a vind description about the Vijayanagara kingdom.
• Duarte Barbosa was a Portugese official in south India, who travelled Vijayanagara Empire during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya in 1518.
• Among the other important travellers who came to India in medieval period were Antonio Monserrate, Peter Mundy, Jean Baptisite Tavernier, Franciso Pelesart and Nikolo Muncci.

Our knowledge of the past can be enriched through the’descriptions of social life provided by travellers who visited the sub-continent. Generally, they recorded everyday activities and practices of common men along with the descriptions of the kings. Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and Francois Bernier were three famous travelers who visited the sub-continent from 11th century to 17th century.

Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind:

• Al-Biruni was born in 973 at Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan.
• He was well-versed in different languages like Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit.
• In 1017 with the invasion of Khwarizm, he arrived in Ghazni as a hostage. But gradually developed a liking for the city and interest for India.
• When the Punjab became a part of the Ghaznavid empire, he travelled widely in the Punjab and other parts of Northern India.
• He spent years in the company of Brahmana priests and scholars by learning Sanskrit and studying religions and philosophical texts.
• Al-Biruni wrote ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ in Arabic, in a simple and lucid manner.
• It is a voluminous text including 80 chapters covering subjects like religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
• Al-Biruni was familiar with translations and adaptations of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts into Arabic. However, he was also critical about the ways in which these texts were written, and clearly wanted to improve on them.

Al-Biruni’s View About Indian Society:

• According to Al-Biruni, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concepts could not be translated easily from one language to another.
• Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by comparing it with other societies. He tried to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India.
• Al-Biruni depended on the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc.
• Sanskrit texts laid down the rules of caste system from the point of view of Brahmanas, but in real life the system was not quite so rigid.

Ibn Battuta and his Book Rihla:

• Ibn Battuta wrote the book ‘Rihla’ in Arabic. This book provides extremely rich and interesting detail about the social and cultural life in the sub-continent in the 14th century.
• Ibn Battuta went to far-off places, exploring new worlds and peoples.
• Before coming to India, he travelled extensively to Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, Mecca and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa.
• When he came to Delhi, Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was the Sultan of Delhi. The Sultan was impressed by his scholarship and appointed him the ‘qazi’ or judge of Delhi.
• He visited Bengal, Assam, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Sumatra and China.
• He meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs, values, etc.
• Travelling was not secure at that time. During his travel, Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times and was severely wounded.
• Ibn Battuta spent several years travelling through North Africa, West Asia, parts of Central Asia, the Indian sub-continent and China and recorded extensively his experiences.

Battuta’s Description of Indian Society:

• In the 14th century, Indian sub-continent had its contact from China in the East to North West Africa and Europe in the West. Ibn Battuta travelled through these lands and arrived at Delhi in the 14th century after visiting sacred shrines, meeting with rulers, learned men and people who spoke Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other languages. He shared ideas, information and anecdotes.
• While describing Indian society, Ibn Battuta explained the unfamiliar things like coconut and paan in a unique way.
• Ibn Battuta found the cities of India densely populated and prosperous. According to him, Delhi was the largest city in India. He also had the same view for Daulatabad (in Maharashtra).
• The bazaars (markets) were the places of economic transactions and also the hub of social and cultural activities. There were masjids and temples to offer prayers and also some bazaars marked with spaces for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.
• Ibn Battuta found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility of the soil where farmers tend to cultivate two crops a year.
• Indian manufacturing flourished due to inter-Asian network of trade and commerce. These were in great demand in both West Asia and South-East Asia where artisans and merchants were fetching huge profits.
• Indian textiles, specially cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin were also in great demand.
• Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which was of two kinds, the horse-post called ‘uluq’ and the foot-post called ‘dawa’.

Francois Bernier: A French Traveller

• A number of Portuguese, Dutch, English and French travellers came to India in the 16th and 17th century. Of them, Jesuit Roberto Nobili, Duarte Barbosa, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier and Manucci wrote different aspects of Indian society.
• French doctor, political philosopher and historian Francois Bernier spent twelve years (1656 to 1668) in India and was closely associated with the Mughal court.
• Bernier travelled to several parts of India and wrote detailed accounts by comparing the situation in India with Europe.
• His works were published in France in 1670-71, and translated into English, Dutch, German and Italian. His writings became extremely popular.

Bernier and His View About Contemporary Society:

• As compared to Ibn Battuta, Bernier believed in a different intellectual tradition where he was more critical. He compared and contrasted what he saw in India with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular.
• Bernier’s book ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ is marked by detailed observations, critical insights and reflection. He constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe, generally emphasising the superiority of the latter.
• According to him, the Mughal emperor owned all the lands and distributed it among his nobles and it led to disastrous consequences for economy and society. This perception was supported by most of the travellers of that period.
• As having no legal right over land, landholders could not pass on their land to their childern. Thus, they avoid any kind of long-term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production.
• This crown ownership system of land ruined the agriculture as well as the living standard of all sections of society, except the ruling aristocracy w’hich oppressed the peasant class.
• He explained that because of crown ownership of land, Indian society has no social group or class between the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. He further said, “There is no middle state in India”.
• Bernier described Mughal king as the king of “beggars and barbarians”. But Abul Fazl gave a different account by describing revenue as a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection he provides, rather than as rent on land that he owned.
• Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the 18th century onwards. For instance, French philosopher Montesquieu used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism and in the 19th century, Karl Marx used this account to develop the Asiatic mode of production.
• He also explained that India had a more complex social reality where artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their products as profits were appropriated by the state. But at the same time, he added that the country used to exchange its manufacturing goods with the precious metals
• gold and silver, from outside the sub-continent. Whereas he also noticed existence of a prosperous merchant community as well.
• There were all kinds of towns i.e. manufacturing towns, trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns, etc.
• The different urban groups included mahajans, sheth, nagarsheth, hakim or vaid, pundit or mulla, wakii, painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc.

Views of Travellers about Women:

• Slaves were openly sold in markets with horses, camels and other commodities.
• I bn Battuta mentioned that there was considerable differentiation among slaves.
• Slaves were generally used for domestic labour and female slaves were used for the service of Sultan and to keep a watch on the nobles.
• Bernier wrote about the practice of’Sati’. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.
• Women’s labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural production.
• Women from merchant families participated in commercial activities.
• Travellers’ accounts provide us important information of that period but many aspects of social life were unnoticed by them.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 Important Terms:

• Hindu: The term “Hindu’ was derived from an old Persian word which was used in 6th century BCE. It referred to the region towards the east of the river Sindhu, i.e. Indus.
• Antyaja: Those people who were included in the major four castes prevalent in the Indian society.
• Tarababad: It means the music market in Daultabad.
• Ulaq: Hose postal system.
• Daw: Foot postal system.
• Camp Towns: Those towns which owed their existence and survival to the imperial camp.

Time Line:

• 973 – Al-Biruni was bom in Uzbekistan
• 1031 – Kitub-ul-Hind in Arabic by Al-Biruni was published
• 1048 – Death fo Al-Biruni
• 1304 – Ibn Battuta bom at Tangier
• 1333 –  Ibn Battuta’s reached Sindh
• 1354 – Ibn Battuta’s return to Morocco
• 1377 – Rihla was published
• 1620 – Francisco-Pelsart a Dutch traveller reached India
• 1628 – Petermundy of England visited India
• 1656-68 – Francois Bernier visited India

Chapter 4 Thinkers Belief and Buildings Culture Development Notes

Key concepts in nutshell

• Buildings of Sanchi Kannakkheda are the most wonderful ancient buildings in the state of Bhopal.
• Buddhist, Jaina and Brahamanical text, monument and inscription are the some of the important historical sources of the age of C 600 BCE-600CE, which help in reconstructing Indian history.
• Many was provided by rulers of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum to preserved the ancient sites.
• The Rigveda is a collection of hymns, praise of many deities like Agni, Indra, Soma etc.
• The basic philosophy of Jainism already existed in north India even before the birth of vardhamana Mahavira.
• Tha Bhuddha was the most influential teachers of his times.
• Two traditions were including in modern Hinduism – Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

A detailed study:

