Sudama Charit Class 8 Meaning in Hindi – सुदामा चरित कविता का भावार्थ
सीस पगा न झगा तन में प्रभु, जानै को आहि बसै केहि ग्रामा। धोति फटी-सी लटी दुपटी अरु, पाँय उपानह की नहिं सामा॥ द्वार खड्यो द्विज दुर्बल एक, रह्यौ चकिसौं वसुधा अभिरामा। पूछत दीन दयाल को धाम, बतावत आपनो नाम सुदामा॥ सुदामा चरित भावार्थ: इस पद में कवि ने सुदामा के श्रीकृष्ण के महल के द्वार पर खड़े होकर अंदर जाने की इजाज़त मांगने का वर्णन किया है।
श्रीकृष्ण का द्वारपाल आकर उन्हें बताता है कि द्वार पर बिना पगड़ी, बिना जूतों के, एक कमज़ोर आदमी फटी सी धोती पहने खड़ा है। वो आश्चर्य से द्वारका को देख रहा है और अपना नाम सुदामा बताते हुए आपका पता पूछ रहा है।
ऐसे बेहाल बेवाइन सों पग, कंटक-जाल लगे पुनि जोये। हाय! महादुख पायो सखा तुम, आये इतै न किते दिन खोये॥ देखि सुदामा की दीन दसा, करुना करिके करुनानिधि रोये। पानी परात को हाथ छुयो नहिं, नैनन के जल सौं पग धोये॥ सुदामा चरित भावार्थ: द्वारपाल के मुँह से सुदामा के आने का ज़िक्र सुनते ही श्रीकृष्ण दौड़कर उन्हें लेने जाते हैं। उनके पैरों के छाले, घाव और उनमें चुभे कांटे देखकर श्रीकृष्ण को कष्ट होता है, वो कहते हैं कि मित्र तुमने बड़े दुखों में जीवन व्यतीत किया है। तुम इतने समय मुझसे मिलने क्यों नहीं आए? सुदामा जी की दयनीय दशा देखकर श्रीकृष्ण रो पड़ते हैं और पानी की परात को छुए बिना, अपने आंसुओं से सुदामा जी के पैर धो देते हैं।
कछु भाभी हमको दियौ, सो तुम काहे न देत। चाँपि पोटरी काँख में, रहे कहौ केहि हेत॥
आगे चना गुरु-मातु दिये त, लिये तुम चाबि हमें नहिं दीने। श्याम कह्यौ मुसुकाय सुदामा सों, चोरि कि बानि में हौ जू प्रवीने॥ पोटरि काँख में चाँपि रहे तुम, खोलत नाहिं सुधा-रस भीने। पाछिलि बानि अजौं न तजी तुम, तैसइ भाभी के तंदुल कीने॥ सुदामा चरित भावार्थ: सुदामा जी की अच्छी आवभगत करने के बाद कान्हा उनसे मजाक करने लगते हैं। वो सुदामा जी से कहते हैं कि ज़रूर भाभी ने मेरे लिए कुछ भेजा होगा, तुम उसे मुझे दे क्यों नहीं रहे हो? तुम अभी तक सुधरे नहीं। जैसे, बचपन में जब गुरुमाता ने हमें चने दिए थे, तो तुम तब भी चुपके से मेरे हिस्से के चने खा गए थे। वैसे ही आज तुम मुझे भाभी का दिया उपहार नहीं दे रहे हो।
वह पुलकनि वह उठ मिलनि, वह आदर की बात। यह पठवनि गोपाल की, कछू ना जानी जात॥ घर-घर कर ओड़त फिरे, तनक दही के काज। कहा भयौ जो अब भयौ, हरि को राज-समाज॥ हौं कब इत आवत हुतौ, वाही पठ्यौ ठेलि। कहिहौं धनि सौं जाइकै, अब धन धरौ सकेलि॥ सुदामा चरित भावार्थ: इस पद में सुदामा के वापिस घर की तरफ लौटने का वर्णन है। वो सोचते हैं कि मैं मदद की उम्मीद लेकर श्रीकृष्ण के पास आया, लेकिन श्रीकृष्ण ने तो मेरी कोई मदद ही नहीं की। लौटते समय निराश और खिन्न सुदामा जी के मन में कई विचार घूम रहे थे, वो सोच रहे थे कि कृष्ण को समझना किसी के वश में नहीं है। एक तरफ तो उसने मुझे इतना आदर-सम्मान दिया, वहीं दूसरी तरफ मुझे बिना कुछ दिए लौटा दिया।
मैं तो यहां आना ही नहीं चाहता है, वो तो मेरी धर्मपत्नी ने मुझे जबरदस्ती द्वारका भेज दिया। ये कृष्ण तो खुद बचपन में ज़रा-से मक्खन के लिए पूरे गाँव के घरों में घूमता था, इससे मदद की आस लगाना ही बेकार था।
