UNIT 1 – LAWS RELATING TO NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS (NIS) 1.1. Introduction to Negotiable Instruments 1.2. Types of Negotiable Instruments 1.3. Parties to the bill of exchange 1.4. Crossing of Cheques
The word “Negotiable” means Transferable by Delivery” and “Instrument” means a written document by which a ‘right’ is created by one person in favour of other person. Thus, negotiable instrument means “a document transferable by delivery”. The Negotiable Instruments Act has not defined the term negotiable instrument. It only names three Negotiable Instruments in Sec. 13. These are: Cheques Promissory Notes (PN) Bills of Exchange (BE)
• The numbers of the form a/b, where a and bare natural numbers is known as fraction.
• Proper fraction: A fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator.
• Improper fraction: A fraction in which numerator is greater than denominator.
• Mixed fraction: A combination of a natural number and a proper fraction.
Fractions tell about “a part of a whole”.
Here the pizza is divided into 4 equal parts and there are 3 parts left with us.
We will write it in a fraction as 3/4, in which 3 is numerator which tells the number of parts we have and 4 is denominator which tells the total parts in a whole.
The General form of a Fraction
Where, denominator ≠ 0
If numerator = denominator then the fraction becomes a whole i.e. 1. This is called unity of fraction.
Types of Fraction
Type of Fraction
Meaning
Example
Proper fraction
When numerator is less than the denominator. It shows the part of a whole.
Improper fraction
When numerator is more than the denominator. It represents the mixture of whole and a proper fraction.
Mixed Fraction
The improper fraction can be written in the mixed form as it is the mixture of whole number and a fraction.
Like Fraction
The fractions with the same denominator are like fractions.
Unlike Fraction
The fractions with different denominators are unlike fractions.
Equivalent Fraction
The fractions proportional to each other are called equivalent fractions. It represents the same amount with different fractions.
Converting a Mixed Fraction into an Improper Fraction
Converting an Improper Fraction into a Mixed Fraction
Divide the Numerator by the denominators that the quotient will be the whole number and remainder will be the numerator, while denominator will remain the same.
How to find the equivalent fractions?
To find the equivalent fraction of proper and improper fraction, we have the multiply both the numerator and denominator with the same number.
Example
Reciprocal of a Fraction
If we have two non-zero numbers whose product is one then these numbers must be the reciprocals of each other.
To find the reciprocal of any fraction, we just need to flip the numerator with the denominator.
Multiplication of Fractions
1. How to multiply a fraction with a whole number?
a.If we have to multiply the proper or improper fraction with the whole number then we simply multiply the numerator with that whole number and the denominator will remain the same.
Example
b. If we have to multiply the mixed fraction with the whole number then first convert it in the form of improper fraction then multiply as above.
Example
c. Fraction as an operator “of”.
If it is written that find the 1/2 of 24 then what does ‘of’ means here?
Here ‘of’ represents the multiplication.
2. How to multiply a fraction with another fraction?
If we have to multiply the proper or improper fraction with another fraction then we simply multiply the numerator of both the fractions and the denominator of both the fractions separately and write them as the new fraction.
Example
Value of the products of the fractions
Generally when we multiply two numbers then we got the result which is greater than the numbers.
5 × 6 = 30, where, 30 > 5 and 30 > 6
But in case of a fraction, it is not always like that.
a. The product of two proper fractions
If we multiply two proper fractions then their product will be less than the given fractions.
Example
b. The product of two improper fractions
If we multiply two improper fractions then their product will be greater than the given fractions.
Example
c. The product of one proper and one improper fraction
If we multiply proper fraction with the improper fraction then the product will be less than the improper fraction and greater than the proper fraction.
Example
Division of Fractions
1. How to divide a whole number by a Fraction?
a. If we have to divide the whole number with the proper or improper fraction then we will multiply that whole number with the reciprocal of the given fraction.
Example
b. If we have to divide the whole number with the mixed fraction then we will convert it into improper fraction then multiply it’s reciprocal with the whole number.
Example
2. How to divide a Fraction with a whole number?
To divide the fraction with a whole number, we have to take the reciprocal of the whole number then divide it with the whole number as usual
Example
3. How to divide a fraction with another Fraction?
To divide a fraction with another fraction, we have to multiply the first fraction with the reciprocal of the second fraction.
Example
Decimal Numbers
Fractions which has denominator 10, 100, 1000 etc are called Decimal Fractions.
A decimal number is a number with a decimal point. Numbers left to the decimal are 10 greater and numbers to the right of the decimal are 10 smaller.
Multiplication of Decimal Numbers
1. How to multiply a decimal number with a whole number?
If we have to multiply the whole number with a decimal number then we will multiply them as normal numbers but the decimal place will remain the same as it was in the original decimal number.
