The Making of Regional Cultures Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 9

The medieval period saw the emergence of several regional languages and the associated literature. It is quite common for us to identify a region with its language.

Every region is identified with a certain distinct type of food, clothing, poetry, dance, painting and music.

The Chera empire of Mahodayapuram, which was established in 9th century in the southwestern part of Kerala introduced the Malayalam language.

Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult

• In several regions, regional cultures developed around religious traditions.
• The local people made a wooden image of the deity which, originally a local God, came to be identified with Vishnu.
• Temple became the centre of pilgrimage.

The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism

• In the 19th century, the Rajasthan of today was called Rajputana by the British.
• There are many groups who call themselves Rajputs in Northern and Central India.
• Prithviraj Chauhan was one such ruler.
• Women had been given a heroic image since they committed sati or self-immolation.

Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

• The heroic traditions of various regions also helped in the evolution of dance in several regions.
• One such dance was Kathak, which was evolved in Northern India. The Kathaks initially were a caste of story-tellers in North Indian temples.
• The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known as rasalila.
• It integrated folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
• Music also developed into various forms like qawwali and khayal and new instruments like Sitar were invented.

Paintings for Patrons: The Traditions of Miniatures

• During this period, one more tradition which deserves our attention is the miniature painting. Miniatures are small sized paintings done in watercolour on cloth or paper.
• Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan hired highly skilled painters to illustrate their manuscripts in the Kitab Khana containing their accounts and poetry.
• When the Mughal empire started declining, new artistic tastes developed in the regional court of Deccan and Rajput rulers.
• One bold style of miniature painting was called Basohli.
• One of the most popular paintings of the Himalayas region was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
• The Kangra artists by mid-18th century infused a new life into miniature painting.

The Growth of a Regional Language: Bengal

• Regional language is the language which a person speaks in a region.
• It is generally assumed that the Bengali language is spoken by people of Bengal.
• Bengali originated from Sanskrit but later on developed its own identity and literature.
• Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories—The first includes translations from Sanskrit epics and the
• the second includes Nath literature.

Pirs and Temples

• From the 16th century, people migrated in large numbers from less fertile western Bengal to the forested and marshy of south-eastern Bengal.
• With Mughal control over Bengal, the capital shifted to Dhaka. Officials received land grants. Mosques were set up.
• The early settlers got help from teachers called Pirs. They included saints or Sufis and prominent religious personalities.

Regional cultures today are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent.

The Chera Kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala. The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.

The Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics.

In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannath at Puri, Orissa. The word Jagannath literarily means the lord of the world, a name for Vishnu.

Anantavarman, the ruler of the Ganga dynasty in the 12th century, built a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.

The Rajputs contributed a lot to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan. From about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families. Prithviraj was one such ruler.

Rajput rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often choosing death on the battlefield rather than face defeat.

Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs. Women were also focused on these stories. They are depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life and death. They often chose to become sati on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

Not only heroic traditions are found in different regions in different forms, but dance too. Just take the history of one dance form, Kathak.

The term kathak is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for a story.

The Kathaks was originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who beautified their performances with gestures and songs.

Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Under the Mughals, it developed in two traditions or gharanas—one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Slowly and steadily it took root in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir etc.

Kathak was recognised as one of six classical forms of dance in the country after independence. Other classical dances are—Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathakali (Kerala), Odissi (Orissa), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) and Manipuri (Manipur).

The tradition of miniature painting is also noteworthy. Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in watercolour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.

The Mughal emperors patronised highly skilled painters.

With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states.

By the late 17th century a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli got developed in the Himalayan foothills around the modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh. Here, the Mughal artists founded the Kangra school of painting.

Soft colours, including cool blues and greens, and lyrical treatment of themes distinguished Kangra painting.

Now we will see how Bengali, a regional language, grew in the course of time.

From the eighth century, Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom under the Palas. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Bengal was ruled by Sultans. In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal while Persian was the language of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language.

Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories. The fist includes translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangala Kavyas and Bhakti literature such as biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the second includes Nath literature such as songs of Maynamati and Gopichand, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.

The cult of ptr (a spiritual guide) became popular in Bengal and their shrines can be found there.

A number of temples got constructed in Bengal. Now local deities began to be worshipped in temples.

Bengal, being in a riverine plain, produces abundant rice and fish. These two items are important foods of the Bengalis. The Bengal Brahmanas too eat fish.

Fishing has been a major occupation of the Bengalis.

Bengali literature contains several references to fish.

Lilatilakam: A fourteenth-century text of Sanskrit that deals with grammar and poetics.

Rajputana: The region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan was called Rajputana by the British during the 19th century.

Sati: The immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

Kathak: The term is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for the story.

Rasa Lila: The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known as rasa Lila.

Gharana: Tradition of classical dance, music.

Classical: Old and memorable having permanent value.

The Idea of a Supreme God

• Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped their own Gods and Goddesses. As people were brought together through the growth of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to develop.
• The idea that all human beings are not equal at birth gained ground during this period.
• The idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from bondage through devotion or bhakti emerged.
• Gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be identified with Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.

A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars

• The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of a new religious movement, led by Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu).
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
• The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems of praise of the deities enshrined in the village they visited and set them to music.
• The Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many of the shrines.

Philosophy and Bhakti

• Shankara, a philosopher, of Kerala advocated Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the ultimate reality.
• Ramanuja of Tamil Nadu advocated that the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism

• Virashaivism movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi in Karnataka in the mid-12 century.
• They argued strongly for equality of all human beings, opposed Brahmanical ideas on caste and treatment of women.

The Saints of Maharashtra

• Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela focused on the bhakti of Vitthala (a form of Vishnu).
• Some of these belonged to lower castes. They rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

• A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticized the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
• Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhcharas and Yogis.

Islam and Sufism

• Islam propagated monotheism or submission to one God. ‘
• It also rejected idol worship. Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat.
• The Sufis rejected the elaborate codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
• The sought unison with God, as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world.
• Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
• Sufism introduced many popular orders or silsilas of which the most widespread was the Shariat and Chisti Silsilas.
• The Chisti silsila was among the most influential orders. A long line of teachers included Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti of
• Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.