वैसेइ राज-समाज बने, गज-बाजि घने, मन संभ्रम छायौ। वैसेइ कंचन के सब धाम हैं, द्वारिके के महिलों फिरि आयौ। भौन बिलोकिबे को मन लोचत सोचत ही सब गाँव मँझायौ। पूछत पाँड़े फिरैं सबसों पर झोपरी को कहूँ खोज न पायौ॥ सुदामा चरित भावार्थ: जब सुदामा अपने गाँव पहुंचते हैं, तो उन्हें आसपास सबकुछ बदला-बदला दिखता है। सामने बड़े महल, हाथी-घोड़े, गाजे-बाजे आदि देखकर सुदामा जी सोचते हैं कि कहीं मैं रास्ता भटककर फिर से द्वारका नगरी तो नहीं आ पहुंचा हूँ? मगर, थोड़ा ध्यान से देखने पर वो समझ जाते हैं कि ये उनका अपना गाँव ही है। फिर उन्हें अपनी झोंपड़ी की चिंता सताती है, वो बहुत लोगों से पूछते हैं, मगर अपनी झोंपड़ी को ढूँढ नहीं पाते।
कै वह टूटि-सि छानि हती कहाँ, कंचन के सब धाम सुहावत। कै पग में पनही न हती कहँ, लै गजराजहु ठाढ़े महावत॥ भूमि कठोर पै रात कटै कहाँ, कोमल सेज पै नींद न आवत। कैं जुरतो नहिं कोदो सवाँ प्रभु, के परताप तै दाख न भावत॥ सुदामा चरित भावार्थ: जब सुदामा जी को श्रीकृष्ण की महिमा समझ आती है, तो वो उनकी महिमा गाने लगते हैं। वो सोचते हैं कि कहाँ तो मेरे सिर पर टूटी झोंपड़ी थी, अब सोने का महल मेरे सामने खड़ा है। कहाँ तो मेरे पास पहनने को जूते नहीं थे, अब मेरे सामने हाथी की सवारी लेकर महावत खड़े हैं। कठोर ज़मीन की जगह मेरे पास नरम बिस्तर हैं। पहले मेरे पास दो वक्त खाने को चावल भी नहीं होते थे, अब मनचाहे पकवान हैं। ये सब प्रभु की कृपा से ही संभव हुआ है, उनकी लीला अपरम्पार है।
Our Changing Earth Class 7 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 3
The lithosphere is broken down into a number of plates known as the Lithosphere plates.
The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the earth. The forces that act in the interior of the earth are called endogenic forces, while the forces that work on the surface of the earth are called exogenic forces.
Endogenic force causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Exogenic force causes weathering, erosion, deposition and gradation.
Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s crust.
Erosion is the breaking away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice.
Sudden movements like earthquake and volcanoes cause most destruction over the surface of the earth.
A volcano is a vent (opening) in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts suddenly.
The vibration in the plates of earth is called an earthquake.
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The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus.
The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicenter.
It is measured by seismograph and intensity is measured by Richter scale.
Although earthquakes cannot be predicted, the impact can certainly be minimized.
Major Landforms
The landscapes are continuously worn away by two forces, weathering and erosion.
Weathering is the breaking down of the rocks on the earth’s surface.
Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice.
Work of a River
When the river tumbles at a steep angle over hard rocks or down a steep valley side, it forms a waterfall.
As the river enters the plain, it twists and turns, forming large bends known as meanders.
At this point of time, the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off called an ox-bow lake.
During flooding, the river deposits layer of fine soil and other materials called sediments along its banks. This leads to the formation of a flat fertile plain called flood plain.
