Rulers and Buildings Class 7 Notes History Chapter 5

Rulers and Buildings Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 5

In medieval period rulers built private and public buildings like forts, palaces, tombs, temples, mosques, tanks, etc

Engineering Skills and Construction

• Monuments provide an insight into the technologies used for construction.
• Between the seventh and tenth centuries, architects started adding more rooms, doors and windows to buildings.
• Roofs, doors and windows were made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns, a style of architecture called ‘trabeate’ or ‘corbelled’.
• Two technological and stylistic developments from the twelfth century are ‘arcuate architectural’ form and use of limestone mixed with stone chips that led to faster construction.
• Assimilation of Indian style with Persian style of architecture was prominent.

Buildings, Temples, Mosques and Tanks

• Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they were places of worship and meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the patron.
• The largest temples were all constructed by kings. The other, lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.
• Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of God but Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God’.
• As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasise their moral right to be rulers.
• It was widely believed that the rule of a just king would be an age of plenty when the heavens would not withhold rain.

Why Were Temples Destroyed?

• Since kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, they attacked and targeted these buildings when they attacked one another’s kingdoms.
• In the early 11th century, when the Chola king Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital he filled it with prized statues seized from defeated rulers.

Gardens, Tombs and Forts

• Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan were personally interested in literature, art and architecture.
• Babur got gardens called Chahar Bagh (four gardens) built in Kabul. They were further constructed in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi by Akbar, Jehangir and Shah Jahan.
• Akbar’s architecture is visible in his father, Humayun’s tomb.
• Under Shah Jahan, Mughal architecture was fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis.
• The ceremonial halls of the public and private audience (diwan-i-Khas; diwan-i-am) were carefully planned.
• Shah Jahan adapted the Chahar Bagh technique in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest architectural accomplishment of his reign.

Region and Empire

• As construction activity increased between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, there was also a considerable sharing of ideas across regions.
• In Vijayanagar, for example, the elephant stables of the rulers were strongly influenced by the style of architecture found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
• In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were constructed in architectural styles that were very similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
• The creation of large empires that brought different regions under their rule helped in this cross¬fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles.
• The Mughals adopted the ‘Bangla dome’ in their architecture.

Between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries kings and their officers built two kinds of structures—the first were forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs and the second was structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, bazaars, etc.

Merchants and others also carried out construction activity. They built temples, mosques and wells.

Between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, the trabeate style (a style of architecture in which roofs, doors and window were made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns) was used in building temples, mosques, etc.

The early eleventh century temples were decorated with elaborately carved sculptures. The temples had shikhara too.

rom the twelfth century, two technological and stylistic developments came to be noticed—firstly, the weight of the superstructure above the doors and window was sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was known as ‘arcuate’, secondly, limestone cement was increasingly used in construction.

Temples and mosques were built to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the patron.

According to an inscription the Rajarajeshvara temple was built by King Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Here, it is worth mentioning that the name of the ruler and the god are very similar. The king took the god’s name because it was auspicious and he wanted to appear like a god.

But Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god. However, Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God’.

Rulers also built tanks and reservoirs and got praise. Sultan lltutmish won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just outside Delhi-i Kuhna. It was called the Hanzi Sultani or the king’s Reservoir.

Kings built temples but they often looted them while attacking one another’s kingdoms.

In the early 11th century when the Chola King Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital he filled it with prised statues seized from defeated rulers.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the temples of defeated kings and looted their wealth and idols.

Under the Mughal rulers, gardens, tombs and forts were built.

Babur was interested in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. These gardens were called Chahar Bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division into quarters.

During Akbar’s reign tomb architecture became important. His architects turned to the tombs of his central Asian ancestors, Timur. The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) were important aspects of Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.

Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque.

He adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal. Here, the white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to control the access that nobles had to the river.

In the new city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed in Delhi, the imperial palace commanded the river-front. Only especially favoured nobles were given access to the river.

The Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of their own buildings.

In Bengal, the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut. The Mughals liked this ‘Bangla dome’.

In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri, many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

Superstructure: It refers to the part of a building above the ground floor.

Baolis: They were large stepped-wells.

Shikhara: The top-most point of the temple.

Arcuate: An architectural form in which the weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches.

Chahar Bagh: Four gardens.

Pishtaq: The tall gateway.

Pietra dura: Coloured, hard stones placed in depressions carved into marble or sandstone creating beautiful ornate patterns.

Diwan-i Khas or am: The ceremonial halls of public and private audience.

Hasht bihisht or Eight paradises: A central hall surrounded by eight rooms.

The Mughal Empire Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 4

Notes of Ch 4 The Mughal Empire Class 7th History

• From the latter half of the sixteenth century, the Mughals expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi

→ Until in the seventeenth century, the Mughals created huge empire which controlled nearly all of the subcontinent.

• They imposed structures of administration and ideas of governance that lasted even after their rule.

Who were the Mughals?

• The Mughals were the descendants of two great lineages of rulers, Genghis Khan and Timur.

Mughal Military Campaigns

Babur (1526-1530)

• Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12 years old.

• In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra.

• In 1527, he defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanua.

• In 1528, he defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi;

• He established control over Agra and Delhi before his death.

Humaayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556)

• He was defeated by Sher Khan at Chausa in 1539 and Kanauj in 1540 forcing him to flee to Iran.

• He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died the next year after an accident in a building.

Akbar (1556-1605)

• Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor.

• After 1570, Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam Khan.

• He launched military campaign against the Suris and other Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of his half-brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. 

• In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569 Ranthambhor.

• During 1570-1585, military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.

• During 1585-1605, campaigns were launched in the north-west. 

→ Qandahar was seized from the Safavids

→ Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death of Mirza Hakim. 

→ Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.

Jahangir (1605-1627)

• The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service. 

• Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.

Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

• Campaigns continued in the Deccan.

• The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated. 

• The Bundelas were defeated and Orchha seized. 