Example
35 × 3.45 = 120.75
Here we have multiplied the number 35 with 345 as normal whole numbers and we put the decimal at the same place from the right as it was in 3.45.
2. How to multiply Decimal numbers by 10,100 and 1000?
a. If we have to multiply adecimal number by 10 then we will transfer the decimal point to the right by one place.
Example
5.37 × 10 = 53.7
b. If we have to multiply a decimal number by 100 then we will transfer the decimal point to the right by two places.
Example
5.37 × 100 = 537
c. If we have to multiply a decimal number by 1000 then we will transfer the decimal point to the right by three places.
Example
5.37 × 1000 = 5370
3. How to multiply a decimal number by another decimal number?
To multiply a decimal number with another decimal number we have to multiply them as the normal whole numbers then put the decimal at such place so that the number of decimal place in the product is equal to the sum of the decimal places in the given decimal numbers.
Example
Division of Decimal Numbers
1. How to divide a decimal number with a whole number?
If we have to divide the whole number with a decimal number then we will divide them as whole numbers but the decimal place will remain the same as it was in the original decimal number.
Example
12.96 ÷ 4 = 3.24
Here we divide the number 1296 with 4 as normal whole numbers and we put the decimal at the same place from the right as it was in 12.96.
2. How to divide Decimal numbers by 10,100 and 1000?
a. If we have to divide adecimal number by 10 then we will transfer the decimal point to the left by one place.
Example
5.37 ÷ 10 = 0.537
b. If we have to divide a decimal number by 100 then we will transfer the decimal point to the left by two places.
Example
253.37 × 100 = 2.5337
c. If we have to divide a decimal number by 1000 then we will transfer the decimal point to the left by three places.
Example
255.37 × 1000 = 0.25537
3. How to divide a decimal number by another decimal number?
To divide a decimal number with another decimal number
First, we have to convert the denominator as the whole number by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by 10, 100 etc
Now we can divide them as we had done before.
Example
Here we had converted denominator 2.4 in the whole number by multiplying by 10.Then divide it as usual.
• Integers are the collection of whole numbers and their negatives. Positive Integers are 1, 2, 3 … . Negative Integers are 1, 2, 3 … .
• Every positive integers is greater than every negative integers.
• Zero is less than every positive integers and greater than every negative integers.
Representation of integers on the number line.
Integers are closed under addition. In general, for any two integers a and b, a + b is an integer.
Integers are closed under subtraction. Thus, if a and b are two integers then a – b is also an integer.
Addition is commutative for integers. In general, for any two integers a and b, we can say a + b = b + a
Subtraction is not commutative for integers.
Addition is associative for integers.
In general for any integers a, b and c, we can say a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Zero is an additive identity for integers. In general, for any integer a a + 0 = a = 0 + a
While multiplying a positive integer and a negative integer, we multiply them as whole numbers and put a minus sign (-) before the product. We thus get a negative integer. In general, for any two positive integers a and b we can say a × (-b) = (-a) × b = -(a × b)
Product of two negative integers is a positive integer. We multiply the two negative integers as whole numbers and put positive sign before the product. In general, for any two positive integers a and b, (-a) × (-b) = a × b
Integers are closed under multiplication. a × b is an integer, for all integers a and b,
Multiplication is commutative for integers. In general, for any two integers a and b, a × b = b × a
The product of a negative integer and zero is zero a × 0 = 0 × a=0
1 is the multiplicative identity for integers. a × 1 = 1 × a = a
Multiplication is associative for integers, (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
The distributivity of multiplication over addition is true for integers. a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
The distributivity of multiplication over subtraction is true for integers. a × (b – c) = a × b – a × c
When we divide a positive integer by a negative integer, we first divide them as whole numbers and then put a minus sign (-) before the quotient. a ÷ (-b) = (-a) ÷ b where b ≠ 0
When we divide a negative integer by a negative integer, we first divide them as whole numbers and then put a positive sign (+). (-a) ÷ (-b) = a ÷ b where b ≠ 0
Any integer divided by 1 gives the same number. a ÷ 1 = a
For any integer a, we have a ÷ 0 is not defined.
Natural numbers, whole numbers and integers: The numbers 1, 2, 3,……… which we use for counting are known as natural numbers. The natural numbers along with zero forms the collection of whole numbers. The numbers……., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, form the collection of integers.
Integers
Whole numbers
1. The integers form a bigger group which contains whole numbers and negative numbers.
1. The whole numbers do not form a group as big as integers because they do not contain negative numbers.
2. The group of integers includes all the whole numbers.
2. The group of whole numbers does not include all the integers.
3. There is no smallest integer.
3. 0 is the smallest whole number.