New Religious Developments in North India

• The period after the 13th century saw a new wave of bhakti movement in North India.
• This wave was led by scholars like Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak
• This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai. Mirabai was devoted to Lord Krishna.
• A unique feature of most of these saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung.
• Kabir ridiculed idol worship and believed in one formless Supreme God with devotion as the path of salvation.
• Guru Nanak emphasized on the importance of one God and nam-japna, kirti-kama and vand- chhakna.The number of
• Baba Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the 16th century under his successors.
• Shankara was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God.

Various kinds of Bhakti and Sufi movements evolved since the eighth century.

Before the emergence of large kingdoms, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.

Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God. Such people sought the path of Bhakti to approach this Supreme God. As a result, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga came to be recognised as supreme deities. People began to worship them through elaborate rituals.

The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including untouchables.

hey criticised the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path of salvation.

Elaborate temples were built by the Chola and Pandya kings between the tenth and twelfth centuries. Thus, the Bhakti tradition got strongly linked with temple worship.

Shankara, a Bhakti saint, was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge.

Ramanuja, another Bhakti saint, was deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.

Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions. This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas were against all forms of ritual and idol worship.

The saint-poets of Maharashtra such as Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram inspired people through their songs in simple Marathi. These saints rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth. They also rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families.

Several other religious groups such as Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis also criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order. They advocated renunciation of the world. They inspired people to lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of oneness with it. They gave importance to yogasanas.

ufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward religiosity and emphasized love and devotion to God and comparison towards all fellow human beings.

Islam propagated monotheism i.e. submission to one God. It rejected idol worship,

Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat. The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.

The Sufis too composed poems like the saint-poets. Some of the great Sufis were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.

The Sufi saints developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), rags (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control etc. under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus, emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers. The Chishti silsila is worth-mentioning in this regard.

The Sufi teachers held their assemblies in their Khanqahs or hospices (houses of rest for travellers). Here, they discussed spiritual matters.

Sufi shrines are visited by devotes of all backgrounds.

A new wave of Bhakti movement began in north India after the 13th century. This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of Bhakti and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another.

Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions. Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these accessible to all. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi, is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary work.

Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna.

Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai were some other important saints of this tradition.

The works of these saints were composed in regional languages and therefore they became very popular.

We come to know about Kabir through his sakhis and pads, Kabir’s teachings were based on complete rejection of the major religious traditions. He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was through Bhakti or devotion.

Guru Nanak emphasised the importance of the worship of one God. He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. He used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teachings which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
Words that Matter

Virashaivism: It was popular in Karnataka during the mid-twelfth century. Its followers argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.

Hagiography: Writing of saint’s lives.

Vilthala: A form of Vishnu.

Hospice: House of rest for travellers, especially one kept by a religious order.

Khanqah: It literarily means hospice.

Dargah: It is a tomb of a religious saint in Muslim community recognised as a pilgrimage.

Langer: A common kitchen where people of all backgrounds eat together.

Dharamsala: A sacred space created by Baba Guru Nanak.

Khaba Panth: The community of the Sikhs.

Bhakti: It means devotion to God.

Sufi: He was a Muslim mystic.

Silsila: A genealogy of Sufi teachers.

Salvation: Getting freedom from the cycle of birth and death.

Shariat: Holy law made by Muslim Scholars.

Gurmukhi: A new script introduced by Guru Nanak.

1469-1539 – The period of Baba Guru Nanak.

1539 – Baba Guru Nanak died.

1604 – Guru Arjan compiled all the compositions written by the three successors of Guru Angad.

1606 – Guru Arjan was executed.

1699 – The Khalsa was instituted by Guru Gobind Singh.

Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 7

During the Medieval Age, several social, economic and political development took place.

The Indian society was divided on the basis varnas. During the medieval period, gap between the rich and poor increased.

There were, however, several communities which did not follow rules laid down by the Brahmins. These included the tribes, nomads and settled communities.

Tribal Societies

• Tribes are people who do not follow norms laid down by society.
• Most of the tribes were dependant on agriculture. Others were herders or hunter-gatherers.
• Tribes were even nomadic and moved from one place to another.
• Many tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts and other places which were difficult to reach. They preserved their culture and heritage through oral tradition.
• There were even clashes between tribes and powerful caste-based societies.
• Contemporary historians and travellers from medieval India hardly give any information about the tribes.
• Many of the tribes emerged as politically powerful groups through their areas of influence and activities varied.
• Some of the powerful tribes were Khokhar tribe in Punjab; Langahs and Arghuns in Multan; Gaddis in the Himalayas;
• Kolis and Berads of Gujarat; Gonds of Chhattisgarh, Bhil tribe in Central India, etc.
• The tribal societies underwent a change as a result of interaction with the Hindu and Islamic societies.

Pastoral Nomads

• The pastoral nomads moved from one place to another with their herd of animals.
• They survived on milk products and exchanged ghee, wool, etc. with farmers for grains, cloth, utensils, etc.
• The most important trader nomads were Banjaras. Their caravan was called ‘tanda’. Sultan Alauddin Khilji used Banjaras to move grain to the city markets.
• Pastoral tribes thus basically reared and sold animals like horses and cattle to the prosperous people.

Changes in Caste Structure of India

• In the fields of trade and agriculture, there emerged a multi-caste population in many villages on account of the spread of Islam.
• Sufi and Bhakti movement preached equality between different castes and religious groups.
• Inter-caste marriages started between Rajputs and Muslim nobles.
• With the growth of the economy, new jatis and varnas emerged.
• Many tribes became part of rule changes.

The Gonds

• Gonds were sometimes referred to by their tribal dialect, Gondi. They practised shifting cultivation.
• The Gonds rose when Delhi Sultanate declined.
• The Gond kingdom Gondwana in southeastern Madhya Pradesh was founded in the 15th century.

Ahoms

• The Ahom tribe is traced to some tribes living in south-east Asia who had travelled overland through the forests of Assam.
• The religion and culture of Assam is a fusion of the local traditions and of migrant tribes.
• The Ahoms belonged to a warrior class and built roads and irrigation system even before establishing their rule.
• The Ahoms formed the new kingdom by suppressing the older political system of Bhuiyans.