• In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids. 

• In 1632, Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapur forces sued for peace.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• He became Emperor after killing his brothers and imprisoning his father, Shah Jahan.

• In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s. 

• Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful.

• Maratha chieftain Shivaji declared himself an independent king and resumed his campaigns against the Mughals.

• Bijapur was annexed in 1685 and Golconda in 1687. 

• From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas.

• He also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the north-east

of the Ahoms.

• His death was followed by a succession conflict amongst his sons.

Mughal Traditions of Succession

• Mughal followed coparcenary inheritance, or a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons.

Mughal Relations with Other Rulers

• As the Mughals became powerful many other rulers also joined them voluntarily.

→ But many resisted as well.

• The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to

extend their influence over many kings and chieftains.

Mansabdars and Jagirdars

• Groups coming from different backgrounds such as Iranians, Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas joined Mughal service were enrolled as mansabdars.

• The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or

cavalrymen.

• Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs.

Zabt and Zamindars

• The main source of revenue was tax on the produce of peasants. The intermediaries who collected taxes were called zamindars.

• Zabt was the revenue system which was started by when Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields and fixed tax on each crop in cash.

Akbar’s Policies

• Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar

who carried out both political and military functions.

• Each province also had a financial officer or diwan.

• For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the subadar was supported by other officers.

• Akbar started the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace” which was a idea of tolerance that did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm.

• This principle of governance was followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well.

The Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century and After

• The administrative and military efficiency of the Mughal Empire led to great economic and commercial prosperity.

• The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent large part of their income on salaries and goods which benefited the artisans and peasantry who supplied them with goods and produce.

• In the late seventeenth century, the enormous wealth and resources commanded by the Mughal elite made them an extremely powerful group of people.

• As the authority of the Mughal emperor slowly declined, his servants emerged as powerful centres of power in the regions.

• By the eighteenth century, the provinces of the empire such as Hyderabad and Awadh had consolidated their independent political identities.

इस कहानी की लेखिका इस्मत चुगताई जी हैं। इस्मत चुगताई की कहानी “कामचोर” , लगभग ऐसे हर घर की कहानी है जिसमें दो या दो से ज्यादा बच्चे व भी कामचोर होते हैं। यह कहानी लेखिका व उसके परिवार के अन्य बच्चों की कहानी है जो दिन भर या तो बैठकर आराम फरमाते रहते हैं या फिर मौज मस्ती और शरारत करने में अपना पूरा दिन निकाल देते थे। यहां तक कि वे खुद के कार्य भी अपने आप नहीं करते थे।

ऐसे में घर के बड़ों ने सोचा कि घर के सारे नौकरों को निकाल दिया जाए और इन निकम्मे बच्चों को घर के छोटे-बड़े कामों में हाथ बटाँना सिखाया जाए । सोच को हकीकत का रूप देने से असली कहानी की शुरूवात होती हैं। 

मां-बाप के बातों को सुनकर बच्चों ने सोचा कि हमें भी कुछ काम खुद करने चाहिए। सो बच्चों ने काम की शुरुवात अपने लिए पीने का पानी खुद लाने से की और फिर सभी बच्चे मटके और सुराहियों से पानी लेने दौड़ पड़े।

फिर क्या था पहले पानी लेने के चक्कर में धक्का-मुक्की शुरू हो गई। कोई किसी से डरने वाला नहीं था और कोई किसी की सुनने वाला भी नहीं था। सो वहीं पर फिर से लड़ाई झगड़ा शुरू हो गया। नतीजा सारे मटके , सुराहियों , पतीलियों इधर-उधर बिखर गई और बच्चे बुरी तरह से पानी से भीग गए।

लेखिका की मां ने फरमान सुनाया “जो काम नहीं करेगा। उसे रात का खाना नहीं दिया जाएगा”।  यह सुनते ही सभी बच्चे काम करने के लिए राजी हो गये। लेखिका की मां ने बच्चों को कई सारे काम बताए। जैसे गंदी दरी को साफ करना , आंगन में पड़े कूड़े को साफ करना , पेड़ पौधों में पानी देना आदि। साथ में लेखिका के पिता ने बच्चों को इनाम का लालच भी दिया।

बच्चों ने अपने काम की शुरुआत फर्श पर पड़ी दरी साफ करने से शुरू की। दरी की धूल साफ करने के लिए बच्चों ने उस पर लकड़ी के डंडों से मारना शुरू कर दिया जिसकी वजह से दरी की सारी धूल कमरे में फैल गई और बच्चों के नाक और आंखों में धुस गई जिसकी वजह से बच्चे खाँसते-खाँसते बेदम हो गए।

इसके बाद बच्चों ने दूसरा मोर्चा संभाला आंगन में झाड़ू लगाने का। कुछ बच्चों के दिमाग में यह बात आयी कि झाड़ू लगाने से पहले थोड़ा पानी डाल देना चाहिए। फिर क्या था दरी में डालकर पानी छिड़कने का कार्य शुरू हुआ। काम तो क्या होना था। लेकिन छीना झपटी की वजह से बच्चों ने झाड़ू के तिनके तिनके बिखेर दिए। पानी डालने की वजह से पूरा आंगन व बच्चे कीचड़ से सन गये।

खैर अगला काम था पेड़ – पौधों में पानी देना। सारे बच्चे घर की सारी बाल्टियों , लोटे , भगौने आदि लेकर पौधों में पानी डालने निकल पड़े। अब पानी भरने के लिए भी लड़ाई झगड़ा , धक्का-मुक्की शुरू हो गई। नतीजा सारे बच्चे कीचड़ से सन गये। बच्चों को काबू करने के लिए सभी बड़ों को ( भाइयों , मामा-मामी , मौसी आदि ) को बुला लिया गया। फिर पड़ोस के बंगलों से नौकर बुला कर चार आना प्रति बच्चे के हिसाब से , हर बच्चे को नहलाया गया।