4. Integers are closed under subtraction.
4. Whole numbers are not closed under subtraction.
In this chapter, we shall learn more about integers, their properties and operations.
Properties of Addition and Subtraction of Integers Closure Under Addition We know that the addition of two whole numbers is again a whole number. For example, 17 + 24 = 41 which is a whole number. This property is known as the closure property for the addition of whole numbers.
This property is true for integers also, i.e., the sum of two integers is always an integer. We cannot find a pair of integers whose addition is not an integer. Since additions of integers give integers, we can say integers are closed under’addition just like whole numbers. In general, for any two integers a and b, a + b is also an integer.
Closure Under Subtraction If we subtract two integers, then their difference is also an integer. We cannot find any pair of integers whose difference is not an integer. Since subtraction of integers gives integers, we can say integers are closed under subtraction. In general, for any two integers a and b, a – b is also an integer. Note: The whole numbers do not satisfy this property. For example: 5 – 7 = -2 which is not a whole number.
Commutative Property Commutativity of Addition: We know that 3+ 5 = 5 + 3 = 8, that is, the whole numbers can be added in any order. In other words, addition is commutative for whole numbers. Similarly, the addition is commutative for integers. We cannot find any pair of integers for which the sum is different when the order is changed. So, we conclude that addition is commutative for integers also. In general, for any two integers a and b, we can say that a + b = b + a.
Commutativity of Subtraction: We know that the subtraction is not commutative for whole numbers. For example, 10 – 20 = -10 and 20 – 10 = 10 So, 10 – 20 ≠ 20 – 10 Similarly, the subtraction is not commutative for integers.
Associative Property We cannot find any example for which sum is different when the order of addition is changed. This shows that addition is associative for integers. In general, for any integers a, b and c, we can say that a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Additive Identity When we add zero to any whole number {i.e., zero and positive integer), we get the same whole number. So, zero is an additive identity for whole numbers. In particular, we can say that zero is an additive identity for positive integers. Consider the following examples: (-8) + 0 = -8 (-23) + 0 = -23 0 + (-37) = -37 0 + (-59) = -59 0 + (-43) = -43 -61 + 0 = -61 -50 + 0 = -50 These examples show that zero is an additive identity for negative integers also. Thus, we can say that zero is an additive identity for integers. In general, for any integer a, a + 0 = a = 0 + a
Product of Three or More Negative Integers We find that if the number of negative integers in a product is even, the product is a positive integer; if the number of negative integers in a product is odd, the product is a negative integer.
Properties of Multiplication of Integers Closure Under Multiplication Closure: Let us observe the following table: We observe that the product of two integers is an integer. We cannot find a pair of integers whose product is not an integer. This gives an idea that the product of two integers is again an integer. So, we say that integers are closed under multiplication. In general, a × b is an integer, for all integers a and b.
Commutativity of Multiplication We know that multiplication is commutative for whole numbers (i.e., zero and positive integers). Now, let us observe the following table: We observe that two integers can be multiplied in any order. The above examples suggest commutativity of multiplication of integers. So, in general, we can say that for any two integers a and b, a × b = b × a.
Multiplication by Zero We know that any whole number [i.e., zero and positive integers] multiplied by zero gives zero. Let us observe the following table showing the product of a negative integer and zero. (-3) × 0 = 0 0 × (-4) = 0 (-5) × 0 = 0 0 × (-6) = 0 This table shows that the product of a negative integer and zero is again zero. In general, for any integer a, a × 0 = 0 × a = 0
Multiplicative Identity We know that 1 is the multiplicative identity for whole numbers (i.e., zero and positive integers). Let us observe the following table showing the product of a negative integer and 1. (-3) × 1 = -3 (-4) × 1 = -4 1 × (-5) = -5 1 × (-6) = -6 This table shows that 1 is the multiplicative identity for negative integers also. In general, for any integer a, we have, a × 1 = 1 × a = a
Multiplication with (-1): Let us observe the following table showing the product of an integer and (-1). (-3) × (-1) = 3 3 × (-1) = – 3 (-6) × (-1) = 6 (-1) × 13 = -13 (-1) × (-25) = 25 18 × (-1) = -18. This table shows that (-1) is not the multiplicative identity for integers because when we multiply an integer with (-1) or (-1) with an integer, the result is the integer with the sign changed, i.e., we do not get the same integer. Therefore, for any integer a, we have, a × (-1) = (-1) × a = -a ≠ a
Note: 0 is the additive identity whereas 1 is the multiplicative identity for integers. We get additive inverse of an integer a when we multiply (-1) to a, i.e., a × (-1) = (-1) × a = -a.
