Monthly Archives: October 2022

The iron pillar on pillar

The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, shows the outstanding skill of Indian crafts persons. It is made of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago. The date has been inscribed on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra, who probably belonged to the Gupta dynasty. One interesting fact of the pillar is that it has not rusted in all these years.

Buildings in brick and stone

Stupas also reflect the skills of crafts persons that have survived. The word stupa means a mound. Stupas can be of different kinds round and tall, big and small, which will have certain common features. At the centre of the stupa, a small box will be placed, which contained bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins.

This box, known as a relic casket, was covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on top. And then, the dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs.

A path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa surrounded with railings. The entrance of the path was through gateways. Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture.

During this period, some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines. The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of the chief deity was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity.

Bhitargaon, a tower, known as the shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place. Most temples also had a space known as the mandapa a hall where people could assemble.

How were stupas and temples built?

Building stupa and temple went through several stages. Kings or queens wanted to builds these stupas or temples, which was an expensive affair. To start building these sculptures, good quality stone had to be found quarried, and transported to the place chosen for the new building. Here, these rough blocks of stone had to be shaped and carved into pillars, and panels for walls, floors and ceilings. After these, it had to be placed in precisely the right position.

To build these splendid structures, kings and queens spent money from their treasury to pay the crafts persons. Besides, when devotees came to visit the temple or the stupa, they often brought gifts, which were used to decorate the buildings.

Others who paid for these decorations were merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths, and hundreds of men and women who are known only by their names, which were inscribed on pillars, railings and walls.

Painting

Ajanta is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. Most of these were monasteries for Buddhist monks, and some of them were decorated with paintings.

The world of books

During this period, some of the best-known epics were written. Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods.

A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi. Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly accused of theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan to death. Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice and destroyed the entire city of Madurai.

Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.

Recording and preserving old stories

A number of Hindu religious stories were written down around the same time. These include the Puranas, meaning old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped.

The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women and Shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them.

Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time. The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins. The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. Valmiki is the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.

Stories told by ordinary people

Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced, and performed plays. Some of these are preserved in collections of stories such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, which were written down around this time. Stories from the Jatakas were often shown on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places such as Ajanta.

Writing books on science

Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle.

Prashastis and what they tell us

We all know about Samudragupta, a famous ruler of a dynasty known as the Guptas from a long inscription, inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. It was composed as a Kavya by Harishena, a poet and a minister at the court of Samudragupta. This inscription is of a special kind known as a prashasti, a Sanskrit word, meaning ‘in praise of’.

Samudragupta’s prashasti

In Samudragupta’s prashasti, the poet praised the king in glowing terms such as a warrior, as a king who won victories in battle, who was learned and the best of poets. He is also described as equal to the gods. The prashasti was composed in very long sentences.

Harishena described four different kinds of rulers and told us about Samudragupta’s policies towards them.

1. The rulers of Aryavarta, where nine rulers were uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta’s empire.
2. The rulers of Dakshinapatha where twelve rulers surrendered to Samudragupta after being defeated and later he allowed them to rule again.
3. The inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number of gana sanghas in the northwest. They brought tribute, followed his orders, and attended his court.
4. The rulers of the outlying areas, perhaps the descendants of the Kushanas and Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage.

Genealogies

Samudragupta’s prashastis mentioned the ancestors’ names such as Samudragupta’s great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother. His mother, Kumara Devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi gana, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty who adopted the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.

Samudragupta figures in the genealogies of later rulers of the dynasty, such as his son, Chandragupta II. He led an expedition to western India, where he overcame the last of the Shakas. According to later belief, his court was full of learned people, including Kalidasa the poet, and Aryabhata the astronomer.

Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita

Harshavardhana, who ruled nearly 1400 years ago, and his biography was written by his court poet, Banabhatta in Sanskrit. He was not the eldest son of his father but became king of Thanesar after both his father and elder brother died. His brother-in-law ruled Kanauj who was killed by the ruler of Bengal. Harsha took over the kingdom of Kanauj and then led an army against the ruler of Bengal.

Harsha was successful in the east and conquered both Magadha and Bengal. He tried to cross the Narmada to march into the Deccan but was stopped by a ruler belonging to the Chalukya dynasty, Pulakeshin II.

The Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pulakeshin’s prashasti

During this period, the Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in south India. The kingdom of the Pallavas spread from the region around their capital, Kanchipuram, to the Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyas was centred around the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.

Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was an important trading centre. It developed as a religious centre, with a number of temples. Pulakeshin II was the best-known Chalukya ruler. His prashasti was composed by his court poet Ravikirti, which talks about his ancestors, who are traced back through four generations from father to son.

According to Ravikirti, he led expeditions along both the west and the east coasts. Besides, he checked the advance of Harsha. There is an interesting play of words in the poem. Harsha means happiness. The poet says that after this defeat, Harsha was no longer Harsha!

How were these kingdoms administered?

Land revenue remained important and the village remained the basic unit of administration. But, new developments were also introduced. Kings adopted a number of steps to win the support of men who were powerful, either economically, or socially, or because of their political and military strength. For instance:

• Some important administrative posts were hereditary.
• Sometimes, one person held many offices.
• Besides, important men probably had a say in local administration.

A new kind of army

Kings maintained a well-organised army, with elephants, chariots, cavalry and foot soldiers. Military leaders provided kings with troops whenever he needed them but they were not paid regular salaries. Instead, of salary, some of them received grants of land. They collected revenue from the land and used this to maintain soldiers and horses, and provide equipment for warfare. These men were known as samantas.

Assemblies in the southern kingdoms

The inscriptions of the Pallavas mentioned a number of local assemblies, which included the sabha, an assembly of brahmin landowners. This assembly functioned through subcommittees, which looked after irrigation, agricultural operations, making roads, local temples, etc. There was a village assembly found in areas where the landowners were not brahmins. And the nagaram was an organisation of merchants.

Ordinary people in the kingdoms

Kalidasa was known for his plays depicting life in the king’s court. An interesting feature about these plays is that the king and most brahmins are shown as speaking Sanskrit, while women and men other than the king and brahmins use Prakrit. His most famous play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, is the story of the love between a king named Dushyanta and a young woman named Shakuntala.

You have read in the previous chapter that fine pottery were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. These potteries were carried by traders from the places they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, pepper, and precious stones. In the Roman Empire, pepper was valued so much that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans.

Several sea routes were explored by traders and some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly.

Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Among the six cities, two were important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. Instead of regular taxes, the chiefs demanded and received gifts from the people. They used to go on military expeditions to collect tribute from neighbouring areas. Some of the wealth they kept for themselves and the rest they distributed amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets.

Many poets’ compositions were found in the Sangam collection who were awarded precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India. The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region.

The story of the Silk Route

The process of making silk was very complicated. Raw silk has to be extracted from the cocoons of silkworms, spun into thread and then woven into cloth. China first invented the technique of making silk. The method used by China was kept as a secret for thousands of years. People from China who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them. The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk Route.

Chinese rulers sometimes sent gifts of silk to rulers in Iran and West Asia, due to which the knowledge of silk spread further west. Amongst the rulers and rich people in Rome, wearing silk became the fashion about 2000 years ago. At that period, silk was very expensive, as it had to be brought all the way from China, via roads, through mountains and deserts.

Some kings tried to control large portions of the route, because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers.

The Silk route was controlled by the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire.

The spread of Buddhism

Kanishka was the most famous Kushana ruler, who ruled around 1900 years ago. He organised a Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed important matters. Ashvaghosha, a poet who composed a biography of the Buddha, the Buddhacharita, lived in his court.

Mahayana Buddhism, a new form of Buddhism, developed, which had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Later, statues of the Buddha were made in Mathura and in Taxila.

Bodhisattvas were supposed to be persons who had attained enlightenment and after attaining enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. But, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. In India, Buddhism was spread to the western and eastern regions, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for monks to live in.

Some of these caves were made on the orders of kings and queens, others by merchants and farmers, located near passes through the Western Ghats.

Buddhism also spread south-eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas.

The quest of the pilgrims

The Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang and I-Qing, came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries.

Each of these pilgrims wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them.

Xuan Zang, took the land route back to China. He carried back statues of the Buddha made of gold, silver and sandalwood, and over 600 manuscripts loaded on the backs of 20 horses. Over 50 manuscripts were lost when the boat on which he was crossing the Indus capsized. He spent the rest of his life translating the remaining manuscripts from Sanskrit into Chinese.

The beginning of Bhakti

During this time, the worship of certain deities Siva, Vishnu, and goddesses such as Durga, gained importance in Hinduism. These deities were worshipped through Bhakti, an idea that became very popular. Bhakti means a person’s devotion to his or her chosen deity.