बच्चे यह मान चुके थे कि उनसे सफाई और पौधों में पानी देने का काम नहीं हो सकता है। इसलिए अब वो मुर्गियों को उनके दबड़े (मुर्गी घर) में बंद करने का कार्य करेंगे। फिर क्या था सभी बच्चे मुर्गियों को पकड़ने लगे जिस वजह से मुर्गियों डर के मारे इधर उधर भागने लगी। डर से भागती  मुर्गियों ने घर की रसोई से लेकर पूरे आंगन में खूब उत्पात मचाया। लेकिन उन बच्चों से एक भी मुर्गी दबड़े में नहीं गई।

अचानक कुछ बच्चों का ध्यान घर आती हुई भेड़ों के ऊपर चला गया। उन्होंने सोचा कि क्यों न भेड़ों को ही खाना खिला दिया जाए। जैसे ही उन्होंने अनाज के दाने भेड़ों के आगे रखे तो , सारी भूखी भेड़ें अनाज पर टूट पड़ी और कुछ भेड़ों ने रसोई में रखी सब्जियों , मटर और अन्य चीजों को भी खाना शुरु कर दिया जिस वजह से पूरे घर में अफरा-तफरी का माहौल हो गया। बड़ी मुश्किल से भेड़ों पर काबू पाया गया। 

इतना सब काम करने के बाद भी बच्चे कहां मानने वाले थे। उन्होंने फिर से काम करने की सोची और भैसों का दूध दोहने में जुट गए। भैंस इतने सारे बच्चों को वहां देख कर डर गई और उसने चारों पैरों में उछलकर दूसरी तरफ छलांग लगा दी।

बच्चों ने सोचा कि क्यों न भैंस के पैर बाँधकर दूध निकाला जाय और बच्चों ने भैंस के अगले दो पैर चाचाजी की चारपाई से बांध दिए। भैंस डर के मारे इधर-उधर भागने लगी और साथ में चाचा जी की चारपाई भी धसीट कर अपने साथ ले गई।

अब भैंस जहां-जहां जाती। चाचाजी भी चारपाई सहित वहाँ वहाँ जाते। इतने में कुछ बच्चों ने भैंस का बछड़ा भी खोल दिया । बछड़े के चिल्लाने से भैंस रुक गई और बछड़ा तत्काल दूध पीने में लग गया।

इतना सब होने के बाद लेखिका की माँ इतना परेशान हो गई कि उन्होंने मायके जाने की धमकी दे डाली। तब पिताजी ने सबको बुलाया और आदेश दिया कि अब से कोई किसी भी काम पर हाथ नहीं लगाएगा।

अगर कोई किसी काम पर हाथ लगायेगा , तो उसे रात का खाना नहीं दिया जाएगा। यानि कहानी जहां से शुरू हुई थी वहीं पर आकर खत्म हो गई। निकम्मे बच्चे जो पहले भी कोई काम नहीं करते थे। आज के बाद भी नहीं करेंगे। 

The Delhi Sultans Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 3

Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated by Chauhan (also called Chahamanas) of Ajmer.

The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled a vast area of the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century.

Rulers of Delhi

Tomars: Early 12th century 1165.

Chauhans: 1165-1192 Prithviraj Chauhan: 1175-1192
Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became an important commercial centre.

Slave Dynasty: 1206-1290
In 1236, Razia, the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, became the Sultan of Delhi. She was removed from the throne in 1240.

Khilji Dynasty: 1290-1320
External frontier was the next phase of expansion which started with Alauddin Khilji in southern India. Alauddin Khilji, the most important ruler of Khilji dynasty, introduced the system of market control and administrative measures in order to maintain a large standing army.

Tughlaq Dynasty: 1320-1414
External frontier culminated with Muhammad-bin-Tughluq and he introduced three projects – Shifting of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, the introduction of token currency, raising the land tax in the Doab region to fifty per cent—all of which failed and weakened his position.

Sayyid Dynasty: 1414-1451 (It was the only Shia dynasty)

Lodi Dynasty: 1451-1526

Finding out about the Delhi Sultans

• Inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information.
• Further valuable sources are ‘histories’, Tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
• The authors of tawarikh were learned men; secretaries administrators, poets and courtiers who both recounted events and advised rulers on governance, emphasizing the importance of the just rule.

From Garrison Town to Empire

• In the early 13th century the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons.
• Delhi’s authority was challenged by Mongols and by governors who rebelled at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness.
• The expansion of Delhi Sultanate took place under the reign of Balban, Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad- Bin-Tughlaq.

Administration and Consolidation

• To have reliable governors the early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish’ favoured their special slaves purchased for military service called ‘Bandage’ in Persian.
• The Khiljis and Tughluqs continued to use Bandage and also raised people of humble birth, who were their clients, to high positions like governors and generals.
• The Khiljis and Tughluqs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes.
• These lands were called iqta and their holder was called muqti or iqtadar. The duty of muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas.
• In return, muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as salary. They also paid their soldiers from this revenue.
• Under Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad, Tughluq accountants were appointed to check the amount collected by the muqtis.
• As Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities under their control, they forced the samants and the rich landlords to accept their authority.
• The attack of Mongols under Genghis Khan forced Khiljis and Tughluqs to mobilise a large standing army in Delhi.

The Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

• The Tughluq, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526.
• By then Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and entire South India had Independent rulers who had established flourishing states and prosperous capitals.
• New ruling dynasties like the Afghans and Rajputs also arose during the period.
• In 1526, Mughals established their empire.
• Sher Shah Suri challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun. He captured Delhi and established his own dynasty. Although, he ruled for only fourteen years (1540-1555) but his administration became the model followed by the great Mughal emperor Akbar (1556-1605), when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

Delhi became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs.

It was only under the rule of the Tomars and Chauhans that Delhi flourished as an important commercial centre.