Associativity for Multiplication Take the integer (- 3). Multiply it with (- 2) to get 6, i.e., (-3) × (-2) = 6. Then, multiply the product 6 with 5 to get 30, i.e., [(-3) × (-2)] × 5 = 6 × 5 = 30. Also, (-2) × 5 = (-10). Multiply integer (-3) with (-10) to get 30. i.e., (-3) × [(-2) × 5] = (-3) × (-10) = 30. So, we get the same answer in both the processes, i.e., we get [(-3) × (-2)] × 5 = (-3) × [(-2) × 5] We observe that the arrangement of integers does not affect the product of integers. In general, for any three integers a, b and c, (a × b) × c = a × (b × c) Thus, like whole numbers, the product of three integers does not depend upon the arrangement of integers and this is called associative property for multiplication of integers.
Distributive Property (i) Distributivity of Multiplication Over Addition: We know that the property of distributivity of multiplication over addition is true for whole numbers. For example: 16 × (10 + 2) = (16 × 10) + (16 × 2).
(ii) Distributivity of Multiplication Over Subtraction: We know that the property of distributivity of multiplication over subtraction is true for whole numbers (i.e. zero and positive integers). For example: 4 × (3 – 8) = 4 × 3 – 4 × 8 This property is also true for integers. For example: (-9) × [10-(-3)] = (-9) × 13 = -117 and, -9 × 10 – (-9) × (-3) = -90 – 27 = -117 So, (-9) × [10-(-3)]=(-9) × 10 – (-9) × (-3). We find that these are also equal. In general, for any three integers a, b and c, a × (b – c) = a × b – a × c.
Division of Integers 1. The division is the inverse operation of multiplication. Observing the entries in the above table, we find that
When we divide a negative integer by a positive integer, we get a negative integer.
When we divide a positive integer by a negative integer, we get a negative integer.
When we divide a negative integer by a negative integer, we get a positive integer.
2. Division of a negative integer by a positive integer We observe that (-12) ÷ 6 = -2 = -(12 ÷ 6) (-32) ÷ 4 = -8 = -(32 ÷ 4) (-45) ÷ 5 = -9 = -(45 ÷ 5) (-12) ÷ 2 = -6 = -(12 ÷ 2) (- 20) ÷ 5 = -4 = -(20 ÷ 5) So, we find that while dividing a negative integer by a positive integer, we divide them as whole numbers and put a minus sign (-) before the quotient (i.e. we get a negative integer).
3. Division of a positive integer by a negative integer We also observe that 72 ÷ (- 8) = -9 = – (72 ÷ 8) 21 ÷ 7 = -3 = -(27 ÷ 7) This shows that while dividing a positive integer by a negative integer, we divide them as whole numbers and put a minus sign (-) before the quotient (i.e., we get a negative integer).
4. If the dividend and divisor are of opposite sign, then the quotient is negative integer. Wehave, (—48) ÷ 8= -(48 ÷ 8) = -6 (48) ÷ (-8) = -(48÷8) = -6 So, (-48) ÷ 8 = -6 = 48 ÷ (-8)
5. Division of a negative integer by a negative integer Lastly we observe that (-20) ÷ (-4) = 5 = 20 ÷ 4 (-12) ÷ (-6) = 2 = 12 ÷ 6 (-32) ÷ (-8) = 4 = 32 ÷ 8 (-45) ÷ (-9) = 5 = 45 ÷ 9 Here, we notice that while dividing a negative integer by a negative integer, we divide them as whole numbers and put a positive sign i.e. we get a positive integer. We can say that if dividend and divisor are of same signs, then the quotient is a positive integer.
Properties of Division of Integers (i) Closure: We know that integers are closed under addition, subtraction and multiplication. However, the integers are not closed under division. It can be observed from the following table:
(ii) Commutativity: We know that division is not commutative for whole numbers. For example 16 ÷ 4 ≠ 4 ÷ 16. Similarly, the division is not commutative for integers. Note: The division is commutative for integers when the dividend and divisor are equal.
(iii) Like whole numbers, any integer divided by zero is meaningless and zero divided by any integer (other than zero) is equal to zero, i.e., for any integer a, a + 0 is not defined but 0 ÷ a (≠0) = 0.
(iv) When we divide a whole number (i.e., zero and positive integers) by 1, it gives the same whole number. It is true for negative integers also. For example: (-8) ÷ 1 = -8 (-11) ÷ 1 = -11 These examples show that negative integer divided by one gives the same negative integer. So, any integer divided by 1 gives the same integer. In general, we can say that for any integer a, a ÷ 1 = a.
Southwest Monsoon Season (Rainy) June to September
Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn) October and November
Cold Weather Season or Winter
During the winter season, the sun rays do not fall directly in the region. As a result, the temperatures are quite low in northern India.