1. A Glimpse of Sanchi
   • Nineteenth-century Europeans were very interested in the stupa at Sanchi.
   • The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site.
   • One of the most important Buddhist centres, the discovery of Sanchi has vastly transformed our understanding of early Buddhism. Today it stands testimony to the successful restoration and preservation of a key archaeological site by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
2. Buddhist tradition: Sacrifices and Debates
   • The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning point in world history as it saw the emergence of thinkers. They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between human beings and the cosmic order.
   • This was also the time when new kingdoms and cities were developing and social and economic life was changing in a variety of ways in the Ganga valley.
   • The early Vedic traditions, religious belief and practice were known from the Rigveda, compiled between c.1500 and 1000 BCE.
   • Rigveda consisted of hymns, which were chanted when sacrifices were performed, where people prayed for cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc.
   • At first, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later (c. 1000 BCE-500 BCE onwards) some were performed by the heads of households for the wellbeing of the domestic unit.
   • More elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha, were performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the ritual.
   • Many ideas found in the Upanishads (c. sixth century BCE onwards) show that people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death and rebirth.
   • Thinkers were concerned with understanding and expressing the nature of the ultimate reality.
   • On the other hand, people outside the Vedic tradition began speculating on the significance of the sacrificial tradition and questioned the existence of ultimate reality..
   • Buddhist texts mention as many as 64 sects or schools of thought.
   • Debates took place in the kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a pointed roof – or in groves where travelling mendicants halted.
   • Mahavira and Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas.
   • They also emphasised individual agency – suggesting that men and women could strive to attain liberation from the trials and tribulations of worldly existence.
   • This was a sharp contrast to the Brahmanical position, where an individual’s existence was thought to be determined by his or her birth in a specific caste or gender.
3. The Message of Mahavira
   • The philosophy of the Jainas already existed before the birth of Mahavira in the sixth century BCE.
   • Vardhamana who came to be known as Mahavira, was preceded by 23 other teachers or tirthankaras, according to Jaina tradition.
   • Tirthankaras are the teachers who guide men and women across the river of existence.
   • The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water have life.
   • The principle of ahimsa, emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark on Indian thinking as a whole.
   • According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
   • Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world.
   • Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.
   • Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages – Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil.
4. The Buddha – His Enlightenment & Teachings
   • The teachings and message of Buddha spread across the subcontinent and beyond – through Central Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and through Sri Lanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
   • According to Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha, as the Buddha was named at birth, was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a sheltered upbringing within the palace but he was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse.
   • He also saw a homeless mendicant, who, it seemed to him, had come to terms with old age, disease and death, and found peace.Siddhartha decided that he too would adopt the same path. He then left the palace and set out in search of his own truth.
   • He meditated for several days and finally attained enlightenment. After this he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.
   • For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.
   • His teachings: The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from stories, found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka.
   • Some stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays of supernatural power..
   • According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
   • It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.
   • The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. So he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.
   • The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nirvana, literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire – and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world.
   • Buddha’s last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”
   • His Followers: As the  number of disciples of the Buddha increased and he founded a sangha, an organisation of monks who too became teachers of dhamma
   • These monks lived on alms, and so they were known as bhikkhus.
   • Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be admitted. The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
   • The Buddha’s followers came from many social groups. They included kings, wealthy men and gahapatis, and also humbler folk: workers, slaves and craftspeople.
   • Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed their earlier social identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
   • Buddhism grew rapidly as it appealed to many people dissatisfied with existing religious practices and confused by the rapid social changes taking place around them.
   • The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims of superiority based on birth drew men and women to Buddhist teachings.

Time Line 1Major Religious Developments
c. 1500 – 1000 BCE	Early Vedic tradition
c. 1000 – 500 CBE	Later Vedic traditions
c. sixth century BCE	Early Upanishads; Jainism, Buddhism
c. third century BCE	First stupas
c. Second century	Development of Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism and goddess cults
c. third century CE	Earliest temples

1. Stupas
   • In Buddhist ideas and practices, people tended to regard certain places as sacred. These included sites with special trees or unique rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring natural beauty. These sites, with small shrines attached to them, were sometimes described as chaityas.
   • Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places associated with the Buddha’s life – where he was born (Lumbini), where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where he gave his first sermon (Sarnath) and where he attained nirvana (Kusinagara). Each of these places came to be regarded as sacred.
   • About 200 years after the time of the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark the fact that he had visited the place.
   • Besides, there were some places where relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or objects used by him were buried there. These were mounds known as stupas.
   • According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
   • By the second century BCE a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built.
   • Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building and decorating them. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these monuments.
   • The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods.
   • Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
   • The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings. Later, the mound of the stupas came to be elaborately carved with niches and sculptures as at Amaravati, and Shahji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar (Pakistan).
   • Each stupa has a history of its own. Sculptures of stupas were removed from stupas and transported all the way to Europe.
2. Sculpture
   • The Buddhist sculptures were beautiful and valuable. The sculpture in Sanchi seems to depict a scene from the story of Vessantara Jataka.
   • Symbols: Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form – instead, they showed his presence through symbols. The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha, and the stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinirvana. Another frequently used symbol was the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.
   • Popular traditions:  A sculpture of a beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree was the representation of shalabhanjika.
   • According to popular belief, shalabhanjika was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the decoration of the stupa.
   • The shalabhanjika motif on most of the Buddhist sculptures suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.
   • There are other motifs as well. Some of the finest depictions of animals are found there. These animals include elephants, horses, monkeys and cattle. While the Jatakas contain several animal stories that are depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that many of these animals were carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers.
   • Animals were often used as symbols of human attributes. Elephants, for example, were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
   • Another motif is that of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which seem to be sprinkling water on her as if performing an abhisheka or consecration.
   • The serpent motif is also found on several pillars. One of the earliest modern art historians, James Fergusson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent worship.
3. New Religious Traditions
   • Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nirvana. Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment and nirvana. Gradually the idea of a saviour emerged.
   • Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts but used this not to attain nirvana and thereby abandon the world, but to help others. The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important part of this tradition.
   • This new way of thinking was called Mahayana – literally, the “great vehicle”. Those who adopted these beliefs described the older tradition as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle”.
   • The notion of a saviour was not unique to Buddhism, it was also a part of Hinduism. Sects of Vaishnavism and Shaivism emerged in Hinduism, in which there was growing emphasis on the worship of a chosen deity.
   • Vaishnavism – is a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity and Shaivism is a tradition within which Shiva was regarded as the chief god. In such worship the bond between the devotee and the god was visualised as one of love and devotion, or bhakti.
   • In Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or incarnations of the deity. Ten avatars were recognised within the tradition. Different avatars were popular in different parts of the country.
   • Some of the avatars were represented in sculptures. For example, Shiva was symbolised by the linga.
   • All such representations depicted a complex set of ideas about the deities and their attributes through symbols.
   • Much of what is contained in the Puranas evolved through interaction amongst people who travelled from place to place sharing ideas and beliefs.
   • Early Temples: The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image.
   • Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was built over the central shrine. Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture.
   • Later temples became far more elaborate – with assembly halls, huge walls and gateways, and arrangements for supplying water.
   • One of the unique features of early temples was that some of these were hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves. The tradition of building artificial caves was an old one. Some of the earliest of these were constructed in the third century BCE on the orders of Asoka for renouncers who belonged to the Ajivika sect.
   • This tradition evolved through various stages and culminated much later – in the eighth century – in the carving out of an entire temple, that of Kailashnatha (a name of Shiva).
4. Reading the unfamiliar
   • The European scholars were horrified by what seemed to them grotesque figures, with multiple arms and heads or with combinations of human and animal forms (of gods and goddess).
   • They compared and often found early Indian sculpture inferior to the works of Greek artists, they were very excited when they discovered images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas that were evidently based on Greek models. These were, more often than not, found in the northwest, in cities such as Taxila and Peshawar, where Indo-Greek rulers had established kingdoms in the second century BCE. As these images were closest to the Greek statues these scholars were familiar with, they were considered to be the best examples of early Indian art.

Time Line 2Landmarks in the Discovery and Preservation of Early Monuments and Sculpture
Nineteenth Century
1814	Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta
1834	Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus by Ram Raja: Cunningham explores the stupa at sarnath
1835-1842	James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites
1851	Establishment of Government Museum, Madras
1854	Alexander Caunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes, one of the earliest works on Sanchi
1878	Rajendra Lala Mitra Publishes Bhuddas Gaya:  The Haritage of sakya Muni
1880	H.H Cole appointed curator of Ancient Monuments
1888	Passing of the Treasure Trove Act, Giving the governments the right to acquire all objects of archaeological interest
Twentieth century
1914	John Marshall and Alfred Foucher Publish the Monuments of Sanchi
1923	John Marshall publishes the conservation Manual
1955	Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stone of the National Museum, New Delhi
1989	Sanchi declared a World heritage site

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

• A number of important changes occurred in the economic and political life of India during the period from 600 BCE to 600 CE.
• The changes occurred during this period had left a deep mark on the contemporary society.
• A new change began to occur with the expansion of agriculture.
• Emergence of different crafts and distinct social groups also witnessed during this period.
• Social disparities began to increase as a result of unequal distribution of wealth.
• Historian made use of textual tradition for many reasons.
• According to the text written in ancient the most popular and famous is Mahabharata, which was composed between 500 BCE and 500 CE.
• Historians believed that it was written by Ved Vyasa, but most of the Historians think that it is the creation of many authors.
• In the beginning, Mahabharata was known by the name of Jail and held only 8800 verses. Later on the number of verses increased to one lakh.
• An important work began in 1919 under the leadership of V.S. Sukthankar, a famous Sanskrit scholar who took up cudgels to prepare a critical edition of Mahabharata.
• Many types of social institutions existed in this period these were as follows;
  • Monogamous family
  • Polyandrous family
  • Polygons family
  • Consanguineous family
  • Patrilineal family
  • Matrilineal family
  • Neolocal family
  • Rural family
  • Urban family
  • Joint family
  • Nuclear family
• Kinship is a system of relation between such relatives which determine our relationship on the basis of lineage. These relations were based on lineage or vansha are developed by a family.
• Patriliny means that the descent which is traced from father to son, then grandson and great grandson.
• Patriliny was prevalent even before the Mahabharata, yet Mahabharata strengthen it.