The city was inhabited by many Jaina merchants who also constructed a number of temples.

Coins, known as dehliwal, were minted here and had a wide circulation.

Delhi Sultanate played the most vital role in the transformation of Delhi into a capital which controlled vast areas of the subcontinent.

Inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information but especially significant are “histories”, Tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under Delhi Sultan.

Tawarikh were written by learned men, secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers who lived in cities (mainly Delhi). They were written for the Sultans with anticipation of rich rewards. They also advised rulers on governance, emphasizing the importance of just rule based on birthright and gender distinctions, not shared by everyone.

Raziyya, the daughter of Sultan lltutmish, became the Sultan of Delhi in 1236 but she was dethroned only in 1240 only for being a woman and was unacceptable to the nobles. Even a.famous chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, recognized her as more able than all her brothers but was not comfortable with her, only for her being a lady.

In the early thirteenth century, there was no significant expansion of Delhi beyond heavily fortified town occupied by garrisons, it was only during the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq that Delhi saw expansion for the first time.

The expansion was initiated with the internal frontier. Forests were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter-gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitats and these lands were given to the peasants in order to promote agriculture. Regional trades were also promoted.

External frontier was the next phase of expansion which started with Alauddin Khalji in southern India and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq.

The armies of Delhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of the subcontinent till the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. They defeated rivals, seized cities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry.

The early Delhi Sultans favoured the appointment of their slaves purchased for military service as governors to control the administration of the vast empire. These slaves were totally dependent upon their master and so they were more reliable and trustworthy. They were called bandagan in Persian.

The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued the use of bandagan and also raised people of humble birth, usually their clients, to high positions and appointed them as generals and governors. However, this also gave rise to political instability as there was often a conflict for succession.

This system was criticised by the elites and authors of tawarikh, because for them the new high class people were in fact ‘low and base-born’.

Khalji and Tughluq monarchs, like their predecessors, appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These territories were called iqta and their holders were called iqtadar or muqti.

Muqtis were responsible for leading their military campaigns and maintaining their iqtas.

Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected by muqtis who were not allowed to collect revenue more than that prescribed by the state nor were they allowed to keep soldiers more than the number prescribed by the state.

Delhi Sultans had complete control over the hinterland of the cities, and so the samanta aristocrats were forced to accept their authority. During Alauddin Khalji’s regime the state brought the assessment and collection of land revenue under its control.

There were three types of taxes : (1) on cultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50 per cent of the peasant’s produce; (2) on cattle; and (3) on houses.

As the large part of the subcontinent was outside the control of Delhi Sultan, it was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal from Delhi. Hence, soon after annexation of southern India, the entire region became independent. The local chieftains established their rule in these regions.

The Mongols led by Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219. Such attacks frequented during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early days of Muhammad Tughluq’s rule. This forced the two rulers to mobilize a large standing army in Delhi. It posed a huge administrative challenge.

After Tughluqs the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526. By that time Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and entire south India had independent rulers who established flourishing states and prosperous capitals. It was during this period that some new ruling groups like the Afghans and the Rajputs emerged.

Some small but powerful and extremely well-administered states also emerged. Sher Shah Sur (1540—1545) was the most powerful of them all. He even challenged the Mughal emperor Humayun and captured Delhi. In a very short period of fifteen years (1540-1555), he introduced many reforms and a lot of welfare works. His administration became the model followed by the great emperor Akbar (1556—1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

The Rulers of Delhi

Dhaliwal: The place where coins were minted.

Tarikh: History.

Tawarikh: Plural of Tarikh.

Birthright: It refers to the privileges claimed on account of the birth.

Gender distinctions: Social and biological differences between men and women.

Hinterland: It refers to the land adjacent to a city or port that supply it with goods and services.

Garrison town: It refers to a town which is fortified with soldiers.

Mosque: It is called a masjid in Arabic, and literarily means a place where a Muslim prostrates in reverence to Allah.

Namaz: It refers to the prayer offered by a Muslim.

Imam: The spiritual leader of the Muslims.

Khutba: Sermon.

Client: Someone who is under the protection of another, a dependent or hanger-on.

Iqta: The territories under the military commanders were known as iqta.

Kharaj: The tax on cultivation was known as Kharaj.

Bandagan: The early Delhi Sultans especially lltutmish favoured their slaves purchased for military service. These slaves were known as bandagan in Persian.

Early twelfth century – 1165: Reign of Tomara Rajputs.

1175-1192: Reign of Prithviraj Chauhan.

1206-1210: Reign of Qutbuddin Aybak.

1236: Raziyya became Sultan.

1240: Raziyya was dethroned.

1296-1316: Reign of Alauddin Khalji.

1324-1351: Reign of Muhammad Tughluq.

1351-1388: Reign of Firuz Shah Tughiuq.

1414-1421: Reign of Khizr Khan belonging to Sayyid dynasty.

1451-1489: Reign of Bahlul Lodi.

1540-1555: Sher Shah ruled over Delhi.

यह सबसे कठिन समय नहीं भावार्थ – Yeh Sabse Kathin Samay Nahi Class 8 Summary

नहीं, यह सबसे कठिन समय नहीं!
अभी भी दबा है चिड़ियाँ की
चोंच में तिनका
और वह उड़ने की तैयारी में है!
अभी भी झरती हुई पत्ती
थामने को बैठा है हाथ एक
अभी भी भीड़ है स्टेशन पर
अभी भी एक रेलगाड़ी जाती है
गंतव्य तक
यह सबसे कठिन समय नहीं भावार्थ: कवयित्री के अनुसार, भले ही हर तरफ अविश्वास का अंधकार छाया है, लेकिन अभी भी उनके मन में आशा की किरणें चमक रही हैं, वो कहती हैं – ये सबसे बुरा वक्त नहीं है। 