Tribal societies were absolutely different from those which existed in big cities.

Tribal societies did not follow the social rules and rituals, prescribed by the Brahmanas, because they divided societies into numerous unequal classes. These societies were known as tribes.

There was a unique bond of kinship among the members of each tribe.

Their main source of livelihood was agriculture. However, hunter-gatherers or herders were also there.

Some tribes were nomadic and kept on moving from one place to another.

A tribal group controlled land and pastures jointly and divided these amongst households as per its own rules.

Tribal people did not keep written records. But they preserved rich customs and oral traditions which help historians to collect knowledge about them.

Tribal people were spread in almost every region of the subcontinent. Some powerful tribes controlled large territories.

In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential during the 13th and 14th centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important.

In Multan and Sind, the Languages and Arghuns dominated extensive regions.

The Balochis were found in the north-west.

The Shepherd tribe of Gaddis lived in the western Himalayas.

The north-eastern part of the subcontinent was dominated by the Nagas, Ahoms and many others.

The Kolis were found in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat.

The Bhils were spread across western and central India.

The Gonds lived in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

Nomadic pastoralists lived on milk and other pastoral products. The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads.

Smaller castes or jatis emerged with the growth of society. Smiths, carpenters and masons were recognised as separate jatis.

Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the 11th and 12th centuries. They belonged to different lineages such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas, etc. Some of these had been tribes earlier. Many of these clans came to be regarded as Rajputs.

The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal people to follow.

The Gonds lived in a vast forested region known as Gondwana. They practised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribe was further divided into many smaller clans. Each clan had its own raja or rai. About the time that the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gond kingdoms were beginning to dominate the smaller Gond chiefs. The Akbar Nama mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga.

Garha Katanga was a rich state. However, it was defeated by the Mughals. Despite that, the Gond kingdoms survived for some time.

The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the 13th century. They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).

During the 16th century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas and of Koch-Hajo and subjugated many other tribes. Thus, they built a large state. However, they faced many invasions from the south-west and finally, they were defeated by the Mughals.

Ahom society was divided into clans or Khels. The society was very sophisticated.

The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. However, in the reign of Sib Singh Hinduism became the predominant religion. But the Ahom kings did not completely give up their traditional beliefs.

Clan: A clan is a group of families or households claiming descent from a common ancestor. The tribal organisation is often based on kinship or clan loyalties.

Nomads: People who keep on moving from one place to another.

Nomadic pastoralists: People who move over long distances with their animals.

Tanda: The caravan of the Banjaras was called tanda.

Itinerant Group: This group consists of craftspersons, peddlers and entertainers who travel from place to place practising their different occupations.

Shifting Cultivation: Trees and bushes in a forest area are first cut and burnt. The crop is then sown in the ashes. After some time when this land loses its fertility, another patch of land is cleared and planted in the same manner.

1591 – Cheros were defeated.

1523 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of the Chaityas.

1581 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of Koch-Hajo.

1662 – The Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahonri kingdom.

1714-1744 – Sib Singh reigned the Ahom kingdom.

One of the most interesting aspects of the medieval period in the 17th century was the growth of urbanization. In medieval India, there were three types of towns—a temple town, an administrative town and a commercial town or a port town.

The Arabs, Turkish and Afghans settled in many parts of the country leading to the evolution of towns and cities.

Sources of Knowing about the History of this Period

• The sources of history are travellers’ accounts.
• Monserrate, Flitch, Thomas Roe, Domingo Paes, Nicolo Conti and Abdul Razzaq Samarqandi wrote about the life of this period.

Court Towns

• Some of the important court towns were Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Delhi.
• Fatehpur Sikri was the new capital founded by Akbar.
• Delhi was known as Shahjahanabad and was built by Shah Jahan in 1639.

Port and Trading Towns

• Some towns developed as ports due to their proximity to the seashore.
• Some major ports were Cambay, Surat, Broach, Masulipatanam, Nagapattinam, etc.

Administrative Towns

• Some towns were capital cities. They were centres of administration.
• Thanjavur and Uraiyur were important centres.

Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres

• Temples towns were important centres of urbanization and led to the development of cities, economy and society.
• Pilgrims gave huge donations to temples. This wealth was used by temple authorities to finance their trade and banking.
• Important temple towns were Bhillasvamin in Madhya Pradesh, Somnath in Gujarat, Kanchipuram and Madurai

How Important was Bronze

• Bronze is an alloy compound of copper and tin.
• Chola rulers used this metal to make statues through the Tost wax’ technique.

The Emergence of Small Towns

• From the 8th century onwards, small towns emerged in India. They emerged from large villages. They had a ‘mandapika’ where villagers sold their produce.
• Likewise, there were market streets, called ‘hatta’, full of shops.
• Many villagers came to buy local articles and sell products like horses, camphor, saffron, betel nut, spices, salt, etc.
• Normally a Samanta was appointed who fortified the palaces and gave the right to collect taxes from traders, artisans, etc.

Name of Traders

• Many kinds of traders existed.
• Trader travelled in caravans by forming guilds.
• Trade was done on a regular basis within the peninsula and with South-east Asia and China.
• Some other important traders were the Chettiars, Marwari, Banjaras, Baniyas, Muslim Bohras, etc.

Crafts in Towns

• Craftwork was famous by the name of Bidri in the region.
• The goldsmith, bronzesmith, blacksmith, masons and carpenters were together called as the ‘Panchalas’ or ‘Vishwakarma’.
• Some other crafts were cotton cleaning, spinning and dying.
• Surat in Gujarat was a cosmopolitan city. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders known as zari and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.

There were three types of medieval towns—a temple town, an administrative centre, and a commercial town or a port town.

Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas a thousand years ago, emerged as an administrative centre as well as a temple town.

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The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town. The famous Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajarja Chola lies here.

As Thanjavur was an administrative centre, Kings held courts in the mandapas, which were parts of palaces, issuing orders to their subordinates.

Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop. – ‘

hulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities.

Important temple towns were Bhillasvamin in Madhya Pradesh, Somnath in Gujarat, Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu and Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.