Historians often use textual traditions to understand the socio-economic changes of the society. In this case, it is very necessary to keep in mind who composed what and for whom. The language and the ways in which the text is circulated are also important.

Kinship, Marriage Rules and Different Practices:

• Families usually form parts of larger network of people defined as relative or ‘Kinfolks’ while familial ties are often regarded as ‘natural’ and based on blood they are defined in many different ways.
• It is more difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of ordinary people than elite families.
• Mahabharata reinforced the ideal of patriliny as valuable. Under patriliny, sons could claim the throne or other resources of their fathers when the latter died.
• The idea of patriliny is also accepted in the Rigveda.
• Daughters had no claims to the resources of the household. Also marrying them into families outside the kin was desirable. Kanyadan or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.
• From 500 BCE, codes of social behaviour were compiled in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras written in Sanskrit. The most important Dharmashastra was Manusmriti compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE.
• Codes of social behaviour were given by the Brahmanas. There were eight forms of marriage, of which the first four were considered as good, while the remaining were condemned.
• People were classified according to their gotras. Two important rules about gotras were:
• Women were expected to give up their father’s golra and adopt their husband’s gotra.
• Members of the same gotra could not many
• In case of Satavahana rulers, it was evident that many of the wives of Satavahana rulers retained the names of their father’s gotra as against Brahmanical rule.
• Endogamy or marriage within the kingroup was prevalent among several communities in South India.

Social Differences:

• The Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras contained rules about the ideal ‘occupations’ of the four categories or varnas.
• Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed; Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice; Vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, pastoralism and trade; and Shudras were assigned to serve the three ‘higher’ varnas.
• According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be the kings. But in reality political power was effectively open to anyone w’ho could muster (assemble) support and resources and rarely depended on birth.
• Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani was a Brahmana who destroyed the pride of Kshatriyas. He ordered that there was no inter-marriage amongst members of the four varnas.
• Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds. There were other categories like Nishada (people living in forest) beyond the four varnas in society. Ekalavya is supposed to have belonged to this class.
• Sometimes those who spoke non-Sanskrit languages were labelled as Mlechchhas and looked down upon.
• Brahmanical scriptures developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories as ‘untouchable’.
• Those who performed ‘polluting’ activities like, handling corpses and dead animals were designated as ‘Chandalas’.
• The Manusmriti laid down the duties of Chandalas, these were—they had to live outside the village, use discarded utensils and wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron.
• Historians got hints of different social realities about the Chandalas from the non-Brahmanical texts.

Social Status and Right to Property:

• According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest.
• Women had no claim in her paternal estate, but were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana.
• According to Brahmanical text, apart from gender, criterion for regulating access to wealth was varna. The only ‘occupation’ prescribed for Shudras was servitude (slavery), while a variety of occupations were listed for men of first three varnas.
• The Buddhists recognised the differences in society, but did not regard these as natural or inflexible. They rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth.
• There were other possibilities as well; situations where men who were generous were respected, while those who were miserly were criticised.
• The Buddhists developed an alternative understanding of social inequalities and the institutions required to regulate social conflict.
• The institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of payment for services rendered by the king.

The Mahabharata:

The Great Indian Epic

• VS Sukthankar, a noted Indian Sanskritist, with his team initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata. It involved collecting Sanskrit manuscripts of the texts written in a variety of scripts, from different parts of the country.
• First historians accepted the texts written in Sanskrit as the main source, but later they also relied on works in Pali, Prakrit and Tamil to reconstruct social histories.

The Singificance of Mahabharata:

• Historians examine whether texts were written in Prakrit, Pali or Sanskrit languages. They try to find out about the authors whose perspectives and ideas shaped the text.
• The Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas.
• Historians classify the contents of the text under two broad heads, , narrative containing stories and didactic containing prescription and social norms.
• Mahabharata has been written in many phases. It is not the work of a single author. However, it is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa.
• Mahabharata contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements.
• One of the most challenging episodes in the Mahabharata is Draupadi’s marriage with five Pandavas.
• It suggests polyandry ( the practice of a woman having several husbands) among ruling elites.
• Some historians think that polyandry is undesirable from the Brahmanical point of view, but it was prevalent in the Himalayan region due to a shortage of women during war times.

Different Versions of Mahabharata:

• The versions of the Mahabharata were written in a variety of languages.
• Several stories from specific regions were added in the epic. The story of the epic was often retold in different ways.
• Writers like Mahashweta Devi interprets the stories of the Mahabharata differently.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 Important terms:

• Kinship: The person belonging the same family.
• Polity: The form or process or system of government.
• Kinfolk: Persons of blood relation.
• Patriliny: System of tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.
• Matriliny: System of tracing descent from mother side.
• Adi Parvan: Adi Parvan is the first section of the Sanskrit version of the Mahabharata.
• Indra: A god of warfare, rains and valour, one of the principal deities in the Rigveda.
• Dharmasutras: These are the texts composed in Sanskrit by Brahmanas.
• Mlechchhas: Shakas were regarded as Mlechchhas. They were the Central Asian people who had migrated and settled in the northwestern part of the Subcontinent.
• Majjhima Nikaya: It is a Buddhist text. It forms a part of a dialogue between a king named Avantiputta and a disciple of Buddha, named Kachchana.
• Gotras: People of the same kind and same vama.
• Shrenis: Unions of craftsmen and traders in Ancient India. It was also called guilds.
• Chandals: Untouchables of the ancient India who did menial works.
• Mahasammata: It means the great elect. A person chosen by the whole people.
• Nishad: A hunting community.
• Epic: A long poem about the deeds of great men and women or about a nation’s past history.
• Dwij: During Later Vedic period, people who adopted sacred thread system was caUedDwij.
• Endogamy: It refers to the system of marriage within the unit such as caste.
• Polygamy: Practice of having more than one wife.
• Polyandry: Practice of having more than one husband.
• Vamasha: Sanskrit word meaning lineage of a person.

Time Line:

• 500  BCE Ashfadhyayi of Panini, a work of Sanskrit grammar.
• 500-100  BCE Early Buddhist texts including the Tripitaka (in Pali)
• 500  BCE-400 CE Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit)
• 200  CE onwards Compilation of the Puranas (in Sanskrit)
• 300  CE Natyashastra of Bharata, a work on dramaturgy (in Sanskrit)
• 400-500  CE Sanskrit plays a valuable role in the compilation of Kalidasa’s works on astronomy and mathematics by Aryabhata and Varahamihira (in Sanskrit).

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies

• After the decline of Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), many significant changes took place in the Indian subcontinent.
• Vedas (Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharveda) and other religious and literary works are an invaluable source to know the history of that period.
• In first century BCE, many changes took place regarding the last rites of the dead in the central and south India. In this period dead bodies were buried in graves and these graves were surrounded by big stone called as the megaliths.
• In the 6th century BCE sixteen big kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas came into existence.
• Among these sixteen Mahajanapadas were-Magadha, Koshala, Vatsa and Avant whichwere the most powerful. .
• In the 5th century BCE, the powerful Mahajanapadas turned into powerful empires.
• Magadha was very powerful Mahajanapada. There were several causes responsible for it.
• Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Mauryan Empire. He founded Mauryan Empire by defeating the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty, Mahajanapadas.
• Megasthenes’s Indica and Kautilya’s Arthashastra provided valuable information about the Mauryan Empire.
• After the death of Chandragupta Maurya’s his son, Bindusara became the next ruler who ruled from 298 to 272 BCE.
• After Bindusara, Ashoka occupied the throne in 272 and ruled till 231 BCE.
• After the Kalinga War, Ashoka gave up policy of war and expansion.
• Inscriptions of Ashoka are the most relevant sources to know about Mauryan period. These inscriptions are written in the Brahmi (Prakrit) script.
• After the downfall of the Gupta Dynasty many new dynasties came up and ruled in many parts of India. Some of the dynasties were the Satvahanas, the Shakas, the Pandyas, the Cholas, Cheras and Kushanas.
• With the emergence of the Gupta, a new age started in the ancient Indian History.
• The founder of the Gupta Dynasty was Srigupta. He founded this dynasty in 275 CE and ruled till 300. After his death his son Ghatotkacha ruled from 300 CE to 320 CE.
• Ghatotkacha’s successor Chandragupta I sat on the throne in 320 and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He ruled till 335 CE.
• Sumudragupta is one of the greatest rulers of India and was the son of Chandragupta. He ruled from 335 to 375 CE. After his death Chandragupta-II ruled till 415.
• The Gupta ruler established a glorious empire with their untiring efforts. Their rule is called the Golden Age in Indian History. This vast Empire began to disintegrate at the end of the 5th century CE.

Development after the Harappan Civilization:

• After the decline of the Harappan Civilization, several developments, including the composition of Rigveda took place in Indian sub-continent. Evidences of emergence of agricultural settlements, pastoral communities and new modes of disposal of dead were found.
• The most important development was from 6th century BCE on wards when various empires and kingdoms emerged. In 1830, James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts used in earliest inscriptions and coins.
• Most of the inscriptions referred a king as Piyadassi, meant ‘pleasant to behold’ and a few inscriptions mentioned the king as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers known from Buddhist texts. It gave a new direction to investigate into early Indian political history, economic and social developments.