In the sacred book of Hindus, the Bhagavad Gita, the idea of Bhakti is present, which is included in the Mahabharata. In this Krishna the God, asked Arjuna, his devotee and friend, to abandon all dharmas and take refuge in him, as only he can set Arjuna free from every evil. This form of worship widely spread to different parts of the country.

Those who followed the system of Bhakti emphasised devotion and individual worship of a god or goddess, rather than the performance of elaborate sacrifices.

According to this system of belief, if a devotee worships the chosen deity with a pure heart, the deity will appear in the form in which he or she may desire. It could be thought of as a human being, lion, tree or any other form.

Iron Tools and Agriculture

Use of iron can be traced back 3000 years with growing use reflecting some 2500 years ago. These iron tools used included axes for clearing forests and the iron ploughshare, most useful for increasing agricultural production.

Other steps to increase production: irrigation

Kings and kingdoms needed the support of flourishing villages to exist. The new tools and the system of transplantation increased production. Irrigation was also used. Irrigation works built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.

Who lived in the villages?

3 different kinds of people lived in villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. Large landowners were known as vellalar, whereas ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar. Meanwhile, landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. The northern part of the country had village headman or grama bhojaka. The men from the same family held the position for generations and post was hereditary for grama bhojaka. He was the largest landowner and had slaves. He hired workers to cultivate the land and was powerful. King often used him to collect taxes from the village. He functioned as a judge and policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, other independent farmers-grihapatis were smaller landowners. The men and women such as the dasa karmakara did do not own land, but had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages, there were also some crafts persons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver.

Jatakas are stories that were composed by ordinary people and written down and preserved by Buddhist monks. Other kinds of evidence to find out about life in some of these early cities. Sculptor’s carved scenes depicting peoples’ lives in towns, villages and forest and were used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings that were visited by people.

Cities developed from about 2500 years ago as capitals of the mahajanapadas. Some of these cities were surrounded by massive fortification walls and archaeologists have found rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other, known as ring wells. They were used as toilets in some cases and as drains and garbage dumps. These are usually found in individual houses. There was hardly any remains of palaces, markets, or of homes of ordinary people. They are yet to be discovered by archaeologists. Others, made of wood, mud-brick and thatch, may not have survived. Find out about early cities from accounts of sailors and travellers who visited them. Most detailed accounts that have been found was by an unknown Greek sailor, which described all the ports he visited.

Coins

Wealth measured in terms of coins and archaeologists found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. Earliest coins were in use for about 500 years with punch marked coins that are generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape. These are cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body) and not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. These coins found over most parts of the subcontinent were in circulation till the early centuries CE.

Cities with many functions

Mathura is an important settlement for more than 2500 years which is important, located at the crossroads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south-fortifications around the city and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for people in the city. Mathura a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced, around 2000 years ago became second capital of the Kushanas. Mathura was also a religious centre  and there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines-an important centre for the worship of Krishna. The inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues found in Mathura are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines-made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and crafts persons who lived in the city.

Crafts and crafts persons

Archaeological evidence for crafts-extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)- generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent-know from texts-manufacture of cloth was important-famous centres such as Varanasi in the north-Madurai in the south-men and women worked in these centres-crafts persons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis–shrenis of crafts persons provide training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product- shrenis of merchants organised the trade-also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money- invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries.

A closer look — Arikamedu

Arikamedu (in Puducherry)-a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands-massive brick structure (a warehouse found at the site)-pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) -stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, named after a city in Italy- made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould-another kind of pottery made locally, though Roman designs were used-Roman lamps, glassware and gems found at the site. Small tanks found-were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth-plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass.

Elsewhere

Rome-one of the oldest cities in Europe-developed around the same time as the cities in the Ganga valley-capital of one of the largest empires — spread across Europe, North Africa, and West Asia. Augustus- most important emperors-ruled about 2000 years ago-found Rome a city of brick-made it into a city of marble-He, and later rulers, built temples and palaces-also built huge amphitheatres— open arenas surrounded by tiers of seats — where citizens could watch all kinds of shows, and public baths (with separate timings for men and women), where people met and relaxed. Huge aqueducts — channels to supply water — were built to bring water to the city — for the baths, fountains and toilets.

Frequently asked Questions on CBSE Class 6 History Notes Chapter 8: Vital villages and Thriving towns

Where is ‘Arikamedu’ located?