Pilgrimage centres also developed into townships. Examples—Vrindvan in Uttar Pradesh and Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu.

Small towns emerged from large villages. They usually had a mandapika or mandi of later times to which nearly villages brought their produce to sell. They also had market streets called hatta or heat of later times lined with shops.

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Different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths, etc. also lived in these towns.

There were many kinds of traders. They usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests.

There were also communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal. Gujarati traders traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, South-east Asia and China.

Indian spices such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc. became very popular in European homes. Indian cotton cloth was also in great demand. This eventually drew European traders to India.

The craftspersons of Bidar were very famous. Their inlay work in copper and silver came to be known as Bidri.

The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters contributed a lot in the building of temples.

The weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars also donated to temples.

Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. The architecture of Hampi was distinctive. It bustled with commercial and cultural activities during the 15-16th centuries.

Moors, Chettis and agents of European traders thronged the markets of Hampi.

Temples were the hub of cultural activities.

Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans.

Surat in Gujarat was a cosmopolitan city. People of all castes and creeds lived there.

The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders known as zari and had a market in west Asia, Africa and Europe.

The Kathiawad seths or mahajans had huge banking houses at Surat. The Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antworp in Belgium.

Surat began to decline towards the end of the 17th century.

The town of Masculipatnam was a centre of intense activity in the 17th century. As it became the most important port on the Andhra coast both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control it.

The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda decided to prevent the attempts of the various East India Companies. As a result fierce competition among various trading groups made the city populous and prosperous. However, Golconda was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686-1687.

This caused the European Companies to look for the alternatives. The Company traders moved to Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. This caused the decline of Masulipatnam in the 18th century.

The English emerged as the most successful commercial and political power in the subcontinent.

Indian textiles were in great demand in Europe and west Asia. More and more people began to engage themselves in the crafts of spinning, weaving, bleaching, dying, etc. But the craftspersons were no more independent. They now began to work on a system of advances which meant that they had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents.

Bombay, Calcutta and Madras became important cities in the 18th century.

The Europeans established Black Towns in these new cities and merchants and artisans were made to move there.

The ‘white’ rulers occupied the superior residences of Fort St George in Madras or Fort St William in Calcutta.

Administrative town: A town from where the administration is carried on.

Temple town: A town with a number of famous temples.

Commercial town: A town which is the centre of sale and purchase of commodities.

Emporium: A place where goods from diverse production centres are bought and sold.

Hundi: It is not recording a deposit made by a person. The amount deposited can be claimed in another place by presenting the record of the deposit.

Factor: It referred to an official merchant of the East India Company.

Sthapatis: Sculptors who made beautiful bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps.

Pilgrimage Centres: Religious places where people go for pilgrimage.

1336: Vijayanagara Empire was founded.

1565: Vijayanagara Empire was defeated.

1704: Murshidabad became the capital of Bengal.

At the end of the 17th Century: Surat began to decline.

In the 17th Century: The town of Masalipatnam was a centre of intense activity.

The 18th century: Rise of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.

सारांश

लेखक ने इस पाठ में देश की पहली बोलने वाली फिल्म का वर्णन करते हुए कहते हैं कि जब देश की पहली बोलने वाली फिल्म ‘आलम आरा’ प्रदर्शित होने वाली थी तो शहर भर में उसके पोस्टरों में कुछ इस तरह की पंक्तियाँ लिखी हुई थी कि- ‘वे सभी जिन्दा हैं, साँस ले रहे हैं, शत-प्रतिशत बोल रहे हैं, अठहत्तर मुर्दा मानव ज़िंदा हो गए, उनको बोलते, बातें करते देखो।’ इन पंक्तियों का अर्थ था कि फिल्म में जितने भी पात्र हैं वह सब जीवित नजर आ रहे हैं, सभी उनको बोलते, बातें करते देख सकते हैं, इस तरह का विज्ञापन तैयार करके लोगों को फिल्म को देखने के लिए आकर्षित किया गया था और यह ‘आलम आरा’ फिल्म का सबसे पहला पोस्टर था।
14 मार्च 1931 की वह ऐतिहासिक तारीख भारतीय सिनेमा में बड़े बदलाव का दिन था। इसी दिन पहली बार भारत के सिनेमा ने बोलना सीखा था। हालाँकि वह दौर ऐसा था जब मूक सिनेमा लोकप्रियता के शिखर पर था।

आलम आरा’ पहली सवाक फिल्म है। ये फिल्म 14 मार्च 1931 को बनी। भारतीय सिनेमा की पहली बोलती फिल्म ‘आलम आरा’ बनाने वाले फिल्मकार ‘अर्देशिर एम. ईरानी’ थे। अर्देशिर ने 1929 में हॉलीवुड की एक बोलती फिल्म ‘शो बोट’ देखी थी जिससे उन्हें इस तरह की फिल्म बनाने की प्रेरणा मिली और उनके मन में भी भारतीय सिनेमा में बोलती फिल्म बनाने की इच्छा जागी।

इस फिल्म में पहले पार्श्वगायक बने डब्लू. एम. खान। पहला गाना था ‘दे दे खुदा के नाम पर प्यारे अगर देने की ताकत है’। आलम आरा का संगीत उस समय डिस्क फॉर्म में रिकार्ड नहीं किया जा सका, फिल्म की शूटिंग शुरू हुई तो साउंड के कारण ही इसकी शूटिंग रात में करनी पड़ती थी।

आलम आरा फिल्म ‘अरेबियन नाइट्स’ जैसी फैंटेसी थी। फिल्म ने हिंदी-उर्दू के मेलवाली ‘हिंदुस्तानी’ भाषा को लोकप्रिय बनाया। इसमें गीत, संगीत तथा नृत्य के अनोखे संयोजन थे। फिल्म की नायिका जुबैदा थीं। नायक थे विट्ठल। वे उस दौर के सर्वाधिक पारिश्रमिक पाने वाले स्टार थे।