अभी चिड़िया अपना घोंसला बुनने के लिए तिनके जमा कर रही है। वृक्ष से गिरती पत्ती को थामने के लिए कोई हाथ अभी मौजूद है। अभी भी अपनी मंज़िल तक पहुंचने का इंतज़ार कर रहे यात्रियों को उनकी मंज़िल तक ले जाने वाली गाड़ी आती है। 

जहाँ कोई कर रहा होगा प्रतीक्षा
अभी भी कहता है कोई किसी को
जल्दी आ जाओ कि अब
सूरज डूबने का वक्त हो गया
अभी कहा जाता है
उस कथा का आखिरी हिस्सा
जो बूढ़ी नानी सुना रही सदियों से
दुनिया के तमाम बच्चों को
अभी आती है एक बस
अंतरिक्ष के पार की दुनिया से
लाएगी बचे हुए लोगों की खबर!
नहीं, यह सबसे कठिन समय नहीं।
यह सबसे कठिन समय नहीं भावार्थ: कवयित्री ने निराशा से भरे इस संसार में भी आशा का दामन थाम रखा है। तभी वो इन पंक्तियों में कहती हैं कि यह सबसे बुरा समय नहीं है। आज भी कोई घर पर किसी का इंतज़ार करता है और सूरज डूबने से पहले उसे घर बुलाता है। जब तक इस दुनिया में दादी-नानी की सुनाई दिलचस्प कहानियां गूँजती रहेंगी, तब तक ये दुनिया बसी रहेगी और सबसे बुरा वक्त नहीं आएगा।

क्या निराश हुआ जाए पाठ का सार

Kya Nirash Hua Jaye saransh

लेखक आज के समय में फैले हुए डकैती ,चोरी, तस्करी और भ्रष्टाचार से बहुत दुखी है। आजकल का समाचार पत्र आदमी को आदमी पर विश्वास करने से रोकता है। लेखक के अनुसार जिस स्वतंत्र भारत का स्वप्न गांधी, तिलक, टैगोर ने देखा था यह भारत अब उनके स्वप्नों का भारत नहीं रहा। आज के समय में ईमानदारी से कमाने वाले भूखे रह रहे हैं और धोखा धड़ी करने वाले राज कर रहे हैं।

लेखक के अनुसार भारतीय हमेशा ही संतोषी प्रवृति के रहे हैं। वे कहते हैं आम आदमी की मौलिक आवश्यकताओं को पूरा करने के लिए कानून बनाए गए हैं किन्तु आज लोग ईमानदार नहीं रहे। भारत में धर्म को कानून से बढ़कर माना गया है,  शायद इसलिए  आज भी लोगों में ईमानदारी, सच्चाई है। लेखक को यह सोचकर अच्छा लगता है कि अभी भी लोगों में इंसानियत बाकी है उदहारण के लिए वेबस और रेलवे स्टेशन पर हुई घटना की बात बताते हैं।

इन उदाहरणो से लेखक के मन में आशा की किरण जागती है और वे कहते हैं कि अभी निराश नहीं हुआ जा सकता। लेखक ने टैगोर के एक प्रार्थना गीत का उदाहरण देकर कहा है कि जिस प्रकार उन्होंने भगवान से प्रार्थना की थी कि चाहे जितनी विपत्ति आए  वे भगवान में ध्यान लगाए रखें। लेखक को विश्वास है की एक दिन भारत इन्ही गुणों के बल पर वैसा ही भारत बन जायेगा जैसा वह चाहता है। अतः अभी निराश न हुआ जाए ।

Several major ruling dynasties emerged in different parts of the subcontinent between the seventh and twelfth centuries.

The Emergence of New Dynasties

• By the 7th century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.
• Existing kings often acknowledged them as their samantas or subordinates.
• They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords and provide them with military support.
• The main ruling dynasties were Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas and Chahamans in North India and the Chola, Pandyas and
• Chalukyas in South India.

Administration in the Kingdoms

• The kings at apex adopted big titles like Maharaja-adhiraja.
• The kings shared power with their samanras, and with an association of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
• Resources were obtained from the producers who were persuaded to surrender part of what they produced.
• These resources were used to finance the king’s establishment and construct temples and forts.
• Functionaries for collecting revenue were recruited from influential families.

Prashashtis and Land Grants

• Prashashtis tells us how rulers wanted to depict themselves as valiant and victorious warriors.
• The kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land.

Warfare for Wealth

• For centuries Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala’s dynasties fought for control over Kannauj.
• The long drawn conflict is known as a tripartite struggle as three parties were involved in it.
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni raided the subcontinent seventeen times between AD 1000—AD 1025. His sole purpose was to plunder the wealth of India. He looted temples like Somnath, Gujarat, Mahmud entrusted a scholar named al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent.
• Other kings engaged in warfare were Chauhan, who ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
• Chauhans were engaged in conflict with Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western UR
  Prithviraj III was a popular Chauhan ruler who defeated Afghan ruler Ghori in 1191 but lost to him in 1192.

The Cholas

• Cholas were from a small family of Uraiyur. The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power.
• Rajaraja I was considered the most powerful Chola ruler and expanded control over most of these areas.
• His son Rajendra I, conquered Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia.
• Cholas were big temple builders. Two famous temples were in Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
• Agriculture was well developed along with various methods of irrigation.
• Settlements of peasants called or became prosperous with the spread of irrigation in agriculture. The village council and the Nadu performed several administrative functions
• Association of traders known as nagarams also performed administrative functions in the town.
• Inscriptions also mention about sabha. The Sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc.

During the period of seventh and twelfth centuries, many new dynasties emerged in different parts of the subcontinent.

The new rulers were previously the big landlords or warriors working under the existing kings as subordinates or samantas. They gradually gained power and wealth and thereafter declared themselves to be maha-Samanta, maha-mandleshwar (the great lord of the circle or region). They were now independent lords.

Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual known as hiranya-garbhk (literally, the golden womb). It was done in order to transform one’s identity as kshatriya, even if one was not one by birth.