The Mahajanapadas:

• The earliest states emerged in the 6th century BCE which were mentioned in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts. The earliest 16 states were known as mahajanapadas. In which Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandliara and Avanti were most important. The mahajanapadas had a capital city, which was often fortified.
• Brahmanas began composing Dharmasutras from the 6th century BCE onwards. Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda were the most ambitious kings of Magadha. Magadha had its capital in Rajagaha (Rajgir) which was fortified and later the capital shifted to Pataliputra (Patna).

Mauryan Empire:

• Development of Magadha resulted in the emergence of the Mauryan empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE. Besides sculptures, historians have used a variety of sources like written texts of Megasthenes, Kautilya (Arthashastra), Buddhist) Jaina and Puranic literature, inscriptions of Asoka to reconstruct the history of Mauryan empire.
• Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri were the five major political centres of Mauryan empire.
• The vast empire was not controlled by a uniform administrative system. Asoka tried to hold his vast empire together by propagating dharma. He appointed special officers, known as the Dhamma Mahamatta, to spread the message of Dhamma.

Asokan Inscription:

• In deciphering Brahmi, the European scholars and Indian scholars compared Devanagari and Bengali scripts with Brahmi script. After painstaking work, James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.
• Kharosthi was deciphered by studying coins which had both Greek and Kharosthi scripts. Asoka was mentioned in the inscriptions as ‘Devanampiya’ meant ‘beloved of the God’ and ‘Piyadassi’ meant ‘pleasant to behold’.
• From the Asokan inscription, we know the anguish of the ruler and the change in his attitude towards warfare. These inscriptions have been found in Odisha.

The Limitations of Inscriptions:

• There are technical limitations, like faintly engraved, damaged or missing letters in inscriptional evidence. Sometimes what we consider politically and economically significant was not recorded in the inscriptions.
• The content of inscriptions invariably projects the perspective of the person who commissioned these.
• The inscriptions are unable to reflect about the life of different social groups including the marginalised groups. Thus, new strategies of analysis should be adopted.

Emergence of Concept Kingship:

• Different rulers in the various parts of India established their empire. This gave rise to new kingdoms, new communities and towns.

Emergence of New Kingdoms:

• New kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and further South, including the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. Satavahanas and Shakas derived revenues from long-distance trade. Kushanas ruled over a vast kingdom and considered themselves as God, adopting the title Devaputra (Son of God).
• Histories of the Gupta rulers were reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions, including Prashastis. The Prayaga Prashasti (also called Allahabad pillar inscription) by Harisena is the most important source to know about the Gupta rulers.

Emergence of New Communities:

• Historians examined stories of Jatakas and Panchatantra to know about the view of common people regarding the rulers. Strategies for increasing agricultural production were developed, including use of iron-tipped plough and the use of irrigation through wells and tanks.
• Advancement of agriculture led to emergence of different communities of people, viz, large landholders, small peasants and landless agricultural labourers. From early Tamil literature and Pali texts, categories of people like Gahapati (master of a household), Vellar (large land owners), Uzhavar (plough men) and Adimai (slaves) are known.
• Inscription gave details about the land grants to Brahmanas and Peasants. Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II had access to land, which she later granted, but common women had no access to lands. Some historians think that land grant is a strategy to extend agriculture to new areas; others thought it as the indication of weakening of political power.

Emergence of Towns and Trade:

• Several urban centres emerged in the sub-continent from the 6th century’ BCE. People living in these areas traded artefacts like fine pottery known as Northern black polished ware, ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and teracotta.
• Guilds or Shrenis procured raw materials, regulated production and marketed the finished product. The trade extended beyond the sub-continent, Central Asia, East and North Africa, South-East Asia and China.
• Successful merchants, designated as Masattuvan in Tamil, Set this and Satavahanas in Prakrit  became very’ rich. Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of silver, copper and gold coins.
• The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the North-Western part of the sub-continent in 2nd century BCE.
• The first gold coins were issued in 1st century’ CE by the Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. From the 6th century CE on wards, the use of gold coins w^ras reduced.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 2 Important Terms:

• Janapada: The land where the people belonging to a clan or tribe had settled.
• Dhammo Mahanatta: Officer appointed by Ashoka to spread the message of his Dharma.
• Matriliny: This term is used when descent is traced through mother.
• Tamilakam: The name of the ancient Tamil country which included the parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
• Megaliths: Stone structures which were built by some communities of South India over the grave of the dead.
• Vellators: The big zamindars.
• Agrahara: The land which Brahmanas got as land grants.

Time Line:

• 600-500: BCE Emergence of Mahajanapadas
• 544-492:  BCE Reign of Bimbisara
• 492-460:  BCE Tenure of Ajatsatru
• 269-231:  BCE Reign of Ashoka
• 201:  BCE Kalinga war was fought
• 335-375:  BCE Reign of Sumudragupta
• 375-415:  CE Reign of Chandragupta-II
• 1784:  Asiatic Society (Bengal) was founded
• 1810:  Colin Mackenzie collects over 8,000 inscriptions in Sanskrit and Dravidian languages.
• 1838:  Brahmi script James Prinsept deciphered.
• 1877:  Alexander Cunningham published a set of Asokan inscriptions.
• 1886:  First issue of Epigraphia Camatica, journal of South Indian inscriptions.
• 1888: First issue of Epigraphia Indica.
• 1965-66:  D.C. Sircar published Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical Glossary.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation

• Harappan Civilisation is also known as Indus Valley Civilisation. It is the oldest Civilisation of India.
• There is no consensus about the chronology of the Harappan Civilisation.
• Various scholars have given different dates about this period.
• According to Sir John Marshall, “this civilisation flourished between 3250 and 2750 BCE”.
• It was Daya Ram Sahni, who first discovered the sites of Harappan in 1921.
• The main centres of this civilisation are in Pakistan. The same famous sites of this civilisation (now in Pakistan) are Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro.
• The main centre where this Civilisation flourished in India are Kalibangan, Sangol, Pengplor, Lothal, Dholavira and Banawali.
• The urban planning of this civilisation was very magnificent. The houses were built in a systematic manner. Roads were wide and cut each other at right angle.
• The people of Indus Valley Civilisation had also made best planning for the drainage of rainwater and dirty water.
• The caste system was not present in the society. All the people lived together with mutual love and understanding.% The women held a high position or rank in the society.
• They were fond of fashion. The economic life the people was very prosperous.
• The main occupations of the people were the agriculture and domestication of animals.
• Trade was well developed. Both maternal and external trade was carried out.
• The people worshipped many gods and goddesses. They worshipped mother goddesses, Lord Shiva, animal, birds, trees and the Sun.
• They knew arts and crafts. They knew the art of making beautiful sculptures, toys, pottery, ornaments, etc. They were skilled in the production of seals.
• The languages used by them on the seals is still to be deciphered. If one is able to decipher their script inscribed on the seals, it will throw a flood of the light on the various aspects of the Harappan Civilisation.
• The main sources of our information of Harappan Civilisation is archaeological materials. The excavation carried out at Indus sites tries to reconstruct the history of this civilisation.
• During the excavation of Indus sites, many tools, pottery, seals, household objects, etc. have excavated.
• All these excavated materials are deeply examined by the archaeologists.
• Many historians like Cunningham, R.E.M. Wheeler, John Marshall and G.F.
• Dates have played a valuable role in reconstructing the history of the ancient past including the Indus Valley Civilisation sites.
• Many Indian archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni, S.R. Rao, R.S. Bisht and B.K. Thapar have played a great role in excavations of the Indus sites.
• Indus Valley Civilisation is also known as Bronze Age Civilisation, because people used bronze extensively for making their pottery, figure lines and ornaments.
• Almost 1900 BCE, these were explicit signs about the decline of this civilisation.
• By this time the two most important cities of Indus Valley-Mohenjodaro and Harappa had been completely declined.
• Around 1200 BCE, this civilisation had completely vanished. Epidemic, Aryan Invasion, change in the course of the river Indus, excessive floods, earthquake, etc. may be the main reasons for the decline of this civilisation.

rcheological Evidences of The Harappan Civilisation:

• The Harappan Civilisation is also known as Indus Valley Civilisation. This civilisation is dated between BCE 2600 and 1990 BCE. It is the oldest civilisation of India. We know about the civilisation from archaeological evidences like houses, pots, ornaments, tools and seals used by the people of that period.
• There were also earlier and later cultures, known as Early Harappan and Late Harappan Civilisation.
• Cunningham was the first Director General of Archaeological Survey of India who began archaeological excavations in the Harappan sites.
• Cunningham was unable to find the significance of Harappan Civilisation and thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.
• Daya Ram Sahni, Rakhal Das Baneiji, John Marshall were some of the important archaeologists associated with the discovery of Harappan Civilisation. The frontiers of the Harappan civilisation have no connection with present day national boundaries. The major sites are now in Pakistani territory.
• In India, a number of Harappan settlements were found in Punjab and Haryana. The main centres where this civilisation flourished in India are Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhi Garhi and Banawali.
• Archaeologist tried to classify artefacts in terms of material and in terms of function by comparing these with present-day things. The problems of archaeological interpretation are most evident in attempts to reconstruct religious practices of the Harappan.
• Unusual objects like terracotta figurines of women, stone statuary of men, motif of unicorn and figure in yogic posture on seals and structures like the great bath and fire altars may have had a religious significance. Several reconstructions regarding the Harappan civilisation remain speculative at present and there is a vast scope for future work.