Hot Weather Season or Summer
In the hot weather season sun rays more or less directly fall in this region. The temperature becomes very high. Hot and dry winds called loo, blow during the day.
South-West Monsoon Season or Rainy Season
This season is marked by the onset and advance of monsoon. The winds blow from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal towards the land. They carry moisture with them. When these winds strike the mountain barriers, rainfall occurs.
Season of Retreating Monsoon or Autumn
Winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal. This season is called the retreating monsoons. The southern parts of India, particularly Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall in this season.
The climate is about the average weather condition, which has been measured over many years. The climate of India has broadly been described as Monsoon type.
Monsoon is taken from the Arabic word ‘mausim’, which means seasons. Due to India’s location in the tropical region, most of the rain is brought by monsoon winds. Agriculture in India is dependent on rains. Good monsoons mean adequate rain and a bountiful crop. The climate of a place is affected by its location, altitude, distance from the sea, and relief. Therefore, we experience regional differences in the climate of India.
Natural Vegetation
We see a variety of plant life in our surroundings like small plants called bushes and shrubs like cactus and flowering plants etc. Besides there are many tall trees, some with many branches and leaves like neem, mango or some, which stand with few leaves such as palm. The grasses, shrubs and trees, which grow on their own without interference or help from human beings are called natural vegetation. Different types of natural vegetation are dependent on different climatic conditions, among which the amount of rainfall is very important. Due to varied climatic conditions, India has a wide range of natural vegetation.
Why are Forests Necessary?
Forests are very useful and perform various functions. Plants release oxygen that we breathe and absorb carbon dioxide. The roots of the plants bind the soil; thus, they control soil erosion. Forests provide us with timber for furniture, fuelwood, fodder, medicinal plants and herbs, lac, honey, gum, etc.
Forests are the natural habitat of wildlife. Natural vegetation has been destroyed to a large extent because of the reckless cutting of trees.
Wildlife
Forests are home to a variety of species of animals and a large variety of reptiles, amphibians, mammals, birds, insects and worms which dwell in the forest. The tiger is our national animal. It is found in various parts of the country. Gir forest in Gujarat is the home of Asiatic lions. Elephants and one-horned rhinoceroses roam in the forests of Assam. Elephants are also found in Kerala and Karnataka. Camels and wild asses are found in the Great Indian desert and the Rann of Kuchchh respectively.
The peacock is our national bird. Other common birds are parrots, pigeons, mynah, geese, bulbul and ducks. There are several bird sanctuaries which have been created to give birds their natural habitat.
There are several hundreds of species of snakes found in India. Cobras and kraits are important among them. Due to the cutting of forests and hunting, several species of wildlife of India are declining rapidly. Many species have already become extinct. In order to protect them many national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves have been set up. The Government has also started Project Tiger and Project Elephant to protect these animals.
India is located in the northern hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N) passes almost halfway through the country. From south to north, mainland of India extends between 8°4’N and 37°6’N latitudes. From west to east, India extends between 68°7’E and 97°25’E longitudes. Due to great longitudinal extent of about 29°, there could be wide differences in local time of places located at two extreme points of India. As such, the difference between these two points would be of about two hours.
India’s Neighbours
There are seven countries that share land boundaries with India.
Political and Administrative Divisions
India is a vast country divided into 29 States and 7 Union Territories. Telangana became the 29th state of India on 2 June 2014. It was previously a part of Andhra Pradesh. Delhi is the national capital. The states have been formed mainly on the basis of languages.
Physical Divisions
India has diversity of physical features such as mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts and islands. Himalaya mean ‘the abode of snow’. The Himalayan mountains are divided into three main parallel ranges. The northernmost is the Great Himalaya or Himadri. The world’s highest peaks are located in this range. Middle Himalaya or Himachal lies to the south of Himadri.
The Northern Indian plains lie to the south of the Himalayas. They are generally level and flat. These are formed by the alluvial deposits laid down by the rivers– the Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their tributaries. These river plains provide fertile land for cultivation. That is the reason for high concentration of population in these plains.
In the western part of India lies the Great Indian desert, dry, hot and sandy stretch of land. To the south of northern plains lies the Peninsular plateau. This is a region with numerous hill ranges and valleys. Aravalli hills, one of the oldest ranges of the world, border it on the north-west side. The Vindhyas and the Satpuras are the important ranges. The rivers Narmada and Tapi flow through these ranges. These are west-flowing rivers that drain into the Arabian Sea. The Western Ghats or Sahyadri’s border the plateau in the west and the Eastern Ghats provide the eastern boundary. The plateau is rich in minerals like coal and iron-ore. To the West of the Western Ghats and the East of Eastern Ghats lie the Coastal plains. The western coastal plains are very narrow. The eastern Coastal plains are much broader. There are a number of east flowing rivers. The rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers have formed fertile deltas at their mouth. The Sunderban delta is formed where the Ganga and Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of Bengal.
Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea. These are coral islands located off the coast of Kerala. The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lie to the southeast of the Indian mainland in the Bay of Bengal.
A mountain is any natural elevation of the earth surface.
There are permanently frozen rivers of ice. They are called glaciers.
Mountains may be arranged in a line known as the range.
The Himalaya, the Alps and the Andes are mountain ranges.
There are three types of mountains—Fold Mountains, Block Mountains and Volcanic Mountains.
The Himalayan Mountains and the Alps are young fold mountains.
The Aravalli range in India is one of the oldest fold mountain systems.
Block Mountains are created when large areas are broken and displaced vertically.
Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic activity, e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa.
Plateaus
A plateau is an elevated flat land.
The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus.
The Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world.
The African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining.
The lava plateaus are rich in black soil that are fertile and good for cultivation.
Plains
Plains are large stretches of flat land.
Most of the plains are formed by rivers and their tributaries.
In India, the Indo-Gangetic plains are the most densely populated region of the country.
Landforms and the People
Humans have been living in different kinds of landforms in different ways.
Sometimes, natural calamities such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storms and floods cause widespread destruction.
The surface of the earth is not the same everywhere.
Mountains, plateaus and plains are different landforms of the earth.
A mountain is a natural elevation of the earth surface. There are three types of mountains—Fold mountains, Block mountains and Volcanic mountains.
A plateau is an elevated flat land. It is a flat-topped table land standing above the surrounding area. A plateau may have one or more sides with steep slopes.
The Deccan plateau is one of the oldest plateaus.
The Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world.
Plains are large stretches of flat land. Some plains are extremely level while others may be slightly rolling and undulating.
Human habitation is found on different kinds of landforms. But population varies on these landforms. Mountains are generally not thickly populated. But plains are the regions where the thick population is found.
The land is precious. We must not use it in a wasteful manner. Construction work of any type should not be carried on fertile land. Also, we should not throw garbage on land. It is our duty to take care of the land or any other natural gift. If we do this we will be conscious citizens
The outermost part of the Earth which consists of Upper Mantle and Crust of the Earth is known as Lithosphere.
Tectonic plates are a subdivision of Lithosphere.
Lithosphere has rigid mechanical properties. Pedosphere is the uppermost part of the lithosphere which reacts chemically with other 3 other major domains of earth namely; hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere.
Thickness – about 100 km.
There are Two Main Divisions of the Earth’s Surface
Continents – the large landmasses.
The Highest Mountain Peak on this earth is Mount Everest. The current official elevation is 8,848 metres above sea level. The elevation was measured and established by an Indian survey conducted in 1955. The border between Nepal and China runs across its summit points.
Ocean basins – the huge water bodies.
Mariana Trench is the deepest Oceanic trench on Earth. The deepest portion is at 11,034 metres. Mariana Trench is located in the Pacific Ocean. Mariana Trench is 69 km in width and 2550 km in length. Mariana Trench derives its name from the nearby Mariana Islands which is located at around 200 km from the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean.
Continents
There are seven major continents and these are separated by large water bodies.
1. Asia
The largest continent on Earth is Asia.
Asia is also the most populous continent on earth i.e. it is home to approximately 60% of the world’s population as of 2019.
Asian continent occupies approximately 30% of the Earths total land area.
To the south of the Asian continent lies the Indian Ocean, to its North lies the Arctic Ocean and to its East lies the Pacific Ocean.
Asia and Africa are separated by the Suez Canal.
Asia and Europe are separated by the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.
2. Africa
The 2nd largest continent on Earth in Africa. Africa covers 20% of the Earths total land area.
Africa is also the 2nd most populous country on Earth.
A large part of Africa lies in the Northern Hemisphere.
The Equator, Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn passes through Africa. It holds the distinction of the only continent having all 3 latitudes passing through it.
Worlds longest river Nile is in Africa. It has 2 main tributaries and passes through 11 countries. It flows from Tanzania located in South of Africa and flows till Egypt located in the North of Africa. This is a Northward flowing river and is around 6650 km long.
The largest hot desert on Earth is the Sahara Desert which is located in Africa. It extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the West, to the Red Sea located in the East. The Sahara Desert covers a large part of the African Continent. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the North of Sahara Desert.
3. Europe
Europe is the 6th largest continent of Earth, occupying around 2% of the surface of the Earth.
Russia is the largest country in the European continent.
Western Civilization was born in Europe.
Atlantic Currents has the biggest influence on the European Continent.
To the South of Europe lies the Atlantic Ocean, to the North of Europe lies the Arctic Ocean, to the West of Europe lies the Atlantic Ocean.