Some other lords like Kadamba Mayurashrman and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra, brahmanas by birth, used their military skills to establish their kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan.

Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles like maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds), though they shared power with their samantas as we!! as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.

The producers—the peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans—were the main feeders to these states. The land was owned by the lords and so the producers were compelled to pay rent to the owners whereas traders were to pay revenue to the lords.

he revenue functionaries were recruited from influential families, and positions were
often hereditary. Similar was the case with army positions. In most cases, such posts were held by the close relatives of the king.

Prashastis were composed by learned Brahmanas in praise of the rulers. It used to depict the rulers as valiant, victorious warriors.

Brahmanas were also rewarded by grants of land.

Kalhana’s long poem in Sanskrit recorded the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir. He usually used a variety of sources, including, inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts, and earlier histories, in order to present his accounts.

Ruling Dynasties were based in a particular region.

anauj was a prized area in the Ganga valley. There was a tripartite struggle among Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties over Kanauj.

Rulers used to build large temples in order to demonstrate their power and resources. So temples were the first target of when one ruler attacked over the other. One prominent reason for this was that the temples were often very rich.

Sultan Mahmud Ghazni of Afghanistan (997—1030) extended his control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent. During his attacks he targeted wealthy temples, of which the temple of Somnath in Gujarat was the most prominent.

Al-Baruni’s Kitab al-Hind, an Arabic work written on the request of Sultan, is an important source for historians. al-Baruni also consulted the Sanskrit scholars while preparing this book.

Some other notable kings engaged in war were Chahamanas, later known as Chauhans, ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer and made efforts to expand their control to the west and the east. They were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and Gahadavalas of Uttar Pradesh.

Prithviraja III (1168-11 §2), who defeated an Afghan ruler Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192, was the most popular of the Chahamanas.

Muttaraiyar, the subordinates to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram, held power in the Kaveri delta.

Vijayalaya, a member of the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. The town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there were some of his major creations.

Vijayalaya’s successors expanded their kingdom in size and power adding the Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north to their kingdom.

Rajraja I was the most famous and powerful Chola ruler who became king in 985 and thereafter expanded control over most of these areas. He was known also for his reorganization of the administration of his empire. His son Rajendra I also added to the glory of his father.

The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural marvels.

The temples of Cholas were the nuclei of settlements that grew around them. They were
also centres of craft production and were also endowed with land by rulers as well as others. .

The produce of the land were spared to maintain the specialists working at the temple and usually lived near it. They were the priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers etc.

Temples were not only the place of worship but they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.

The making of bronze images of the deities was the most distinctive of the crafts associated with the temples. Chola bronze images are still considered the best in the world.

The development of agriculture contributed much to the achievements of the Cholas.

Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth century that this area was opened up for large scale cultivation.

Forests had to be cleared in some areas while land had to be levelled in some other regions.

Embankments were built to prevent flood and canals were constructed to carry water to the fields. In many areas two crops were grown in a year.

A variety of methods like digging of wells, placing huge tanks were used for irrigation.

Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, were actively involved in these activities.

The administration of the empires was also well organized. Ur, the settlement of peasants grew prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.

Rich peasants of the Vellala caste controlled over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. Some rich landowners were honoured with the titles like Vendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings) Araiyar (chief) etc. and they were also entrusted with important offices of the state at the centre.

As Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India. Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders which worked efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions on the stone of walls of temples.

Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, tell us the way in which the sabha was orgsanised. There were separate committees to look after different works like that of irrigation, temples, etc. The allocation of work was decided through a lottery system.

Samantas: The subordinates of kings or overlords who used to bring gifts for their kings or overlords.

Maha-Samanta or Maha-mandaleshwara: The Samantas who gained power and wealth declared themselves Maha-Mahabaleshwar or Maha-samantas i.e. the great lord of a circle or region.

Maharaja-adhiraja: A high sounding title used for great king, overlord.

Tribhuvan-chakravartin: Lord of the three worlds.

Rent: The part of the product that the producers—the peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans- were compelled to pay to the lords.

Revenue: The tax traders had to pay to their lords.

Prashastis: A literary composition often in verse written in praise of the ruler depicting him as a valiant, victorious warrior. It was mainly done by the Brahmanas who were often rewarded by grants of land for such jobs. This reward was recorded on copper plates and given to those who received the land.

Sultan: An Arabic term used for the ruler.

Ur: Settlements of peasants.

Nadu: Group of Urs i.e. villages formed a large unit called Nadu.

Brahmadeya: The land given to the Brahmanas as a grant.

Vellanvagai: The land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.

Shalabhoga: The land for the maintenance of a school.

Devadana/Tirunamattukkani: The land gifted to temples.

Pallichchhandam: The land donated to Jaina institutions.

Nagarams: Associations of traders.

Sabha: The assembly of Brahmanas.

7th century – Rise of the new dynasties.

Mid-eighth century – Rise of Rashtrakuta chief as Kshatriya.

1168-1192 – Prithviraja III ruled over the regions around Delhi.

1191 – Prithviraja III defeated Muhammad Ghori.

1192 – Prithviraja III lost a battle and was finished by Muhammad Ghori.

985 – Rajaraja I became a great Chola ruler.

5th/6th century – The area of Tamil Nadu was opened up for large-scale cultivation.