लेखक कहते है कि जब विट्ठल को फिल्म के नायक के रूप में चुना गया तो उनके बारे में एक कहानी बहुत ही मशहूर थी कि विट्ठल को उर्दू बोलने में मुश्किलें आती थीं। पहले तो उनका बतौर नायक चयन किया गया मगर उर्दू न बोल पाने के कारण उन्हें फिल्म में नायक की भूमिका से हटाकर उनकी जगह मेहबूब को नायक बना दिया गया। मेहबूब भी एक बहुत ही प्रसिद्ध और बेहतरीन कलाकार रहे हैं।

विट्ठल नाराज़ हो गए और अपना हक पाने के लिए उन्होंने मुकदमा कर दिया। उस दौर में उनका मुकदमा मोहम्मद अली जिन्ना ने लड़ा जो तब के मशहूर वकील हुआ करते थे। विट्ठल मुकदमा जीते और भारत की पहली बोलती फिल्म के नायक बनें।

इसके नायक बिट्ठल तथा नायिका जुबैदा थी। अर्देशिर को इस फिल्म को बनाने के बाद ‘भारतीय सवाक्‌ फिल्म का पिता’ कहा गया। ये फिल्म 8 सप्ताह तक हाउस फुल चली थी।
इस फिल्म में सिर्फ तीन वाद्य यंत्र प्रयोग किये गए थे। आलम आरा फिल्म फैंटेसी फिल्म थी। फिल्म ने हिंदी-उर्दू के तालमेल वाली हिंदुस्तानी भाषा को लोकप्रिय बनाया। यह फिल्म 14 मार्च 1931 को मुंबई के ‘मैजेस्टिक’ सिनेमा में प्रदर्शित हुई। फिल्म 8 सप्ताह तक ‘हाउसफुल’ चली और भीड़ इतनी उमड़ती थी कि पुलिस के लिए नियंत्रण करना मुश्किल हो जाया करता था।

इसी फिल्म के उपरान्त ही फिल्मों में कई ‘गायक – अभिनेता’ बड़े परदे पर नज़र आने लगे। आलम आरा भारत के अलावा श्रीलंका, बर्मा और पश्चिम एशिया में पसंद की गई।
इसी सिनेमा से सिनेमा का एक नया युग शुरू हो गया था।

Rulers and Buildings Class 7 Notes History Chapter 5

Rulers and Buildings Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 5

In medieval period rulers built private and public buildings like forts, palaces, tombs, temples, mosques, tanks, etc

Engineering Skills and Construction

• Monuments provide an insight into the technologies used for construction.
• Between the seventh and tenth centuries, architects started adding more rooms, doors and windows to buildings.
• Roofs, doors and windows were made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns, a style of architecture called ‘trabeate’ or ‘corbelled’.
• Two technological and stylistic developments from the twelfth century are ‘arcuate architectural’ form and use of limestone mixed with stone chips that led to faster construction.
• Assimilation of Indian style with Persian style of architecture was prominent.

Buildings, Temples, Mosques and Tanks

• Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they were places of worship and meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the patron.
• The largest temples were all constructed by kings. The other, lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.
• Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of God but Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God’.
• As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasise their moral right to be rulers.
• It was widely believed that the rule of a just king would be an age of plenty when the heavens would not withhold rain.

Why Were Temples Destroyed?

• Since kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, they attacked and targeted these buildings when they attacked one another’s kingdoms.
• In the early 11th century, when the Chola king Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital he filled it with prized statues seized from defeated rulers.

Gardens, Tombs and Forts

• Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan were personally interested in literature, art and architecture.
• Babur got gardens called Chahar Bagh (four gardens) built in Kabul. They were further constructed in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi by Akbar, Jehangir and Shah Jahan.
• Akbar’s architecture is visible in his father, Humayun’s tomb.
• Under Shah Jahan, Mughal architecture was fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis.
• The ceremonial halls of the public and private audience (diwan-i-Khas; diwan-i-am) were carefully planned.
• Shah Jahan adapted the Chahar Bagh technique in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest architectural accomplishment of his reign.

Region and Empire

• As construction activity increased between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, there was also a considerable sharing of ideas across regions.
• In Vijayanagar, for example, the elephant stables of the rulers were strongly influenced by the style of architecture found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
• In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were constructed in architectural styles that were very similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
• The creation of large empires that brought different regions under their rule helped in this cross¬fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles.
• The Mughals adopted the ‘Bangla dome’ in their architecture.

Between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries kings and their officers built two kinds of structures—the first were forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs and the second was structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, bazaars, etc.

Merchants and others also carried out construction activity. They built temples, mosques and wells.

Between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, the trabeate style (a style of architecture in which roofs, doors and window were made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns) was used in building temples, mosques, etc.

The early eleventh century temples were decorated with elaborately carved sculptures. The temples had shikhara too.

rom the twelfth century, two technological and stylistic developments came to be noticed—firstly, the weight of the superstructure above the doors and window was sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was known as ‘arcuate’, secondly, limestone cement was increasingly used in construction.

Temples and mosques were built to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the patron.

According to an inscription the Rajarajeshvara temple was built by King Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Here, it is worth mentioning that the name of the ruler and the god are very similar. The king took the god’s name because it was auspicious and he wanted to appear like a god.

But Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god. However, Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God’.

Rulers also built tanks and reservoirs and got praise. Sultan lltutmish won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just outside Delhi-i Kuhna. It was called the Hanzi Sultani or the king’s Reservoir.

Kings built temples but they often looted them while attacking one another’s kingdoms.

In the early 11th century when the Chola King Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital he filled it with prised statues seized from defeated rulers.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the temples of defeated kings and looted their wealth and idols.

Under the Mughal rulers, gardens, tombs and forts were built.

Babur was interested in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. These gardens were called Chahar Bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division into quarters.

During Akbar’s reign tomb architecture became important. His architects turned to the tombs of his central Asian ancestors, Timur. The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) were important aspects of Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.

Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque.

He adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal. Here, the white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to control the access that nobles had to the river.

In the new city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed in Delhi, the imperial palace commanded the river-front. Only especially favoured nobles were given access to the river.

The Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of their own buildings.

In Bengal, the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut. The Mughals liked this ‘Bangla dome’.

In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri, many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

Superstructure: It refers to the part of a building above the ground floor.

Baolis: They were large stepped-wells.

Shikhara: The top-most point of the temple.