Arikamedu is now an archaelogical site which is present few miles south of the southeastern Indian city of Pondicherry, at present situated in Kakkayanthope.

Which is identified as the oldest village in India?

Malana is an ancient Indian village in the state of Himachal Pradesh. This village is known to be the oldest village in India.

Ashoka, was one of the greatest rulers of history ruled-empire founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya over 2300 years ago. He was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Chanakya’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map), which included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain as well as Taxila, a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia. Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and crafts persons lived in these cities. In other areas, there were villages of farmers and herders. In central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages and ate different kinds of food. They wore different kinds of clothes as well.

How are empires different from kingdoms?

Emperors need more resources than kings as they are larger than kingdoms. They need to be protected by big armies and they also need a larger number of officials who collect taxes.

Ruling the Empire

Large empire in different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. Officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, crafts persons and traders(lived in villages and towns in the area). They also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders-officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro. Also, spies kept a watch on the officials. The emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family and senior ministers. Other areas or provinces were ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain with some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors. Local customs and rules were probably followed and there were vast areas between these centres. Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers important for transport. They collected whatever resources were available as tax and tribute.

Ashoka, a unique ruler

Famous Mauryan ruler, Ashoka was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. These inscriptions were in Prakrit and written in the Brahmi script.

Ashoka’s war in Kalinga

Kalinga was the ancient name of coastal Orissa. Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. He was horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed and so decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war

What was Ashoka’s dhamma?

Did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He had a duty to instruct his subjects and was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha. A number of problems troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, which led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed, Slaves and servants were ill treated, quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka’s duty was to solve these problems. He appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta, who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma.  His messages were inscribed on rocks and pillars. He instructed his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. He also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka. He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses and arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals.

Frequently asked Questions on CBSE Class 6 History Notes Chapter 7: Ashoka the Emperor Who Gave up War

What is the ‘Mauryan’ empire famous for?

The Mauryan empire had fully occupied Northwestern India in the 320 BCE.

Who was King Ashoka?

Ashoka was the third emperor of the Mauryan dynasty, grandson of its founder Chandragupta and son of the second emperor, Bindusara.

What is ‘Ashoka’s dhamma’?

Dhamma is a set of edicts that formed a policy of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka

The story of Buddha

About 2500 years ago, Siddhartha the founder of Buddhism was born. He was also known as Gautama Buddha. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.

Buddha’s Teaching

The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. Even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied and want even more. The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.

Upanishads

Upanishad means ‘approaching and sitting near’. The texts contained in the Upanishad were the conversations between teachers and students.

1. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas.
2. There is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts.
3. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.

Jainism

The last and 24th Tirthankara of the Jainas was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha. At the age of 30, he left home and went to live in a forest. For 12 years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.

He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings.

Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives. They had to be absolutely honest and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.

The sangha

Sangha was an association of those people who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer – beggar) and bhikkhunis. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.

Monasteries

Both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. The permanent shelters, which monasteries were built were known as viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves, especially in western India. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. You will learn more about this in Chapter 9 of History.

We hope you have found CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 6 helpful for your exam preparation. Keep learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT.

Frequently asked Questions on CBSE Class 6 History Notes Chapter 6: New Questions and Ideas

Who was ‘Buddha’?

Gautama Buddha was an ascetic, a religious leader and teacher who lived in ancient India.

What is the significance of ‘Upanishad’?

The Upanishad document has a wide variety of information on the “rites, incarnations and esoteric knowledge” departing from Vedic ritualism and interpreted in various ways in the later commentarial traditions.

Who is a ‘Sanyasi’?

A yogi or a sanyasi is one who has total control over his indriyas. He is therefore beyond joy or sorrow and any other worldly desire or involvement.

How some men became rulers

• Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing very big sacrifices.

• The later rajas gained recognition by performing very big sacrifices.

• Ashvamedha or a horse sacrifice was an important ritual for a raja.
→ The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him.

Varnas

• The priests divided people into four groups called Varnas.

• According to them, each Varna had a different set of functions.

• These groups were decided on the basis of birth.

→ Brahmin: They were expected to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts.
→ Kshatriyas: They were the rulers and were expected to fight battles and protect people.
→ Vish or the Vaishyas: They were expected to be farmers, herders and traders. Both the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas could perform sacrifices.
→ Shudras: They had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals. Often, women were also grouped with them. They were not allowed to study the Vedas.