Seals, Script, Weights of Harappan Civilisation:

• Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. If the bag of goods reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with. Seals also conveyed the identity of the sender.
• The Harappan script remains undeciphered to date. The script was not alphabetical and had many signs between 375 and 400.
• Exchange were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert with no marking. The lower denominations of weights were binary⁷ and the higher denominations followed the decimal system.

Food Habits of Harappan People:

• The people of Harappan Civilisation ate a wide range of plant and animal products including fish and meat, wheat, maize, millet, pulses, rice and another eatables. For this, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were domesticated by the Harappans.

Agricultural Techniques Using by Harappan People:

• Archaeological evidences suggested that oxen were used for ploughing and two different crops were grown together. As most of the Harappan sites are located in Semi-arid lands, it is evident that water from canals and wells was used for irrigation.

Social and Economic Differences among Harappan People:

• Archaeologists use certain strategies to find out social and economic differences among people. These include studying burials and artefacts which can be divided into utilitarian and luxuries.
• Valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements, but rarely found in smaller settlements.

Craft Production of Harappan People:

• Harappans knew the art of making beautiful sculptures, toys, pottery, ornaments, etc. Chanhudaro was a tiny settlement exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
• Grinding, polishing and drilling were done for making beads. Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making shell objects as both these settlements are near the coast. Apart from smaller settlements, larger cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa were also the specialised centres for craft production.

Acquiring Materials for Craft:

• The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways. Sometimes they established settlements where raw materials were available. Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions to areas where these were available e.g. Khetri region for copper (Rajasthan) and South India for gold.
• The Harappan made contact with distant lands like Oman for procuring copper. The Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads were found in other countries, Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia.

Economic Life and Trade during Harappan Civilisation:

• Economic life of the people was very prosperous The main occupations of the people were agriculture and domestication of animals.
• Trade was well developed. Both internal and external trade were carried out. Pictures of ships, boats have also been found on seals which throw light on Harappan contacts with far off places

Religious Belief of Harappan People:

• People of this civilisation worshipped many Gods and Goddesses. They worshipped Lord Shiva, mother Goddesses, animals, birds, trees and the sun.

Caste System in Harappan Civilisation:

• The caste system was not present in the society. All people live together with mutual love and understanding. Women held a high position or rank in the society.

A Planned Town of Harappan Civilisation Mohenjodaro:

• Mohenjodaro was the most well-known urban site of the Harappan Civilisation. Although Harappa was the first site to be discovered, it was badly destroyed by brick robbers.
• The settlement in Harappan civilisation was divided into two sections, one smaller in terms of land but higher in terms of power known as the Citadel, the other much larger in terms of area but lower in terms of power was known as Lower Town.
• All the Harappan cities had carefully planned drainage system. The residential buildings at Mohenjodaro were centred on a courtyard, had its own bathrooms, the drains of which were connected to the street drains.
• In Mohenjodaro, many houses had well and their estimated number was about 700. Structures like warehouse and the Great Bath’ were used for public purposes.

The End of Harappan Civilisation:

• By 1800 BCE, most of the mature Harappan sites were abandoned. Around 1200 BCE, this civilisation had completely vanished. After 1900 BCE, a rural way of life what was known as ‘Late Harappan’ or ‘successor cultures’ emerged.
• The reasons for the end of the civilisation range from climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and drying up of rivers and to overuse of the landscape. All these factors may have weakened the civilisation, but its ultimate extinction is more likely to have been completed by deliberate and large-scale destruction or by an invasion.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 1 Important Terms:

• Seal: It generally contained animal motifs and signs from a script.
• Hoards: Generally metal objects and jewellery kept by people inside containers.
• Stratigraphy: The study of historical layers.
• Motif: Name of animal, used by the Harappans on seals to mark some sort of trademark.
• Proto-Shiva: A seal that shows a figure seated in a yogic posture surrounded by animals has been designated as Proto-Shiva, an early form of one of the deities of Hinduism.
• Lingas: The polished stones were often worshipped as symbols of the God Shiva.
• Shamans: These were the groups of men and women who claimed to have magical and healing powers and ability to communicate with the other world.
• Art: It referred to painting, sculpture, pottery and seal making.
• Culture: Term used for a group of objects, distinct in style, found specifically within a geographical area and period of time.
• Pictographs: Picture-like signs to represent letters or words.
• The Great Bath: Best known building in Mohenjodaro for bath.
• Granaries: Buildings where grains were stored.

Time Line:

• 1862  Alexander Cunningham appointed as the first Director General of Archaeological Survey of India.
• 1921  D.R. Sahni discovered Harappa.
• 1992  R.D. Banneijee discovered Mohenjodaro
• 1924  Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation.
• 1953  Kalibangan was excavated by A. Ghosh.
• 1955  S.R. Rao discovered Lothal.
• 1968  Sanghal was discovered by S.S. Talwar and R.S. Bisht.

Aggregate Demand and Its Related Concepts – Notes for Class 12 Macro Economics

Aggregate Demand

Aggregate demand is the total amount of final goods and services which all the sectors are planning to buy in an economy at a given level of income over a given period of time. For example consumer goods, services, and capital goods.

Components Of Aggregate Demand

There are four components in Aggregate Demand

1. Private Consumption Expenditure (C)
2. Investment Expenditure(I)
3. Government Expenditure(G)
4. Net Exports (X-M)

Aggregate Demand = C+I+G+(X-M)

1. Private consumption expenditure (C) or Household consumption expenditure
   It refers to the expenditure on the final consumer’s goods and services by the households to satisfy their wants.
2. Investment expenditure (I)
   It refers to the expenditure incurred on capital goods by private firms to increase their production capacity. These capital goods are in the form of machinery, building, land, etc.
3. Government expenditure (G) refers to the expenditure incurred by the government on the purchase of goods and services to meet the needs of the people in the economy.
4. Net Exports (X-M) It refers to the difference between exports and imports i.e., X-M
   Where X stands for Exports and M stands for Imports.

Aggregate Demand In Two-Sector Model

In a two-sector model, it is assumed that Aggregate demand is a function of Consumption and Investment also.

Aggregate Demand In Two-Sector Model = C+ I

Where

C= consumption expenditure

I = Investment

Aggregate Demand Schedule And Graph

Aggregate Demand Schedule

National income (Y)	Consumption (C)	Autonomous Investment (I)	AD = C + I
0	20	20	40
10	25	20	45
20	30	20	50
30	35	20	55
40	40	20	60
50	45	20	65

Important Concepts About Aggregate Demand

1. Aggregate demand is a function of Consumption and investment only.
2. The investment expenditure is assumed to be autonomous which means it will remain constant at all the levels of income.
3. The investment curve will be a straight line, parallel to the X-axis as it is not affected by the change in income level.
4. Consumption will be positive even at zero level of income as the minimum level of consumption is done for survival. This consumption is known as ‘Autonomous consumption’.
5. The slope of the consumption curve is positive which shows that when income increases consumption also increases.
6. The starting point of the AD curve is above zero as there is always a minimum level of consumption and investment in the economy.

Meaning Of Aggregate Supply

Aggregate Supply is the value of all final goods and services that all the producers are planning to supply over a period of time.

Aggregate Supply =Y

HOW?: Output produced in an economy is always equal to the income generated. Aggregate Supply is equal to all final goods and services produced in the economy which is equal to the national income.

Aggregate Supply = OUTPUT =Y

Y = Aggregate Supply

Components Of Aggregate Supply

NATIONAL INCOME (Y) = CONSUMPTION (C) + SAVINGS (S)

Y = C + S

Consumption and savings are the two components of Aggregate Supply.

Aggregate Supply Schedule And Graph

Aggregate Supply = C + S

(i)Consumption(C)             

(ii) Saving(S)                                                               

AS = C + S

National Income (Y)	Consumption(C)	Saving (S)	AS = C + S
0	20	-20	0
10	25	-15	10
20	30	-10	20
30	35	-5	30
40	40	0	40
50	45	5	50
60	50	10	60

Important Concept About Aggregate Supply

The slope of the AS curve is positive as the level of income increases aggregate supply also increases.

Consumption Function Or Propensity To Consume

Consumption function or propensity to consume is the functional relationship between consumption and income.

C= f (Y)

Consumption Schedule And Types Of Propensity To Consume

Income(Y)	Consumption(C)	APC (C/Y)	ΔC	ΔY	MPC ( ΔC/ΔY)
0	100	–	–	–	–
100	170	1.7	70	100	0.7
200	240	1.2	70	100	0.7
300	310	1.33	70	100	0.7
400	380	0.95	70	100	0.7
500	450	0.9	70	100	0.7

Important Points About Consumption

1. The slope of the consumption curve is positive as consumption increases when leveling of income increases.
2. The starting point of the consumption curve is above zero as the is always some minimum level of consumption which is termed as “Autonomous consumption”.
3. The point where C=Y is termed as break-even point as at this point Consumption is equal to income.
4. Before the break-even point in the economy because consumption is more than income after the break-even point savings will start as now the increase in consumption is less than the increase in income.