The raised banks along the river are called levees.
The collection of sediments from all the mouths forms a delta.
Work of Sea Waves
The erosion and deposition of the sea waves give rise to coastal landforms.
Due to sea waves, hollow caves are formed on the rocks. They are called sea caves.
As cavities become bigger in size, only the roof of the caves remains, thus forming sea arches.
The erosion further breaks the roof and only walls are left. It is called stacks.
The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called sea cliff.
Work of Ice
Glaciers are rivers of ice which erode the landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to expose the solid rocks below.
The materia] carried by the glaciers, such as big and small rocks, sand and silt get deposited. These deposits form glacial moraines.
Work of Winds
An active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts is wind. It makes rocks in shape of a mushroom, called mushroom rocks.
When the wind stops blowing, the sand falls and get deposited in low hill-like structures. These are called sand dunes.
When the grains of sand is very fine and light, the wind can carry it over long distances. When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is called loess.
The lithosphere is broken into numerous plates known as the lithospheric plates. These plates move around very slowly. The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the earth.
The earth movements are divided on the basis of the forces which cause them.
The forces which work on the surface of the earth are called as exogenic forces.
Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements which cause earthquakes and volcanoes.
A volcano is an opening in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts suddenly.
When the lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates. The vibrations can travel all round the earth. These vibrations are known as earthquakes.
The place in the crust where the movement starts is known as the focus.
The epicentre of the earthquake is the place on the surface above the focus.
Maximum damage occurs near the epicentre.
Some common earthquake prediction methods include studying animal behaviour, fish in the ponds get agitated, snakes come to the surface.
The damage caused due to earthquakes can be minimised if we are prepared beforehand.
During an earthquake, one can take shelter under a kitchen counter, table or desk, against an inside corner or wall. One should be away from fireplaces, areas around chimneys, windows, etc.
Weathering and erosion are two processes due to which the landscape is being continuously worn away.
Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface. Erosion is the wearing ‘ away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind, etc.
When the river tumbles at a steep angle over very hard rocks or down a steep valley side it forms a waterfall.
Large bends formed by twisting and turning of the river while entering the plain are called meanders.
An oxbow lake is a cut-off lake formed due to cut off of a meander loop.
Flood plains are fertile areas formed by the deposition of fine soil and other material (sediments) during floods.
Levees are the raised banks of the rivers.
The streams which distribute the waters of a river are known as distributaries.
The triangular deposits at the mouth of a river from the delta, which is very fertile.
The erosion and deposition of the sea waves give rise to coastal landforms.
Hallow like caves are formed on the rocks at the coast due to erosional work of sea waves. These formations are called sea caves. When these cavities become very big, only the roof of the caves remains, forming sea arches.
This roof sometimes breaks due to erosion and thus only walls are left. These wall-like features are known as stacks.
The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called sea cliff.
The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores forming beaches.
The landscape is eroded due to glaciers which are rivers of ice. The material carried by the glacier such as rocks, sand and silt gets deposited and forms glacial moraines.
The wind is an active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts. When the wind blows, it lifts and transports said from one place to another. When it stops blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill-like structures known as sand dunes.
When very fine and light and gets deposited in large areas, it called loess.
Endogenic forces: The forces that act in the interior of the earth are called endogenic forces.
Exogenic forces: The forces that act on the surface of the earth are called as exogenic forces.
Earthquake: The vibrations caused by the movement of the lithospheric plates are called earthquakes.
Focus: The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus.
Epicentre: The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
Weathering: The breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface is known as weathering.
Erosion: The wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice is called erosion.
Waterfall: A place where a river or stream fails from a high place for example over a cliff or rock is known as waterfall.
Meander: Large bends formed by the twisting and turning of a river while entering a plain are known as meanders.
Floodplains: Floodplains are areas where fine soil and other material get deposited during floods. These are very fertile.
Levees: The raised banks of a river is known as levees.
Distributary: As the river approaches the sea, the speed of the flowing water decreases and the river begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries.
Delta: It is a triangular area of land where a river has split into many smaller rivers before entering the sea.
Sea caves: Sea caves are hollow like caves formed on the rocks.
Sea arches: When the cavities become very big, only the roof of the caves remains known as sea arches.