Janapadas

• The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were recognised as being rajas of janapadas.

• The word janapada literally means the land where the Jana set its foot and settled down.

• Archeologists found that in janapadas, people lived in huts, kept cattle and other animals.

→ They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard.

• They made earthen pots. Some were grey and others were red.

→ A special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware.

Mahajanapadas

• About 2500 years ago, some Janapadas became more important than others and were known as Mahajanapadas.

• Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified which means that huge walls

of wood, brick or stone were built around them.

Taxes

• Rulers of the mahajanapadas needed more resources for building huge forts and maintaining armies.

• The started collecting regular taxes.

• Taxes were collected from farmers, craft persons, herders, traders, hunters as per their skills.

Changes in agriculture

• The growing use of iron ploughshares helped in more grain production.

• People began transplanting paddy which meant that instead of scattering seeds on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived.

A closer look — (a) Magadha

• Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years.

• Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha which helped in transport, water supplies and making the land fertile.

• Two powerful rulers of Magadha were Bimbisara and Ajatasattu.

• The first capital of Magadha was Rajagriha in Bihar and the second was Pataliputra.

A closer look — (b) Vajji

• Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha.

• In a gana or a sangha there were many rulers, each one was known as a raja.

• The rajas performed rituals together and met in assemblies.

• Women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.

• Both the Buddha and the Mahavira belonged to ganas or sanghas.

• The last of the sanghas were conquered by Gupta rulers around 1500 years ago.

Words to describe people in Rigveda

Let us see some of the words used to describe people found in the Rigveda.

There are 2 groups who are described in terms of their work –

The priests: who were also called brahmins. They used to perform various rituals.

The rajas: They did not have capital cities, palaces or armies, nor did they collect taxes. Sons did not automatically succeed fathers as rajas.

Two words were used to describe the people or the community as a whole:

1. One was jana
2. The other was vish

The people who composed the hymns described themselves as Aryas and called their opponents Dasas or Dasyus. The term dasa means slave. Slaves were women and men who were often captured in war.

Silent sentinels – the story of the megaliths

Big stones are known as megaliths, which were arranged by people and were used to mark burial sites. The practice of erecting megaliths began about 3000 years ago and was prevalent throughout the Deccan, south India, in the north-east and Kashmir. All burials have some common features. The dead were buried with distinctive pots, which are called Black and Red Ware.

Finding out about social differences

Objects are found with the skeleton. So, archaeologists think that these objects may have belonged to the dead person. There were differences in status amongst the people who were buried. Rich people were buried with more gold beads, stone beads, copper bangles etc. Whereas poor people were buried with only a few pots.

Were some burial spots meant for certain families?

People belonging to the same family were buried in the same place. Stone circles or boulders placed on the surface served as signposts to find the burial site so that people could return to the same place whenever they wanted to.

A special burial at Inamgaon

It is a site on the river Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima. Here, adults were buried in the ground. They were laid out straight with the head towards the north. Vessels that probably contained food and water were placed with the dead person.

Houses, drains and streets

Most houses had a separate bathing area and some had wells to supply water. Many cities had covered drains. Each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it. Drains in houses were connected to streets and smaller drains, which ultimately led into bigger ones. All three i.e.; houses, drains and streets were planned and built at the same time.

Life in the city

Harappan city was a very busy place.

1. Rulers were the people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. Rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted.
2. Scribes were the people who knew how to write and help in preparing the seals and perhaps write on other materials that have not survived.
3. There were men and women, crafts persons who used to make all kinds of things.
4. Many terracotta toys have been found in Harappan cities, which shows that children must have played with these.

New crafts in the city

1. Most of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities were of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
2. Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
3. Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
4. The Harappans made seals out of stone which were rectangular in shape and have an animal carved on them.
5. The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs
6. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.
7. Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience, which were used to spin thread.
8. Many of the things that were produced at Harappan were probably the work of specialists.

In search of raw materials

Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally or produced by farmers or herders. Raw materials are processed to produce finished goods. The raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally. Whereas many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones were brought from distant places.

1. The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and from Oman in West Asia.
2. Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, had been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
3. Gold had been brought from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.

Food for people in the cities

People living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. The Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.

1. The plough was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds.
2. Water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing.
3. Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. In the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water.
4. People also collected fruits like ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.

A closer look – Harappan towns in Gujarat

The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch.