Types Of Propensity

1. Average Propensity to Consume (APC)
2. Marginal Propensity to) Consume (MPC)

Average Propensity To Consume(Apc)

APC is the ratio of total consumption to total income.

Average Propensity To Consume = C/Y

Important Concepts About Apc

1. APC can never be zero as consumption can never be zero.
2. At the break-even point, APC is equal to 1.
3. Before the break-even point, APC is less than 1.
4. After the break-even point, APC is more than 1.
5. APC falls with an increase in income.

Marginal Propensity To Consume

MPC is the ratio of change in consumption to change in income.

MPC =  ΔC / ΔY

Important Concepts About Mpc

1. The value of MPC can never be greater than 1.
2. The value of MPC is 1 when the entire additional income is spent on consumption
3. The value of MPC is 0 when the entire additional income is saved.
4. The value of MPC lies between 0 to 1.

Consumption Equation

C = c‾ + bY

Where

C= Level of consumption

C¯= Autonomous consumption

b = MPC

Y = Level of income

4^th  PPT

Savings Function Or Propensity To Save

Savings function or propensity to save is the functional relationship between savings and income.

S= f (Y)

Savings Schedule And Types Of Propensity To Save

Income(Y)	Consumption(C)	Saving (S)	APS (S/Y	ΔS	ΔY	MPS (ΔS/ΔY )
0	100	-100	–	–	–	–
100	160	-60	-0.6	40	100	0.4
200	220	-20	-0.1	40	100	0.4
300	280	20	0.067	40	100	0.4
400	340	60	0.15	40	100	0.4
500	400	100	0.2	40	100	0.4
600	460	140	0.233	40	100	0.4

Important Points About Savings

1. Savings Curve starts from origin.
2. The slope of the savings curve is positive
3. At the break-even point, savings are equals to 0.
4. At the break-even point savings become positive.

Types Of Propensity To Save

1. Average Propensity to Save (APS)
2. Marginal Propensity to Save (MPS)

Average Propensity To Save(Aps)

APS is the ratio of total savings to total income.

APS = S/Y

Important Concepts About APS

1. APS is zero at the break-even point.
2. APS can never be equals to 1 or more than 1.
3. APS can be negative or less than when.

Marginal Propensity To Save

MPS is the ratio of change in savings to change in savings.

MPS = ΔS / ΔY

Important Concepts About MPS

1. The value of MPS varies between 0 and 1.

2. If the entire increased income is saved the value of MPS will be 1.
3. If the entire increased income is consumed the value of MPS will be 0.

Savings Equation

S = – ¯c+ (1- b)Y

Where

C= Level of consumption

– ¯c= Negative savings at zero level of income

1-b = MPS

Y = Level of income

Relationship Between APC And APS

APC + APS = 1

Relationship Between MPC And MPS

MPC + MPS = 1

Full Employment And Involuntary Unemployment

FULL EMPLOYMENT: It is a situation when people who are willing and able to work are getting work.

Under full employment, there can be two types of unemployment

• Frictional Unemployment: Frictional unemployment can be defined as a type of unemployment that occurs when a person is in the process of moving from one job to another.
• Structural Unemployment: Structural unemployment occurs because of a mismatch between the skills workers have, and the jobs that are actually available in the market. Structural unemployment usually happens because of technological change.

Involuntary Unemployment

Involuntary unemployment refers to a situation when people are ready to work at the prevailing wage rate in the market but do not find a job.

Banking – Notes for Class 12 Macro Economics

Introduction:

This is a textual description of commercial bank, credit creation by commercial bank, central bank and its functions.

Commercial Bank And Credit Creation By Commercial Bank

1. Commercial bank is a financial institution which performs the functions of accepting deposits from the public and making loans and investments, with the motive of earning profit.
2. Process of money creation/deposit creation/credit creation by the commercial banking system.
(a) Let us assume that the entire commercial banking system is one unit. Let us call this one unit simply “banks’. Let us also assume that all receipts and payments in the economy are routed through the banks. One who makes payment does it by writing cheque. The one who receives payment deposits the same in his deposit account.
(b) Suppose initially people deposit Rs.1000. The banks use this money for giving loans. But the banks cannot use the whole of deposit for this purpose. It is legally compulsory for the banks to keep a certain minimum fraction of these deposits as cash. The fraction is called the Legal Reserve Ratio (LRR). The LRR is fixed by the Central Bank. It has two components. A part of the LRR is to be kept with the Central bank and this part ratio is called the Cash Reserve Ratio. The other part is kept by the banks with themselves and is called the Statutory Liquidity Ratio.
(c) Let us now explain the process, suppose the initial deposits in banks is Rs.1000 and the LRR is 10 percent. Further, suppose that banks keep only the minimum required, i.e., Rs.100 as cash reserve, banks are now free to lend the remainder Rs.900. Suppose they lend Rs.900. What banks do to open deposit accounts in the names of the borrowers who are free to withdraw the amount whenever they like.
• Suppose they withdraw the whole of amount for making payments.
(d) Now, since all the transactions are routed through the banks, the money spent by the borrowers comes back into the banks into the deposit accounts of those who have received this payment. This increases demand deposit in banks by ?900. It is 90 per cent of the initial deposit. These deposits of Rs.900 have resulted on account
of loans given by the banks. In this sense the banks are responsible for money creation. With this round, increased in total deposits are now  Rs.1900 (=1000 + 900).
(e) When banks receive new deposit of ?900, they keep 10 per cent of it as cash reserves and use the remaining Rs. 810 for giving loans. The borrowers use these loans for making payments. The money comes back into the accounts of those who have received the payments. Bank deposits again rise, but by a smaller amount of Rs.810. It is 90 per cent of the last deposit creation. The total deposits now increase to Rs.2710 (=1000 + 900 + 810). The process does not end here.
(f) The deposit creation continues in the above manner. The deposits go on increasing round after round but Deposit Creation By Commercial Banks each time only 90 per cent of the last round deposits. At the same time cash reserves go on increasing, each time 90 per cent of the last cash reserve. The deposit creation comes to end when the total cash reserves become equal to the initial deposit. The total deposit creation comes to Rs.10000, ten times the initial deposit as shown in the table.

It can also be explained with the help of the following formula:

3. Banks required to keep only a fraction of deposits as cash reserves Banks are required to keep only a fraction of deposits as cash reserves because of the following two reasons:
(a) First, the banking experience has revealed that not all depositors approach the banks for withdrawal of money at the same time and also that normally they withdraw a fraction of deposits.
(b) Secondly, there is a constant flow of new deposits into the banks. Therefore to meet the daily demand for withdrawal of cash, it is sufficient for banks to keep only a fraction of deposits as a cash reserve.
4. When the primary cash deposit in the banking system leads to multiple expansion in the total deposits, it is known as money multiplier or credit multiplier.