Arcuate: An architectural form in which the weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches.

Chahar Bagh: Four gardens.

Pishtaq: The tall gateway.

Pietra dura: Coloured, hard stones placed in depressions carved into marble or sandstone creating beautiful ornate patterns.

Diwan-i Khas or am: The ceremonial halls of public and private audience.

Hasht bihisht or Eight paradises: A central hall surrounded by eight rooms.

The Mughal Empire Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 4

Notes of Ch 4 The Mughal Empire Class 7th History

• From the latter half of the sixteenth century, the Mughals expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi

→ Until in the seventeenth century, the Mughals created huge empire which controlled nearly all of the subcontinent.

• They imposed structures of administration and ideas of governance that lasted even after their rule.

Who were the Mughals?

• The Mughals were the descendants of two great lineages of rulers, Genghis Khan and Timur.

Mughal Military Campaigns

Babur (1526-1530)

• Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12 years old.

• In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra.

• In 1527, he defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanua.

• In 1528, he defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi;

• He established control over Agra and Delhi before his death.

Humaayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556)

• He was defeated by Sher Khan at Chausa in 1539 and Kanauj in 1540 forcing him to flee to Iran.

• He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died the next year after an accident in a building.

Akbar (1556-1605)

• Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor.

• After 1570, Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam Khan.

• He launched military campaign against the Suris and other Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of his half-brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. 

• In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569 Ranthambhor.

• During 1570-1585, military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.

• During 1585-1605, campaigns were launched in the north-west. 

→ Qandahar was seized from the Safavids

→ Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death of Mirza Hakim. 

→ Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.

Jahangir (1605-1627)

• The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service. 

• Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.

Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

• Campaigns continued in the Deccan.

• The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated. 

• The Bundelas were defeated and Orchha seized. 

• In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids. 

• In 1632, Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapur forces sued for peace.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• He became Emperor after killing his brothers and imprisoning his father, Shah Jahan.

• In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s. 

• Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful.

• Maratha chieftain Shivaji declared himself an independent king and resumed his campaigns against the Mughals.

• Bijapur was annexed in 1685 and Golconda in 1687. 

• From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas.

• He also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the north-east

of the Ahoms.

• His death was followed by a succession conflict amongst his sons.

Mughal Traditions of Succession

• Mughal followed coparcenary inheritance, or a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons.

Mughal Relations with Other Rulers

• As the Mughals became powerful many other rulers also joined them voluntarily.

→ But many resisted as well.

• The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to

extend their influence over many kings and chieftains.

Mansabdars and Jagirdars

• Groups coming from different backgrounds such as Iranians, Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas joined Mughal service were enrolled as mansabdars.

• The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or

cavalrymen.

• Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs.

Zabt and Zamindars

• The main source of revenue was tax on the produce of peasants. The intermediaries who collected taxes were called zamindars.

• Zabt was the revenue system which was started by when Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields and fixed tax on each crop in cash.

Akbar’s Policies

• Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar

who carried out both political and military functions.

• Each province also had a financial officer or diwan.

• For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the subadar was supported by other officers.

• Akbar started the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace” which was a idea of tolerance that did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm.

• This principle of governance was followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well.

The Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century and After

• The administrative and military efficiency of the Mughal Empire led to great economic and commercial prosperity.

• The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent large part of their income on salaries and goods which benefited the artisans and peasantry who supplied them with goods and produce.

• In the late seventeenth century, the enormous wealth and resources commanded by the Mughal elite made them an extremely powerful group of people.

• As the authority of the Mughal emperor slowly declined, his servants emerged as powerful centres of power in the regions.

• By the eighteenth century, the provinces of the empire such as Hyderabad and Awadh had consolidated their independent political identities.

इस कहानी की लेखिका इस्मत चुगताई जी हैं। इस्मत चुगताई की कहानी “कामचोर” , लगभग ऐसे हर घर की कहानी है जिसमें दो या दो से ज्यादा बच्चे व भी कामचोर होते हैं। यह कहानी लेखिका व उसके परिवार के अन्य बच्चों की कहानी है जो दिन भर या तो बैठकर आराम फरमाते रहते हैं या फिर मौज मस्ती और शरारत करने में अपना पूरा दिन निकाल देते थे। यहां तक कि वे खुद के कार्य भी अपने आप नहीं करते थे।

ऐसे में घर के बड़ों ने सोचा कि घर के सारे नौकरों को निकाल दिया जाए और इन निकम्मे बच्चों को घर के छोटे-बड़े कामों में हाथ बटाँना सिखाया जाए । सोच को हकीकत का रूप देने से असली कहानी की शुरूवात होती हैं। 

मां-बाप के बातों को सुनकर बच्चों ने सोचा कि हमें भी कुछ काम खुद करने चाहिए। सो बच्चों ने काम की शुरुवात अपने लिए पीने का पानी खुद लाने से की और फिर सभी बच्चे मटके और सुराहियों से पानी लेने दौड़ पड़े।

फिर क्या था पहले पानी लेने के चक्कर में धक्का-मुक्की शुरू हो गई। कोई किसी से डरने वाला नहीं था और कोई किसी की सुनने वाला भी नहीं था। सो वहीं पर फिर से लड़ाई झगड़ा शुरू हो गया। नतीजा सारे मटके , सुराहियों , पतीलियों इधर-उधर बिखर गई और बच्चे बुरी तरह से पानी से भीग गए।

लेखिका की मां ने फरमान सुनाया “जो काम नहीं करेगा। उसे रात का खाना नहीं दिया जाएगा”।  यह सुनते ही सभी बच्चे काम करने के लिए राजी हो गये। लेखिका की मां ने बच्चों को कई सारे काम बताए। जैसे गंदी दरी को साफ करना , आंगन में पड़े कूड़े को साफ करना , पेड़ पौधों में पानी देना आदि। साथ में लेखिका के पिता ने बच्चों को इनाम का लालच भी दिया।