4. North America
North Americais the third largest continent in the world.
The continent lies completely in the Northern and Western Hemisphere.
The Isthmus of Panama a narrow strip links North America and South America.
This continent is surrounded by three oceans and they are the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.
5. South America
There are 12 Sovereign States in South America.
This Continent is located in the Southern Hemisphere. In terms of total area, South America is the 4th largest continent.
The Pacific Ocean is located to the West of South America.
To the East of South America lies the Atlantic Ocean.
Brazil is the most populous country in South America.
The Andes Mountain is the worlds longest above water Mountain range and it is located in South America.
The worlds largest river is the Amazon river and it is located in South America.
6. Australia
Australia is the smallest continent that lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.
It is surrounded on all sides by the oceans and seas.
It is called an island continent.
7. Antarctica
Antarctica is a huge continent and lies completely in the Southern Hemisphere.
The South Pole lies in the South Polar Region almost at the centre of this continent and is permanently covered with thick ice sheets.
Various countries have their research stations here. India also has its permanent research base stations here, namely Maitri, Dakshin Gangotri, and Bharati.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere includes water on earth in Oceans, Seas, Rivers, Lakes and even in frozen forms.
Only 2.5% of Earths water is freshwater. And even in this 2.5%; approximately 69% is in the form of snow and ice.
97.5% of Earths water is salt water, which is unfit for human consumption.
Approximately 71% of the Earth surface is covered by oceans.
Oceans
The three chief movements of ocean waters are the waves, the tides and the ocean currents.
Oceans are the major part of the hydrosphere and they are all interconnected.
The Five Major Oceans in order of their size are
the Pacific Ocean: It is almost circular in shape. Asia, Australia, North and South Americas surround it.
the Atlantic Ocean: It is the second-largest ocean in the world. It is ‘S’ shaped. It is flanked by the North and South Americas on the western side, and Europe and Africa on the eastern side.
the Indian Ocean: It is the only ocean named after a country, that is, India. The shape of the ocean is almost triangular. In the north, it is bound by Asia, in the west by Africa and in the east by Australia.
the Southern Ocean: It surrounds the continent of Antarctica
the Arctic Ocean: It is located within the Arctic Circle and surrounds the North Pole. The Bering strait a narrow stretch of shallow water connects it with the Pacific Ocean.
Atmosphere
The earth is surrounded by a layer of gas called the atmosphere.
The atmosphere extends up to a height of about 1,600 kilometres.
The atmosphere is divided into five layers based on composition, temperature and other properties and they are:
the troposphere
the stratosphere
the mesosphere
the thermosphere
the exosphere
About 99 per cent of clean and dry air in the atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen 78 per cent, oxygen 21 per cent and other gases like carbon dioxide, argon and others comprise 1 per cent by volume.
Biosphere – The Domain of Life
The biosphere is the narrow zone of contact between the land, water and air.
It is the zone where life exists that makes this planet unique.
The organisms in the biosphere are commonly divided into:
the plant kingdom
the animal kingdom
The three domains of the earth interact with each other and affect each other in some way or the other.
Map – A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface according to a scale.
Atlas – When many maps are put together we get an Atlas. Atlases are of various sizes, measurements drawn on different scales.
They are of different types of maps. Some of them are described below.
Physical Maps
Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans etc., are called physical or relief maps.
Political Maps
Maps showing cities, towns and villages, and different countries and states of the world with their boundaries are called political maps.
Thematic Maps
Some maps that focus on specific information; such as road maps, rainfall maps, maps showing distribution of forests, industries etc., are known as thematic maps.
There are three Components of Maps – distance, direction and symbol.
Distance
Scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map. Scale is very important on any map. If you know the scale, you will be able to calculate the distance between any two places on a map. When large areas like continents or countries are to be shown on paper, then we use a small scale. It is called a small scale map. When a small area like your village or town is to be shown on paper, then we use a large scale that is 5 cm. It is called a large scale map.
Direction
There are four major directions, North, South, East and West. They are called cardinal points. Other four intermediate directions are north-east (NE), southeast (SE), south-west (SW) and north-west (NW). We can find out the direction of a place with the help of a compass. It is an instrument used to find out main directions. Its magnetic needle always points towards north-south direction.
Symbols
It is the third important component of a map. It is not possible to draw on a map the actual shape and size of different features such as buildings, roads, etc. So, they are shown by using certain letters, shades, colours, pictures and lines. These symbols give a lot of information in a limited space. Maps have a universal language that can be understood by all. There is an international agreement regarding the use of these symbols. These are called conventional symbols.
Various colours are used for the same purpose. For example, generally blue is used for showing water bodies, brown for mountain, yellow for plateau and green is used for plains.