Central Bank And Their Functions

1. The central bank is the apex institution of a country’s monetary system. The design and the control of the country’s monetary policy is its main responsibility. India’s central bank is the Reserve Bank of India.
2. Functions of Central Bank.
(a) Currency Authority:
(i) The central bank has the sole monopoly to issue currency notes. Commercial banks cannot issue currency notes. Currency notes issued by the central bank are the legal tender money.
(ii) Legal tender money is one, which every individual is bound to accept by law in exchange for goods and services and in the discharge of debts.
(iii) Central bank has an issue department, which is solely responsible for the issue of notes.
(iv) However, the monopoly of central bank to issue the currency notes may be partial in certain countries.
(v) For example, in India, one rupee notes and all types of coins are issued by the government and all other notes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India.
(b) Banker, Agent and Advisor to the Government: Central bank everywhere in the world acts as banker, fiscal agent and adviser to their respective government.
(i) As Banker: As a banker to the government, the central bank performs same functions as performed by the commercial banks to their customers.
• It receives deposits from the government and collects cheques and drafts deposited in the government account.
• It provides cash to the government as resumed for payment of salaries and wages to their staff and other cash disbursements.
• It makes payments on behalf of the government.
• It also advances short term loans to the government.
• It supplies foreign exchange to the government for repaying external debt or making other payments.
(ii) As Fiscal Agent: As a fiscal agent, it performs the following functions :
• It manages the public debt.
• It collects taxes and other payments on behalf of the government.
• It represents the government in the international financial institutions (such as World Bank, International Monetary Fund, etc.) and conferences.
(iii) As Adviser
• The central bank also acts as the financial adviser to the government.
• It gives advice to the government on all financial and economic matters such as deficit financing, devaluation of currency, trade policy, foreign exchange policy, etc.
3. Banker’s Bank and Supervisor:
(a) Banker’s Bank: Central bank acts as the banker to the banks in three ways: (i) custodian of the cash reserves of the commercial banks; (ii) as the lender of the last resort; and (iii) as clearing agent.
(i) As a custodian of the cash reserves of the commercial banks, the central bank maintains the cash reserves of the commercial banks. Every commercial bank has to keep a certain percent of its cash reserves with the central bank by law.
(ii) As Lender of the Last Resort.
• As banker to the banks, the central bank acts as the lender of the last resort.
• In other words, in case the commercial banks fail to meet their financial requirements from other sources, they can, as a last resort, approach to the central bank for loans and advances.
• The central bank assists such banks through discounting of approved securities and bills of exchange.
(ii) As Clearing Agent
• Since it is the custodian of the cash reserves of the commercial banks, the central bank can act as the clearinghouse for these banks.
• Since all banks have their accounts with the central bank, the central bank can easily settle the claims of various banks against each other simply by book entries of transfers from and to their accounts.
• This method of settling accounts is called Clearing House Function of the central bank.
(b) Supervisor
(i) The Central Bank supervises, regulate and control the commercial banks.
(ii) The regulation of banks may be related to their licensing, branch expansion, liquidity of assets, management, amalgamation (merging of banks) and liquidation (the winding of banks).
(iii) The control is exercised by periodic inspection of banks and the returns filed by them.
4. Controller of Money Supply and Credit: Principal instruments of Monetary Policy or credit control of the Central Bank of a country are broadly classified as:
(a) Quantitative Instruments or General Tools; and
(b) Qualitative Instruments or Selective Tools.
(a) Quantitative Instruments or General Tools of Monetary Policy: These are the instruments of monetary policy that affect overall supply of money/credit in the economy. These instruments do not direct or restrict the flow of credit to some specific sectors of the economy. They are as under:
(i) Bank Rate (Discount Rate)
• Bank rate is the rate of interest at which central bank lends to commercial banks without any collateral (security for purpose of loan). The thing, which has to be remembered, is that central bank lends to commercial banks and not to general public.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation,
-> Central bank raises bank rate that discourages commercial banks in borrowing from central bank as it will increase the cost of borrowing of commercial bank.
-> It forces the commercial banks to increase their lending rates, which discourages borrowers from taking loans, which discourages investment.
-> Again high rate of interest induces households to increase their savings by restricting expenditure on consumption.
-> Thus, expenditure on investment and consumption is reduced, which will control the excess demand.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation,
-> Central bank decreases bank rate that encourages commercial banks in borrowing from central bank as it will decrease the cost of borrowing of commercial bank.
-> Decrease in bank rate makes commercial bank to decrease their lending rates, which encourages borrowers from taking loans, which encourages investment.
-> Again low rate of interest induces households to decrease their savings by increasing expenditure on consumption.
-> Thus, expenditure on investment and consumption increase, which will control the deficient demand.
(ii) Repo Rate
• Repo rate is the rate at which commercial bank borrow money from the central
bank for short period by selling their financial securities to the central bank.
• These securities are pledged as a security for the loans.
• It is called Repurchase rate as this involves commercial bank selling securities
to RBI to borrow the money with an agreement to repurchase them at a later
date and at a predetermined price.
• So, keeping securities and borrowing is repo rate.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation,
-> Central bank raises repo rate that discourages commercial banks in borrowing from central bank as it will increase the cost of borrowing of commercial bank.
-> It forces the commercial banks to increase their lending rates, which discourages borrowers from taking loans, which discourages investment.
-> Again high rate of interest induces households to increase their savings by restricting expenditure on consumption.
-> Thus, expenditure on investment and consumption is reduced, which will control the excess demand.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation,
-> Central bank decreases Repo rate that encourages commercial banks in borrowing from central bank as it will decrease the cost of borrowing of commercial bank.
-> Decrease in Repo rate makes commercial bank to decrease their lending rates, which encourages borrowers from taking loans, which encourages investment.
-> Again low rate of interest induces households to decrease their savings by increasing expenditure on consumption.
-> Thus, expenditure on investment and consumption increase, which will control the deficient demand.
(iii) Reverse Repo Rate
• It is the rate at which the Central Bank (RBI) borrows money from commercial bank.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation, Reverse repo rate is increased, it encourages the commercial bank to park their funds with the central bank to earn higher return on idle cash. It decreases the lending capability of commercial banks, which controls excess demand.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation, Reverse repo rate is decreased, it discourages the commercial bank to park their funds with the central bank. It increases the lending capability of commercial banks, which controls deficient demand.
(iv) Open Market Operations (OMO)
• It consists of buying and selling of government securities and bonds in the open market by Central Bank.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation, central bank sells government securities and bonds to commercial bank. With the sale of these securities, the power of commercial bank of giving loans decreases, which will control excess demand.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation, central bank purchases
government securities and bonds from commercial bank. With the purchase of these securities, the power of commercial bank of giving loans increases, which will control deficient demand.
(v) Varying Reserve Requirements
• Banks are obliged to maintain reserves with the central bank, which is known as legal reserve ratio. It has two components. One is the Cash Reserve Ratio or CRR and the other is the SLR or Statutory Liquidity Ratio.
• Cash Reserve Ratio:
-> It refers to the minimum percentage of a bank’s total deposits, which it is required to keep with the central bank. Commercial banks have to keep with the central bank a certain percentage of their deposits in the form of cash reserves as a matter of law.
-> For example, if the minimum reserve ratio is 10% and total deposits of a certain bank is Rs. 100 crore, it will have to keep Rs. 10 crore with the Central Bank.
-> In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation, Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is raised to 20 per cent, the bank will have to keep Rs.20 crore with the Central Bank, which will reduce the cash resources of commercial bank and reducing credit availability in the economy, which will control excess demand.
-> In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation, cash reserve ratio (CRR) falls to 5 per cent, the bank will have to keep Rs. 5 crore with the central bank, which will increase the cash resources of commercial bank and increasing credit availability in the economy, which will control deficient demand.
(vi) The Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)
• It refers to minimum percentage of net total demand and time liabilities, which commercial banks are required to maintain with themselves.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation, the central bank increases statutory liquidity ratio (SLR), which will reduce the cash resources of commercial bank and reducing credit availability in the economy.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation, the central bank decreases statutory liquidity ratio (SLR), which will increase the cash resources of commercial bank and increases credit availability in the economy.
• It may consist of:
-> Excess reserves
-> Unencumbered (are not acting as security for loans from the Central Bank) government and other approved securities (securities whose repayment is guaranteed by the government); and
-> Current account balances with other banks.
(b) Qualitative Instruments or Selective Tools of Monetary Policy: These
instruments are used to regulate the direction of credit. They are as under:
(i) Imposing margin requirement on secured loans
• Business and traders get credit from commercial bank against the security of their goods. Bank never gives credit equal to the full value of the security. It always pays less value than the security.
• So, the difference between the value of security and value of loan is called
marginal requirement.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation, central bank raises marginal requirements. This discourages borrowing because it makes people gets less credit against their securities.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation, central bank decreases marginal requirements. This encourages borrowing because it makes people get more credit against their securities.
(ii) Moral Suasion
• Moral suasion implies persuasion, request, informal suggestion, advice and appeal by the central banks to commercial banks to cooperate with general monetary policy of the central bank.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation, it appeals for credit contraction.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation, it appeals for credit expansion.
(iii) Selective Credit Controls (SCCs)
• In this method the central bank can give directions to the commercial banks not to give credit for certain purposes or to give more credit for particular purposes or to the priority sectors.
• In a situation of excess demand leading to inflation, the central bank introduces rationing of credit in order to prevent excessive flow of credit, particularly for speculative activities. It helps to wipe off the excess demand.
• In a situation of deficient demand leading to deflation, the central bank withdraws rationing of credit and make efforts to encourage credit.

Words that Matter

1. Commercial Bank: Commercial bank is a financial institution which performs the functions of accepting deposits from the public and making loans and investments, with the motive of earning profit.
2. Legal Reserve Ratio: It is the minimum ratio of deposits legally required to be kept by the commercial banks with themselves (Statutory Liquidity Ratio) and with the central bank (Cash reserve Ratio).
3. Money Multiplier or Credit Multiplier: When the primary cash deposit in the banking system leads to multiple expansion in the total deposits, it is known as money multiplier or credit multiplier.
4. Central Bank: The central bank is the apex institution of a country’s monetary system. The design and the control of the country’s monetary policy is its main responsibility.
5. Quantitative Instruments or General Tools of Monetary Policy: These are the instruments of monetary policy that affect overall supply of money/credit in the economy.
6. Qualitative Instruments or Selective Tools of Monetary Policy: The instruments which are used to regulate the direction of credit is known as Qualitative Instruments.
7. Bank rate: It is the rate of interest at which central bank lends to commercial banks without any collateral (security for purpose of loan).
8. Repo rate: It is the rate at which commercial bank borrow money from the central bank for short period by selling their financial securities to the central bank.
9. Reverse Repo rate: It is the rate at which the central bank (RBI) borrows money from commercial bank.
10. Open Market Operation: It consists of buying and selling of government securities and bonds in the open market by central bank.
11. Cash Reserve Ratio: It refers to the minimum percentage of a bank’s total deposits, which it is required to keep with the central bank.
12. Statutory Liquidity Ratio: It refers to minimum percentage of net total demand and time liabilities, which commercial banks are required to maintain with themselves.
13. Marginal requirement: Business and traders get credit from commercial bank against the security of their goods. Bank never gives credit equal to the full value of the security. It always pays less value than the security. So, the difference between the value of security and value of loan is called marginal requirement.
14. Moral suasion: It implies persuasion, request, informal suggestion, advice and appeal by the central banks to commercial banks to cooperate with general monetary policy of the central bank.
15. Selective Credit Controls (SCCs): In this method the central bank can give directions to the commercial banks not to give credit for certain purposes or to give more credit for particular purposes or to the priority sectors.