भगवान के डाकिए कविता का सारांश – Bhagwan Ke Dakiye Poem Meaning in Hindi : भगवान के डाकिए कविता में कवि रामधारी सिंह दिनकर जी ने पक्षी और बादलों को भगवान के डाकिए कहा है। उनके अनुसार ये एक देश के संदेशों को दूसरे देश तक पहुंचाते हैं। भले ही हम उनके पत्रों को ना समझ पाएं, लेकिन पर्वत, पेड़-पौधे और पानी आदि इनकी चिट्ठियां आसानी से पढ़ लेते हैं। कवि के अनुसार, हवाओं में तैरते बादल और बादलों पर उड़ते पक्षी एक देश की खुशबू और भाप को दूसरे देश तक ले जाते हैं। 

भगवान के डाकिए का भावार्थ – Bhagwan Ke Dakiye Class 8 Summary

पक्षी और बादल,
ये भगवान के डाकिए हैं,
जो एक महादेश से
दूसरे महादेश को जाते हैं।
हम तो समझ नहीं पाते हैं
मगर उनकी लाई चिट्ठियाँ
पेड़, पौधे, पानी और पहाड
बाँचते हैं।
भगवान के डाकिए भावार्थ: भगवान के डाकिए कविता की इन पंक्तियों में कवि कहते हैं कि आसमान में तैरते बादल और पक्षी भगवान के डाकिए हैं। ये एक देश से उड़कर दूसरे देश तक जाते हैं और ख़ास संदेशों का आदान-प्रदान करते हैं। ये संदेश हम समझ नहीं पाते, लेकिन भगवान के संदेश को पर्वत, जल, पेड़-पौधे आदि बख़ूबी समझ लेते हैं।

हम तो केवल यह आँकते हैं
कि एक देश की धरती
दूसरे देश को सुगंध भेजती है।
और वह सौरभ हवा में तैरते हुए
पक्षियों की पाँखों पर तिरता है।
और एक देश का भाप
दूसरे देश में पानी
बनकर गिरता है।
भगवान के डाकिए भावार्थ: रामधारी सिंह दिनकर जी ने यहां हमें प्रकृति की महानता के बारे में बताया है। हम तो धरती को सीमाओं में बांट लेते हैं, लेकिन प्रकृति के लिए सब एक-समान हैं। इसीलिए एक देश की धरती अपनी सुगंध दूसरे देश को भेजती है। ये सुगंध पक्षियों के पंखों पर बैठकर यहां-वहां फैलती है और एक देश की भाप, दूसरे देश में पानी बनकर बरस जाती है।

The period from the second half of the 8th century up to first half of the 18th century is known as the “medieval period” of Indian history.

The maps by Arab geographer Al-Idrisi (1154) and French cartographer (1720) give a large sketch of the Indian subcontinent as known as earlier times.

Science of cartography, however, was different in two time periods.

New and Old Terminologies

• Historical records exist in a variety of languages.
• The term Hindustan was coined by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a chronicler who wrote in Persian for areas around Punjab, Haryana,
• and the lands between the Ganga and the Yamuna.
• Babur used Hindustan to describe the flora and fauna and the culture of the inhabitants of the subcontinent.
• Fourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau used the word, Hind.
• In Hindi, the term ‘pardesi’ was used to describe an alien. In Persian, it was called ‘ajnabi’.

Historians and their Sources

• The information about the medieval period is derived from two sources: Archaeological and Literary.
• Archaeological sources available to us include monuments, temples, coins, tombs, ornaments and paintings.
• Since paper became available in good quantum, a lot of written accounts in the form of chronicles, autobiographies,
• farmaans and accounts of foreign travellers are available from this period in Persian and Arabic.

New Social and Political Group

• The study of the thousand years between 700 and 1750 is a huge challenge to historian largely because of the scale and variety of developments that occurred over the period.
• It was a period of great mobility. One such group of people was Rajputs. Other groups of warriors were Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas.
• Throughout the period there was a gradual clearing of forests and the extension of agriculture. Challenges in their habitat forced many forest-dwellers to migrate.
• As society became more differentiated people were grouped into jatis or sub-castes and ranked on the basis of their backgrounds and their occupations.
• Ranks were not fixed permanently and varied according to the power, influence and resources controlled by the members of the jati.
• A major development of this period was the emergence of the idea of bhakti.
• The teachings of the Holy Quran was also brought to India in the seventh century.
• Followers of Islam were divided into two sub-sects—’Shias’ and ‘Sunnis’.
• At different moments in this period, new technologies made their appearance, like Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving and firearms in combat. New foods and beverages also arrived in the subcontinent in this period.

Regions and Empires

• Large states like those of the Cholas, the Tughlaqs, or the Mughals encompassed many regions.
• A Sanskrit prashsti that praises Delhi Sultan Balban tells that he was the ruler of a vast empire that stretched from Bengal in the east to Ghazni in Afghanistan in the west and included all of South India (Dravida).
• There were considerable conflicts between various states.
• When the Mughal Empire declined in the 18th century, it led to the re-emergence of regional states.

Old and New Religions

• Religion was often closely associated with the social and economic organization of local communities.
• It was during the period that important changes occurred in religion. It included the worship of new deities, construction of temples by royalty and the growing importance of Brahmanas in the Hindu religion.
• Knowledge of Sanskrit helped Brahmins to earn respect.
• Islam was patronized by many rulers.

Historical Periods

• The British historians divided the history of India into three periods: Hindu, Muslim and British.
• Most historians look to economic and social factors to characterize the major elements of different moments of the past.
• The life of hunter-gatherers, early farmers and early empires were called early societies.
• The growth of imperial state formations, development of Hinduism and Islam as major religions and the arrival of
• European trading companies were called the medieval period.
• The last era was called the modem period which carried a sense of material progress and intellectual development.
• Prosperity during this period brought European trading companies to India.

Maps are the sources through which we can trace out the historical changes and contexts.

Cartographers were the skilled artists who recorded these chronological effects in Maps.

The mode of presentation and the contexts vary through time. The maps of 1154 CE are not the same as the maps of the 1720s, e.g. one can see the maps given in NCERT Textbook on pages 1 and 2. Both the maps show the same location but with a lot of variations. Even the names of the places are spelt differently.

Historical records are available in different languages. Differences are also traced in the use of grammar and vocabulary, change in meaning also occurred over time, e.g., the term Hindustan is now ‘India’.