1. This city has freshwater and fertile soil.
2. Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways.
3. There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies were held.
4. Large letters of the Harappan script were carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood.

The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat.

1. The raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available in the city.
2. There was also a store house in the city.
3. Workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.

The mystery of the end

Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer used. Raw materials brought from long distances became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage system broke down, and new, less impressive houses were built, even over the streets.

Why did all this happen?

We are not sure. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others suggest that there was deforestation. In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities. It appears as if the rulers lost control. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south.

We hope you have found CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 3 helpful for your exam preparation. Keep learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT.

Frequently asked Questions on CBSE Class 6 History Notes Chapter 3: In the Earliest Cities

What is meant by the ‘Harappan Civilization’?

Indus civilization, also called Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization, the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent.

Where is the current ‘Mesopotamian’ area located now?

Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean Sea

Who were called the ‘Scribes’?

Scribes were people in ancient Egypt (majorly men) who learned to read and write.

The earliest people: why were they on the move?

Hunter-gatherers

• The name comes from the way in which they got their food.

• Generally, they hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, gathered fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks and eggs.

• The reasons why hunter-gatherers moved from place to place:-

→ They eaten up all the available plants and animals resources where they stay for the long time, for the search of food they have to move from place to place.

→ Some of the animals move from place to place in search for food that is why the hunters have to follow their movement.

→ Because of seasons change some of the plants and trees don’t bear fruits so people have to move place to place in search of different kinds of plants.

→ Plants, animals and people needs water, people need water during dry seasons that’s why they travelled on foot from place to place.

How do we know about these people?

• Archaeologists have found some of the things hunter-gatherers made and used.

• It is likely that people made and used tools of stone, wood and bone, of which stone tools have survived best.

Choosing a place to live in

• Many sites of hunter-gatherers were located near sources of water, such as rivers and lakes.

• Places where stone was found and where people made tools are known as factory sites.
→ Sometimes, people lived here for longer spells of time. These sites are called habitation-cum-factory sites.

Making Stone Tools

• Stone tools were made using two techniques: stone on stone and pressure

Finding out about fire

• One of the biggest discoveries made by man was fire.

• Fire could have been used for many things: as a source of light, to roast meat, and to scare away animals.

A changing environment

• Around 12,000 years ago, the temperature of the world started increasing.

• In many areas, this led to the development of grasslands.
→ This increased the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, i.e. animals that survived on grass.

• People started thinking about herding and rearing these animals themselves.

• Fishing also became important.

The beginnings of farming and herding

• Domestication is the process in which the man grows the plants and protects the animals. Most of these animals tended by man become different from there wild counterparts.

• People often select the animals and plants to be domesticated by them. This process of domestication began some 12,000 years ago.

• Virtually all the plant and animal produces which we eat today are the result of Domestication.

‘Storing’ animals

• Animals multiply naturally. Besides, if they are looked after carefully, they provide milk, which is an important source of food, and meat, whenever required.

• In other words, animals that are reared can be used as a ‘store’ of food.

Finding out about the first farmers and herders

• The archaeologists have found evidence of early farmers and herders.

• These are found all over the subcontinent.

• Some of the most important ones are in the north-west, in present-day Kashmir, and in east and south India.

• To prove that these settlements belonged to farmers and herders, scientists study the evidences of plants and animals.

• Scientists have found burnt grain at these sites. These grains could have been burnt accidentally or purposefully. Also, bones of different animals are found.

• Based on these finds scientists confirm that a number of crops plants and animals existed in different parts of India sub-continent.

Towards a settled life

• Archaeologists have found traces of many things. They have use these things to know how the ancient people lived, what did the ancient people eat etc.,

• Traces of huts at some sites. For example, in Burzahom (in Kashmir) people built pit-houses, which were dug into the ground, with steps leading into them. These houses may have provided shelter in cold weather.

• Cooking hearths: Cooking places were found both inside and outside the huts, which suggests that, depending on the weather, people could cook food either indoors or outdoors.

• Neolithic tools: Included polished stone tools to give cutting edge and mortar pistils used for grinding grains. Along with these Neolithic tools, even the tolls of Paleolithic age were still used.

• Farmers and herders live in groups called tribes.

Living and dying in Mehrgarh

• Mehrgarh site is located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass, which is one of the most important routes into Iran.

• Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where women and men learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear sheep and goats for the first time in this area.

• It is one of the earliest villages that we know about.