बच्चों ने अपने काम की शुरुआत फर्श पर पड़ी दरी साफ करने से शुरू की। दरी की धूल साफ करने के लिए बच्चों ने उस पर लकड़ी के डंडों से मारना शुरू कर दिया जिसकी वजह से दरी की सारी धूल कमरे में फैल गई और बच्चों के नाक और आंखों में धुस गई जिसकी वजह से बच्चे खाँसते-खाँसते बेदम हो गए।

इसके बाद बच्चों ने दूसरा मोर्चा संभाला आंगन में झाड़ू लगाने का। कुछ बच्चों के दिमाग में यह बात आयी कि झाड़ू लगाने से पहले थोड़ा पानी डाल देना चाहिए। फिर क्या था दरी में डालकर पानी छिड़कने का कार्य शुरू हुआ। काम तो क्या होना था। लेकिन छीना झपटी की वजह से बच्चों ने झाड़ू के तिनके तिनके बिखेर दिए। पानी डालने की वजह से पूरा आंगन व बच्चे कीचड़ से सन गये।

खैर अगला काम था पेड़ – पौधों में पानी देना। सारे बच्चे घर की सारी बाल्टियों , लोटे , भगौने आदि लेकर पौधों में पानी डालने निकल पड़े। अब पानी भरने के लिए भी लड़ाई झगड़ा , धक्का-मुक्की शुरू हो गई। नतीजा सारे बच्चे कीचड़ से सन गये। बच्चों को काबू करने के लिए सभी बड़ों को ( भाइयों , मामा-मामी , मौसी आदि ) को बुला लिया गया। फिर पड़ोस के बंगलों से नौकर बुला कर चार आना प्रति बच्चे के हिसाब से , हर बच्चे को नहलाया गया।

बच्चे यह मान चुके थे कि उनसे सफाई और पौधों में पानी देने का काम नहीं हो सकता है। इसलिए अब वो मुर्गियों को उनके दबड़े (मुर्गी घर) में बंद करने का कार्य करेंगे। फिर क्या था सभी बच्चे मुर्गियों को पकड़ने लगे जिस वजह से मुर्गियों डर के मारे इधर उधर भागने लगी। डर से भागती  मुर्गियों ने घर की रसोई से लेकर पूरे आंगन में खूब उत्पात मचाया। लेकिन उन बच्चों से एक भी मुर्गी दबड़े में नहीं गई।

अचानक कुछ बच्चों का ध्यान घर आती हुई भेड़ों के ऊपर चला गया। उन्होंने सोचा कि क्यों न भेड़ों को ही खाना खिला दिया जाए। जैसे ही उन्होंने अनाज के दाने भेड़ों के आगे रखे तो , सारी भूखी भेड़ें अनाज पर टूट पड़ी और कुछ भेड़ों ने रसोई में रखी सब्जियों , मटर और अन्य चीजों को भी खाना शुरु कर दिया जिस वजह से पूरे घर में अफरा-तफरी का माहौल हो गया। बड़ी मुश्किल से भेड़ों पर काबू पाया गया। 

इतना सब काम करने के बाद भी बच्चे कहां मानने वाले थे। उन्होंने फिर से काम करने की सोची और भैसों का दूध दोहने में जुट गए। भैंस इतने सारे बच्चों को वहां देख कर डर गई और उसने चारों पैरों में उछलकर दूसरी तरफ छलांग लगा दी।

बच्चों ने सोचा कि क्यों न भैंस के पैर बाँधकर दूध निकाला जाय और बच्चों ने भैंस के अगले दो पैर चाचाजी की चारपाई से बांध दिए। भैंस डर के मारे इधर-उधर भागने लगी और साथ में चाचा जी की चारपाई भी धसीट कर अपने साथ ले गई।

अब भैंस जहां-जहां जाती। चाचाजी भी चारपाई सहित वहाँ वहाँ जाते। इतने में कुछ बच्चों ने भैंस का बछड़ा भी खोल दिया । बछड़े के चिल्लाने से भैंस रुक गई और बछड़ा तत्काल दूध पीने में लग गया।

इतना सब होने के बाद लेखिका की माँ इतना परेशान हो गई कि उन्होंने मायके जाने की धमकी दे डाली। तब पिताजी ने सबको बुलाया और आदेश दिया कि अब से कोई किसी भी काम पर हाथ नहीं लगाएगा।

अगर कोई किसी काम पर हाथ लगायेगा , तो उसे रात का खाना नहीं दिया जाएगा। यानि कहानी जहां से शुरू हुई थी वहीं पर आकर खत्म हो गई। निकम्मे बच्चे जो पहले भी कोई काम नहीं करते थे। आज के बाद भी नहीं करेंगे। 

The Delhi Sultans Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 3

Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated by Chauhan (also called Chahamanas) of Ajmer.

The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled a vast area of the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century.

Rulers of Delhi

Tomars: Early 12th century 1165.

Chauhans: 1165-1192 Prithviraj Chauhan: 1175-1192
Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became an important commercial centre.

Slave Dynasty: 1206-1290
In 1236, Razia, the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, became the Sultan of Delhi. She was removed from the throne in 1240.

Khilji Dynasty: 1290-1320
External frontier was the next phase of expansion which started with Alauddin Khilji in southern India. Alauddin Khilji, the most important ruler of Khilji dynasty, introduced the system of market control and administrative measures in order to maintain a large standing army.

Tughlaq Dynasty: 1320-1414
External frontier culminated with Muhammad-bin-Tughluq and he introduced three projects – Shifting of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, the introduction of token currency, raising the land tax in the Doab region to fifty per cent—all of which failed and weakened his position.

Sayyid Dynasty: 1414-1451 (It was the only Shia dynasty)

Lodi Dynasty: 1451-1526

Finding out about the Delhi Sultans

• Inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information.
• Further valuable sources are ‘histories’, Tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
• The authors of tawarikh were learned men; secretaries administrators, poets and courtiers who both recounted events and advised rulers on governance, emphasizing the importance of the just rule.

From Garrison Town to Empire

• In the early 13th century the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons.
• Delhi’s authority was challenged by Mongols and by governors who rebelled at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness.
• The expansion of Delhi Sultanate took place under the reign of Balban, Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad- Bin-Tughlaq.