Minhaj-i Siraj’s Hindustan constituted the areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna. The term was used in a political sense for lands forming the parts of the dominions of the Delhi Sultan. South India was not included in this map.

Babur, in the early 16th century, used the term Hindustan in order to describe the geography, the fauna and the culture of the inhabitants of the subcontinent. Amir Khusrau used the term Hind in a similar sense in the 14th century.

With the change of time, we observe that the idea of a geographical and cultural entity like ‘India’ did exist but the term Hindustan did not carry the political and national meanings which we associate with it today.

We trace out many changes in the use of words with the change of time. For example, the word ‘foreigner’ is used in the sense of one who is not an Indian, whereas it was, in the medieval period, used in the sense of one who was a part of the same village but not a part of a particular society or culture. The synonymous words for ‘foreigner’ in Hindi and Persian are ‘pardesi and ‘ajnabi’ respectively.

Historians use different sources to study the past depending upon the period of their investigation. Coins, inscriptions, architecture and textual records are still the basic sources.

During the period of 700 to 1750, we trace out a dramatic increase in the variety of textual records. Its basic reason was that paper gradually became cheaper and more widely available. It was extensively used in writing the holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial records, and for registers of accounts and taxes.

Manuscripts collected from wealthy people, rulers, monasteries and temples were placed in libraries and archives. These manuscripts and documents helped the historians with several detailed information though it is difficult to use them.

As there was no printing press in those days scribes used to copy down manuscripts by hand. Hence they were somewhere not very legible. Some changes in words and sentences were also made, in fact not knowingly, in the manuscripts while copying. This brought the same manuscripts copied presented differently by different scribes. It poses a serious problem to determine which the original one was.

The authors used to revise their chronicles from time to time. Ziyauddin Barani, a 14th century author revised his chronicle for the first time in 1356 followed by another version two years later. In fact, the two versions differed from each other but as the original one was traceless, nobody could claim for the difference.

The period between 700 and 1750 was a phase of transition as a lot of developments took place. The Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving and firearms in combat were some of the examples of developments.

The subcontinent saw new food like potatoes, corn, chillies, tea and coffee.

The new technologies and crops came along with the migrants who also brought other ideas with them.

People travelled to far off lands to make their fortune.

Rajputs, i.e. Rajputs, one of the prominent communities were the group of warriors between the eighth and fourteenth centuries. They were the ‘kshatriyas’ by caste status. They included the rulers, chieftains, soldiers and commanders serving in the armies of the different monarchs all over the subcontinent. Extreme valour and a great sense of loyalty were the prominent qualities of this community.

Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas (a caste of scribes and secretaries) were the other prominent classes of people.

This period witnessed a gradual clearing of forests and the extension of agriculture. It caused changes in people’s ‘habitat’ which forced many of the forest-dwellers to migrate.

Some others adopted tilling the land and became peasants and soon became part of large complex societies. They were also put under tax cover as per their status which gave rise to many jatis i.e. sub-castes.

The divisions of sub-castes were made on the basis of their backgrounds and occupations. Ranks were variable as per the change in power, influence and resources controlled by members of the jati. This status of the same jati varied from area to area.

Jatis had their own system of ruling. They framed rules and regulations in order to manage their own people. An assembly of elders called Jati Panchayat was responsible for enforcing the regulations.

Jatis were bound to follow the rules of their villages. Villages constituted only one small unit of a state and were governed by a chieftain.

The subcontinent was divided into several regions which were ruled by empires of different dynasties. By 700 several regions developed their distinct geographical dimensions and their own cultural characteristics.

During the period of 700 and 1750 (the thousand years of history that we are exploring here) there were significant developments in religious traditions.

The changes were seen in people’s beliefs. Hinduism saw a great many changes which included the worship of new deities the construction of temples by royalty and growing dominance of Brahmanas and the priests.

For their knowledge of Sanskrit texts Brahmanas earned great respect in society. The new rulers were their patrons.

The most significant development of the period was the rise of the idea of bhakti which also paved the rise of many new religions in the subcontinent.

The teachings of the holy Quran was brought to India in the seventh century by the migrants.

Quran is the most prominent holy book of the Muslims which delineates the idea of one God, Allah and His love, bounty and mercy for those who believe in Him.

Islam and the Ulema—the learned theologians and jurists were patronized by many rulers.

Like Hinduism, Islam was also interpreted in many ways and the followers of Islam were divided in two sub-sects—Shias and Sunnis.

For historians, time reflects changes in social and economic organization, in the persistence and transformation of ideas and beliefs. Hence for the historians, it becomes convenient to study time by dividing it into segments—periods—that possess shared characteristics.

In the middle of the nineteenth century, the history of India was divided into three periods —Hindu, Muslim, and British. It was done so because there was no significant historical development other than religion.

This periodisation is followed by some of the historians even today.

Cartographer: The artist who is skilled in drawing or making maps. .

Chronicler: One who writes history or pens down the events of the time from the historical point of view.

Archives: A collection of historical documents or records of the government, a family, a place or an organization; the place where these records are stored.

Manuscripts: The original script written by the Author in his/her own handwriting.

Habitat: The living condition of specie.

Patron: A person with influence and affluence who provides support with money and mental boost up to an artist, a craftsman, a learned man, or a noble, or some other persons of such categories.

Jati: The sub-caste which was defined or identified on the basis of one’s profession, status and influence.

Region: The particular area designated or occupied by a certain group or empire.

Periodisation: Division of time into different segments for the purpose of study from the historical point of view. It was done on the basis of dominant factors of the time. In the middle of the nineteenth century, British historians divided the history of India into three periods—Hindu, Muslim, and British.

Seventh century AD – The teachings of the holy Quran brought to India.

1154 – Map of the Indian Subcontinent made by al-ldrisi.

1266-1287 – Reign of the Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban.

1356 – Ziyauddin Barani wrote his first chronicle. He wrote another version two years later.