Stacks: Further erosion breaks the roof and only wall-like features remain. These features are called stacks.
Seacliff: The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called sea cliff.
Beaches: The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores to form beaches.
Mushroom rocks: In deserts, rocks in the shape of a mushroom are very common. These are called mushroom rocks.
Sand dunes: In deserts, when the winds stop blowing, the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill-like structures known as sand dunes.
Loess: When very fine and light grains of sand gets deposited in large areas, it is called loess.
The earth comprises three layers: crust, mantle and core.
Constant changes take place inside as well as outside the earth.
What is the Interior of the Earth?
The earth is made up of three concentric layers-crust, mantle and core.
The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust. It is about 35 km thick on the continental masses and only 5 km thick on the ocean floor. It is made up of silica and alumina and thus called sial.
The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium called sima. Just below the crust is the mantle up to an extent of 2,900 km.
The innermost layer is the core with a radius of 3,500 km. As it is made of nickel and iron, it is called nife(ni-nickel and fe-ferrous i.e. iron). The central core has a very high temperature and pressure.
Rocks and Minerals
The earth’s crust is made of various types of rocks. Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust is called a rock.
There are three major types of rocks; igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus formed are called igneous or primary rocks. They are of two types, extrusive igneous rocks and intrusive igneous rocks.
Rocks roll down and break into small fragments and these smaller particles are called sediments. These sediments are transported, compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks. These types of rocks are called sedimentary rock.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great heat and pressure. The process of transformation of the rock from one to another is called the rock cycle.
Rocks are made of different minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition.
The earth is constantly undergoing changes inside and outside. Therefore, it is called a dynamic planet.
The earth is made up of several concentric layers. The uppermost layer over the earth is the surface is called the crust. It is the thinnest of all the layers.
The mantle is just beneath the crust.
The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km.
The central core has a very high temperature and pressure.
The earth’s crust is made up of several types of rocks.
There are three types of rocks—igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks are also called primary rocks. They are of two types—intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks.
Extrusive igneous rocks have a very fine-grained structure. For example, basalt.
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed deep inside the earth. Granite is an example of this rock.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the sediments, which are small fragments of rocks. For example, sandstone is made from grains of sand.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great heat and pressure. For example, clay changes into slate and limestone into marble.
Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings.
One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle.
Rocks are made up of various minerals.
Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition. Minerals are very essential for human beings.
Crust: The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface. It is very thin.
Soal: The continental mass of the crust consisting of silica and alumina is called sial (si-silica and al-alumina).
Sima: The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium. It is therefore called sima (si-silica and ma-magnesium).
Mantle: This layer is just beneath the crust. It extends up to a depth of 2900 km. below the crust.
Rock: A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Igneous rock: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying molten magma.
Lava: It is fiery red molten magma coming out from the interior of the earth on its surface.
Extrusive igneous rock: When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are called extrusive igneous rocks.
Intrusive igneous rock: When the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust solid intrusive igneous rocks are formed.
Sediments: These are small fragments of rocks.
Sedimentary rock: When loose sediments are compressed and hardened, layers of rocks are formed. These types of rocks are known as sedimentary rocks.
Rock cycle: The process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle.
Mineral: Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition.
Environment Nature, place, people, things, etc. that surround the living organisms make the environment. The environment can broadly be classified into the natural and human environment. It is a combination of both natural as well as man-made phenomena.
The natural environment comprises biotic (plants and animals) and abiotic-conditions(land, water, air, etc.), whereas the man-made phenomena comprise the activities and interactions among human beings (roads, bridges, etc.).
Natural Environment
Land, water, air, plants and animals comprise the natural environment.
Lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere are the four domains of the natural environment.
The lithosphere is the solid crust or the outermost layer of the earth where we live. It contains landforms like mountains, plateaus, plains and valleys.
The hydrosphere is the domain of water. It comprises water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc.
The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. It protects us from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.
The biosphere is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each other to support life.
What is Ecosystem?
The relation between the living organisms as well as the relation between the organisms and their surrounding form the ecosystem.
There could be an ecosystem of large rainforest, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean and even a small pond.
Human Environment
Human beings interact with the environment and modify it according to their needs.
Early humans adapted themselves to their natural surroundings.