Money – Notes for Class 12 Macro Economics

Barter System And Its Difficulties, Money And Functions Of Money:

1. Barter system of exchange is a system in which goods are exchanged for goods.
2. For example, wheat may be exchanged for cloth; house for horses, etc., or a teacher may be paid wheat or rice as a payment for his/her services.
3. Such exchange exists in the C-C Economy (commodity to commodity exchange economy).
Note: In C-C Economy C stands for commodity. C-C economy is the one in which commodities are exchanged for commodities. C-C exchange refers to barter system of exchange. Hence, C-C Economy is an economy dominated by barter system of exchange.
4. Difficulties of barter system are:-Barter system as a system of exchange is faced with the following difficulties:
(a) Lack of double coincidence of wants:
(i) Barter is possible only if goods produced by two persons are needed by each other. It is double coincidence of wants.
(ii) Double coincidence of wants means that goods in possession of two different persons must be useful and needed by each other. It is the main basis of barter system of exchange. But it is rare.
(iii) It is difficult to find such a person every time. In barter system, exchange becomes quite limited.
(b) Lack of divisibility:
(i) In commodity exchange, difficulty of dividing the commodity arises.
(ii) For example, if a car is to be exchanged for a scooter, then car can not be divided. Similarly, animals can not be divided into smaller units.
(c) Difficulty in storing wealth:
(i) It is very difficult to store wealth for future use.
(ii) Most of the goods like wheat, rice, cattle etc. are likely to deteriorate with the passage of time or involve heavy cost of storage.
(iii) Further, the transfer of goods from one place to another place involves huge transport cost.
(iv) Transfer of immovable commodities (such as house, farm, land, etc.) becomes almost impossible.
(d) Absence of common measure of value:
(i) Different commodities are of different values. The value of a good or service means the amount of other goods and services it can be exchanged for in the market. There is no common measure of value under barter system.
(ii) In this situation, it is difficult to decide in what proportions are the two goods to be exchanged.
(e) Lack of standard of deferred payment: In a barter economy future payments would have to be stated in terms of specific goods or services. This leads to following problems:
(i) There could be disagreement regarding the quality of the goods or services to be repaid.
(ii) There would be disagreement regarding which specific commodities would be used for repayment.
5. Money: Money is something which is generally acceptable as a medium of exchange
and can be converted into other assets without losing its time and value.
6. Functions of money: Functions of money can be summed up as follow:
“Money is a matter of the following four functions:
A medium, a measure, a standard, a store”
We can conclude these four functions under the following two functions:
(a) Primary function
(b) Secondary function

(a)Primary function or Main function: Primary function includes the most important functions of money, which it must perform in an economic system irrespective of time and place. The following two functions are included under this category.
(i) Medium of exchange
• Money when used as a medium of exchange helps to eliminate the basic limitation of barter trade, that is, the lack of double coincidence of wants.
• Individuals can exchange their goods and services for money and then can use this money to buy other goods and services according to their needs and convenience.
• Thus, the process of exchange shall have two parts: a sale and a purchase.
• The ease at which money is converted into other goods and services is called “liquidity of money”.
(ii) Measure of value /unit of account
• Another important function of money is that it serves as a common measure of value or a unit of account.
• Under barter economy there was no common measure of value in which the values of different goods could be measured and compared with each other. Money has also solved this difficulty.
• As Geoffrey Crowther puts it, “Money acts as a standard measure of value to which all other things can be compared.” Money measures the value of economic goods.
• Money works as a common denominator into which the values of all goods and services are expressed.
• When we express the values of a commodity in terms of money, it is called price and by knowing prices of the various commodities, it is easy to calculate exchange ratios between them.
(b) Secondary Functions
(i) Standard of deferred payments
• Credit has become the life and blood of a modern capitalist economy.
• In millions of transactions, instant payments are not made.
• The debtors make a promise that they will make payments on some future date. In those situations money acts as a standard of deferred payments.
• It has become possible because money has general acceptability, its value is stable, it is durable and homogeneous.
(ii) Store of vaiue
• Wealth can be conveniently stored in the form of money. Money can be stored without loss in value.
• Savings are secured and can be used whenever there is a need.
• In this way, money acts as a bridge between the present and the future.
• Money means goods and services. Thus, money serves as a store of value.
• It is also known as asset function of money.
7. Characteristics or features of money:
(a) Durability: Money must be durable and not likely to deteriorate rapidly with
frequent handling. Currency notes and coins are being used repeatedly and shall
continue to do so for many years.
(b) Medium of exchange: Money is the thing that acts as a medium of exchange for the sale and purchase of goods and services.
(c) Weight: Money must be light in weight. Paper money is better than metal coins because it is light in weight.
(d) Measure of value: It not only serves as medium of exchange but also acts as a measure of value. The value of all the goods and services is expressed in terms of money.
8. Money has overcome the drawbacks of barter system: Barter system makes
the exchange process very difficult and highly inefficient. Money has overcome the
drawbacks of barter system in the following manners:
(a) Medium of exchange
(i) Under barter system, there is lack of double coincidence of wants.
(ii) With money as a medium exchange individuals can exchange their goods and services for money and then use this money to buy other goods and services according to their needs and conveniences.
(iii) A buyer can buy goods through money and a seller can sell goods for money.
(b) Measure of value
(i) Under barter system, there was no common measure of value. Money has also solved this difficulty.
(ii) As Geoffrey Crowther puts it, “Money acts as a standard measure of value to which all other things can be compared.” Money measures the value of economic goods.
(iii) Money works as a common denominator into which the values of all goods and services are expressed.
(iv) When we express the values of a commodity in terms of money, it is called price and by knowing prices of the various commodities, it is easy to calculate exchange ratios between them.
(c) Store of value
(i) Under barter system it is very difficult to store wealth for future use.
(ii) Most of the goods are perishable and their storage requires huge space and transportation cost.
(iii) Wealth can be conveniently stored in the form of money.
(iv) Money can be stored without loss in value.
(v) Money can easily be stored for future use.
(d) Standard of deferred payments
(i) Under barter system, transactions on deferred payments are not possible.
(ii) With money, the debtors make a promise that they will make payments on some future dates. In these situations money acts as a standard of deferred payments.
(iii) It has become possible because money has general acceptability, its value is stable, it is durable and homogeneous.
9. Legal definition of money:
(a) Legally, money is anything proclaimed by law as a medium of exchange.
(b) Paper notes and coins (together called currency) is money as a matter of law.
(c) Nobody can refuse its acceptance as medium of exchange.
(d) In other words, it is legal tender. It means people have to accept it legally for different payments. Currency is also called FIAT money because it commands ‘FIAT’ (order/authority) of the government.
10. Functional definition of money: Functional definition of money refers to money as anything that performs four basic functions,
(a) It serves as a medium of exchange.
(b) It serves as a standard unit of value.
(c) It serves as a means for future / contractual payments or standard of deferred payments.
(d) It serves as a store of value.
According to this, definition of money includes both notes and coins as well as chequeable deposits with the banks.
11. Narrow definition of money: Functional definition of money is a narrow definition of money. It includes only notes, coins and demand deposits as money. In other words, in its narrow definition, money includes only those things that function as money in terms of:
(a) Medium of exchange.
(b) Measure of value.
(c) Standard of future/Deferred payments.
(d) Store of value.
12. Broad definition of money:
(a) A broad definition of money also includes time deposits/term deposits with the banks or post offices as a component of money.
(b) These deposits can be converted into demand deposits on a short notice, and are “Near money assets”. Money assets and near money assets together make up a definition of money.

Money Supply And Measures Of Money Supply

1. Money supply: The volume of money held by the public at a point of time, in an economy, is referred to as the money supply. Money supply is a stock concept.
2. Measures of money supply: On the recommendation of the second working group on money supply, the RBI presented four measures of money supply in its 1977 issues of RBI Bulletin, namely M₁, M₂, M₃ and M₄.
Measures of M₁ include:
(a) Currency notes and coins with the public (excluding cash in hand of all commercial banks) [C]
(b) Demand deposits of all commercial and co-operative banks excluding inter-bank deposits. (DD),
Where demand deposits are those deposits which can be withdrawn by the depositor at any time by means of cheque. No interest is paid on such deposits.
(c) Other deposits with RBI [O.D]
M₁ = C + DD + OD
Where, Other deposits are the deposits held by the RBI of all economic units except the government and banks. OD includes demand deposits of semi¬government public financial institutions (like IDBI, IFCI, etc.), foreign central banks and governments, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, etc.
Measures of M₂:
(i) M₁ [C + DD + OD]
(if) Post office saving deposits
Measures of M₃:
(i) M₁
(ii) Time deposits of all commercial and co-operative banks.
Where, Time deposits are the deposits that cannot be withdrawn before the expiry of the stipulated time for which deposits are made. Fixed deposit is an example of time deposit.
Measures of M₄:
(i) M₃
(ii) Total deposits with the post office saving organization (excluding national savings certificates).
3. High-powered money: High-powered money is money produced by the RBI and the government. It consists of two things: (a) currency held by the public and (b) Cash reserves with the banks.

Words that Matter

1. Barter system: Barter system of exchange is a system in which goods are exchanged for goods.
2. Double coincidence of wants: It means that goods in possession of two different persons must be useful and needed by each other.