Administration and Consolidation

• To have reliable governors the early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish’ favoured their special slaves purchased for military service called ‘Bandage’ in Persian.
• The Khiljis and Tughluqs continued to use Bandage and also raised people of humble birth, who were their clients, to high positions like governors and generals.
• The Khiljis and Tughluqs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes.
• These lands were called iqta and their holder was called muqti or iqtadar. The duty of muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas.
• In return, muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as salary. They also paid their soldiers from this revenue.
• Under Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad, Tughluq accountants were appointed to check the amount collected by the muqtis.
• As Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities under their control, they forced the samants and the rich landlords to accept their authority.
• The attack of Mongols under Genghis Khan forced Khiljis and Tughluqs to mobilise a large standing army in Delhi.

The Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

• The Tughluq, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526.
• By then Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and entire South India had Independent rulers who had established flourishing states and prosperous capitals.
• New ruling dynasties like the Afghans and Rajputs also arose during the period.
• In 1526, Mughals established their empire.
• Sher Shah Suri challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun. He captured Delhi and established his own dynasty. Although, he ruled for only fourteen years (1540-1555) but his administration became the model followed by the great Mughal emperor Akbar (1556-1605), when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

Delhi became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs.

It was only under the rule of the Tomars and Chauhans that Delhi flourished as an important commercial centre.

The city was inhabited by many Jaina merchants who also constructed a number of temples.

Coins, known as dehliwal, were minted here and had a wide circulation.

Delhi Sultanate played the most vital role in the transformation of Delhi into a capital which controlled vast areas of the subcontinent.

Inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information but especially significant are “histories”, Tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under Delhi Sultan.

Tawarikh were written by learned men, secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers who lived in cities (mainly Delhi). They were written for the Sultans with anticipation of rich rewards. They also advised rulers on governance, emphasizing the importance of just rule based on birthright and gender distinctions, not shared by everyone.

Raziyya, the daughter of Sultan lltutmish, became the Sultan of Delhi in 1236 but she was dethroned only in 1240 only for being a woman and was unacceptable to the nobles. Even a.famous chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, recognized her as more able than all her brothers but was not comfortable with her, only for her being a lady.

In the early thirteenth century, there was no significant expansion of Delhi beyond heavily fortified town occupied by garrisons, it was only during the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq that Delhi saw expansion for the first time.

The expansion was initiated with the internal frontier. Forests were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter-gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitats and these lands were given to the peasants in order to promote agriculture. Regional trades were also promoted.

External frontier was the next phase of expansion which started with Alauddin Khalji in southern India and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq.

The armies of Delhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of the subcontinent till the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. They defeated rivals, seized cities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry.

The early Delhi Sultans favoured the appointment of their slaves purchased for military service as governors to control the administration of the vast empire. These slaves were totally dependent upon their master and so they were more reliable and trustworthy. They were called bandagan in Persian.

The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued the use of bandagan and also raised people of humble birth, usually their clients, to high positions and appointed them as generals and governors. However, this also gave rise to political instability as there was often a conflict for succession.

This system was criticised by the elites and authors of tawarikh, because for them the new high class people were in fact ‘low and base-born’.

Khalji and Tughluq monarchs, like their predecessors, appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These territories were called iqta and their holders were called iqtadar or muqti.

Muqtis were responsible for leading their military campaigns and maintaining their iqtas.

Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected by muqtis who were not allowed to collect revenue more than that prescribed by the state nor were they allowed to keep soldiers more than the number prescribed by the state.

Delhi Sultans had complete control over the hinterland of the cities, and so the samanta aristocrats were forced to accept their authority. During Alauddin Khalji’s regime the state brought the assessment and collection of land revenue under its control.

There were three types of taxes : (1) on cultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50 per cent of the peasant’s produce; (2) on cattle; and (3) on houses.

As the large part of the subcontinent was outside the control of Delhi Sultan, it was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal from Delhi. Hence, soon after annexation of southern India, the entire region became independent. The local chieftains established their rule in these regions.

The Mongols led by Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219. Such attacks frequented during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early days of Muhammad Tughluq’s rule. This forced the two rulers to mobilize a large standing army in Delhi. It posed a huge administrative challenge.

After Tughluqs the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526. By that time Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and entire south India had independent rulers who established flourishing states and prosperous capitals. It was during this period that some new ruling groups like the Afghans and the Rajputs emerged.

Some small but powerful and extremely well-administered states also emerged. Sher Shah Sur (1540—1545) was the most powerful of them all. He even challenged the Mughal emperor Humayun and captured Delhi. In a very short period of fifteen years (1540-1555), he introduced many reforms and a lot of welfare works. His administration became the model followed by the great emperor Akbar (1556—1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

The Rulers of Delhi

Dhaliwal: The place where coins were minted.

Tarikh: History.

Tawarikh: Plural of Tarikh.

Birthright: It refers to the privileges claimed on account of the birth.

Gender distinctions: Social and biological differences between men and women.

Hinterland: It refers to the land adjacent to a city or port that supply it with goods and services.

Garrison town: It refers to a town which is fortified with soldiers.

Mosque: It is called a masjid in Arabic, and literarily means a place where a Muslim prostrates in reverence to Allah.

Namaz: It refers to the prayer offered by a Muslim.

Imam: The spiritual leader of the Muslims.

Khutba: Sermon.

Client: Someone who is under the protection of another, a dependent or hanger-on.

Iqta: The territories under the military commanders were known as iqta.

Kharaj: The tax on cultivation was known as Kharaj.

Bandagan: The early Delhi Sultans especially lltutmish favoured their slaves purchased for military service. These slaves were known as bandagan in Persian.

Early twelfth century – 1165: Reign of Tomara Rajputs.

1175-1192: Reign of Prithviraj Chauhan.

1206-1210: Reign of Qutbuddin Aybak.

1236: Raziyya became Sultan.

1240: Raziyya was dethroned.

1296-1316: Reign of Alauddin Khalji.

1324-1351: Reign of Muhammad Tughluq.

1351-1388: Reign of Firuz Shah Tughiuq.

1414-1421: Reign of Khizr Khan belonging to Sayyid dynasty.

1451-1489: Reign of Bahlul Lodi.

1540-1555: Sher Shah ruled over Delhi.