Sketch
A sketch is a drawing mainly based on memory and spot observation and not to scale. Sometimes a rough drawing is required of an area to tell where a particular place is located with respect to other places. Such a rough drawing is drawn without scale and is called a sketch map.
Plan
A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale. A large-scale map gives a lot of information, but there are certain things, which we may sometimes want to know, for example the length and breadth of a room, which can’t be shown in a map. At that time, we can refer drawings drawn to scale called a plan.
Rotation is the movement of the Earth, on its axis.
The axis of the Earth, which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66/2° with its orbital plane.
The portion facing the Sun experiences day, while the other half away from the Sun experiences night.
The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
The Earth takes about 24 hrs to complete one rotation around its axis, it is known as earthday.
Revolution
The movement of the Earth around the Sun in a fixed path or orbit is called revolution.
Earth takes 365)4 days to revolve around the Sun.
Every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is called a leap year.
Earth is going around the Sun in an elliptical-orbit.
Seasons change due to change in the position of the Earth around the Sun.
Summer solstice is the position of the Earth when the Northern Hemisphere has the longest day and the shortest night. It
occurs on 21st June.
In the Southern Hemisphere, it is winter season at this time. The days are short and the nights are long.
Winter Solstice is the position of the earth when Southern Hemisphere has long days and shorter nights. In the Northern
Hemisphere, the days are short and the nights are long. It occurs on 22nd December.
On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator and the whole earth experiences equal days
and equal nights. This is called an equinox.
The earth has two types of motions—rotation and revolution.
Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. In revolution the earth moves around the sun in a fixed path or orbit.
The axis of the earth is an imaginary line.
The earth receives light from the sun. As the shape of the earth is spherical, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time. The other half remains dark. In this way day and night are caused.
The earth completes one rotation around its axis in about 24 hours. This rotation is the daily motion of the earth.
The earth takes 365 14 days or one year to complete one revolution around the sun.
There are four seasons in a year—summer, winter, spring and autumn. Seasons change due to the change in the position of the earth around the sun.
The rays of sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. Hence, these areas are hot.
• The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.
In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the summer solstice.
When there is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere enjoys winter season and vice-versa.
In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the winter solstice.
On 21st March and September 23rd the whole earth experiences equal’days and equal nights. This is phenomenon is known as equinox.
On 23rd September, it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Sourthern Hemisphere.
On 21st March, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Sourthern Hemisphere.
Days and nights occur due to rotation while changes in seasons occur due to revolution.
Rotation: The movement of the earth on its axis is known as rotation.
Revolution: The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is known as revolution.
Orbital plane: The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.
Circle of illumination: The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
Leap year: The year in which February is of 29 days instead of 28 days is called a leap year.
Summer solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere, the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called summer solstice.
Winter solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called winter solstice.
Equinox: On 21st March and September 23rd the entire earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is known as the equinox.
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Torrid Zones – The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the Torrid Zone.
Temperate Zones – The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. These are called Temperate Zones.
Frigid Zones – Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere are very cold. It is because here the sun does not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting and provide less heat. These are called Frigid Zones.
What are Longitudes?
Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole and are at right angles to the Equator. The distances between meridians of longitude are measured in degrees of longitude. Each degree is further divided into minutes, and minutes into seconds.
Prime Meridian is an imaginary line on Earth that passes north to south through the Greenwich Observatory in London, England. The prime meridian divides Earth into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. The prime meridian is at 0° (0 degrees) longitude. The longitude of a place is followed by the letter E for the east and W for the west.
Longitude and Time
The best means of measuring time is by the movement of the earth, the moon and the planets. When the Prime Meridian of Greenwich has the sun at the highest point in the sky, all the places along this meridian will have mid-day or noon. As the earth rotates from west to east, those places east of Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich time and those to the west will be behind it.
The rate of difference can be calculated as follows. The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15° an hour or 1° in four minutes. Thus, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich, the time at 15° east of Greenwich will be 15 × 4 = 60 minutes, i.e., 1 hour ahead of Greenwich time, which means 1 p.m. But at 15° west of Greenwich, the time will be behind Greenwich time by one hour, i.e., it will be 11.00 a.m. Similarly, at 180°, it will be midnight when it is 12 noon at Greenwich.
Why do we have Standard Time?
The local time of places, which are on different meridians are bound to differ. In India, for instance, there will be a difference of about 1 hour and 45 minutes in the local times of Dwarka in Gujarat and Dibrugarh in Assam. It is, therefore, necessary to adopt the local time of some central meridian of a country as the standard time for the country. In India, the longitude of 82½° E (82° 30’E) is treated as the standard meridian. The local time at this meridian is taken as the standard time for the whole country. It is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