With time, humans learnt to grow new things, domesticate animals and lead a settled life.
The industrial revolution, transportation and information revolution made communication easier and speedy across the world.
Man is destroying the environment through deforestation, industrialisation, etc.
The environment in our basic life support system. It provides the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat and the place where we live. Thus, the environment is the most important aspect of our life.
The natural environment consists of land, water, air, plants and animals. It refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions existing on the earth.
While biotic refers to the world of living organisms, such as plants and animals, abiotic refers to the world of non-living elements, such as land.
The human environment refers to the activities, creations and interactions among human beings.
Domains of environment—Lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
The lithosphere is the solid portion of the earth where we live. It is the domain that provides us forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements. It is where we find several minerals.
Hydrosphere refers to the water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. that exist on the earth.
The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. It protects us from the harmful rays and searching heat of the Sun. It consists of gases, dust and water vapour.
Biosphere or the living world is comprised of plant and animal life. It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each other to support life.
The relation between the living organisms as well as the relation between the organisms and their surroundings form an ecosystem.
An ecosystem can be found in lakes, mountains, oceans, pond, etc.
Human beings modify the natural environment as per their needs.
Environment: The place, people, things and nature that surround any living organism is called the environment.
Biotic: It refers to the world of living organisms, such as plants and animals.
Notes of Chapter 10 Eighteenth-Century Political Formations Class 7th History
The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals
• By the end of the seventeenth century, Mughal Empire was shrinking. There are various factors behind this:
→ Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan.
→ Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down.
→ Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western India.
→ In the midst of this economic and political crisis, the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth.
→ The empire was further weakened by competition amongst different groups of nobles. They were divided into two major groups or factions, the Iranis and Turanis.
Emergence of New States
• Through the eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire gradually divided into a number of independent, regional states.
• Broadly these independent states can be divided into three groups:
→ States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.
→ States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. These included several Rajput principalities.
→ States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats. These had seized their independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn armed struggle.
The Old Mughal Provinces
Hyderabad
• Founded by: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1724-1748) was powerful member at the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
• Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India.
• He appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs.
• The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas to the west and with independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau.
Awadh
• Founded by: Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan.
• Awadh was a prosperous region, controlling the rich alluvial Ganga plain and the main trade route between north India and Bengal.
• Sa‘adat Khan tried to decrease Mughal influence in the Awadh region.
• He reduced the size of jagirs, and appointed his own loyal servants to vacant positions.
• The state sold the right to collect tax to the highest bidders called ijaradars.
Bengal
• Founded by: Murshid Quli Khan
• He very quickly seized all the power that went with formal subadar office.
• He commanded the revenue administration of the state.
• Revenue was collected in cash with great strictness from all zamindars.
• Under the rule of Alivardi Khan (r. 1740-1756), the banking house of Jagat Seth became extremely prosperous.
The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs
• Many Rajput kings were permitted to enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs.
• In the eighteenth century, these rulers now attempted to extend their control over adjacent regions.
• Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was governor of Malwa.
• They tried to extend their territories by seizing portions of imperial territories neighbouring their watans.
• Maratha campaigns into Rajasthan from the 1740s checked their further expansion.
Seizing Independence
The Sikhs
• During the seventeenth century, Sikhs built regional state, Punjab.
• Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput and Mughal rulers.
• After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur’s leadership. → Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716.
• The Sikh territories in the late eighteenth century extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they were divided under different rulers.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh, reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.
The Marathas
• Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable Maratha kingdom with the support of powerful warrior families (deshmukhs).
• After Shivaji’s death, effective power in the Maratha state was exercises by a family of Chitpavan Brahmanas who served Shivaji’s successors as Peshwa (or principal minister).
• Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded.
• By the 1730s, the Maratha king was recognised as the overlord of the entire Deccan peninsula.
• The Marathas developed an effective administrative system as well.
• New trade routes emerged within the areas controlled by the Marathas.
The Jats
• The Jats consolidated their power during the late seventeenth and eighteenth-centuries.
• Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control over territories situated to the west of the city of Delhi.
• The Jats were prosperous agriculturists.
• The important trading centres in the areas under Jats were Panipat and Ballabgarh.
The Making of Regional Cultures Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 9
The medieval period saw the emergence of several regional languages and the associated literature. It is quite common for us to identify a region with its language.
Every region is identified with a certain distinct type of food, clothing, poetry, dance, painting and music.
The Chera empire of Mahodayapuram, which was established in 9th century in the southwestern part of Kerala introduced the Malayalam language.
Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult
In several regions, regional cultures developed around religious traditions.
The local people made a wooden image of the deity which, originally a local God, came to be identified with Vishnu.
Temple became the centre of pilgrimage.
The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism
In the 19th century, the Rajasthan of today was called Rajputana by the British.
There are many groups who call themselves Rajputs in Northern and Central India.
Prithviraj Chauhan was one such ruler.
Women had been given a heroic image since they committed sati or self-immolation.
Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak
The heroic traditions of various regions also helped in the evolution of dance in several regions.
One such dance was Kathak, which was evolved in Northern India. The Kathaks initially were a caste of story-tellers in North Indian temples.
The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known as rasalila.
It integrated folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
Music also developed into various forms like qawwali and khayal and new instruments like Sitar were invented.
Paintings for Patrons: The Traditions of Miniatures
During this period, one more tradition which deserves our attention is the miniature painting. Miniatures are small sized paintings done in watercolour on cloth or paper.
Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan hired highly skilled painters to illustrate their manuscripts in the Kitab Khana containing their accounts and poetry.
When the Mughal empire started declining, new artistic tastes developed in the regional court of Deccan and Rajput rulers.
One bold style of miniature painting was called Basohli.
One of the most popular paintings of the Himalayas region was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
The Kangra artists by mid-18th century infused a new life into miniature painting.
The Growth of a Regional Language: Bengal
Regional language is the language which a person speaks in a region.
It is generally assumed that the Bengali language is spoken by people of Bengal.
Bengali originated from Sanskrit but later on developed its own identity and literature.
Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories—The first includes translations from Sanskrit epics and the
the second includes Nath literature.
Pirs and Temples
From the 16th century, people migrated in large numbers from less fertile western Bengal to the forested and marshy of south-eastern Bengal.
With Mughal control over Bengal, the capital shifted to Dhaka. Officials received land grants. Mosques were set up.
The early settlers got help from teachers called Pirs. They included saints or Sufis and prominent religious personalities.
Regional cultures today are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent.
The Chera Kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala. The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.
The Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics.
In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannath at Puri, Orissa. The word Jagannath literarily means the lord of the world, a name for Vishnu.
Anantavarman, the ruler of the Ganga dynasty in the 12th century, built a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
The Rajputs contributed a lot to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan. From about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families. Prithviraj was one such ruler.
Rajput rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often choosing death on the battlefield rather than face defeat.
Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs. Women were also focused on these stories. They are depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life and death. They often chose to become sati on the funeral pyre of their husbands.
Not only heroic traditions are found in different regions in different forms, but dance too. Just take the history of one dance form, Kathak.
The term kathak is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for a story.
The Kathaks was originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who beautified their performances with gestures and songs.
Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Under the Mughals, it developed in two traditions or gharanas—one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Slowly and steadily it took root in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir etc.
Kathak was recognised as one of six classical forms of dance in the country after independence. Other classical dances are—Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathakali (Kerala), Odissi (Orissa), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) and Manipuri (Manipur).
The tradition of miniature painting is also noteworthy. Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in watercolour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.
The Mughal emperors patronised highly skilled painters.
With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states.
By the late 17th century a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli got developed in the Himalayan foothills around the modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh. Here, the Mughal artists founded the Kangra school of painting.
Soft colours, including cool blues and greens, and lyrical treatment of themes distinguished Kangra painting.
Now we will see how Bengali, a regional language, grew in the course of time.
From the eighth century, Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom under the Palas. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Bengal was ruled by Sultans. In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal while Persian was the language of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language.
Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories. The fist includes translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangala Kavyas and Bhakti literature such as biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the second includes Nath literature such as songs of Maynamati and Gopichand, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.
The cult of ptr (a spiritual guide) became popular in Bengal and their shrines can be found there.
A number of temples got constructed in Bengal. Now local deities began to be worshipped in temples.
Bengal, being in a riverine plain, produces abundant rice and fish. These two items are important foods of the Bengalis. The Bengal Brahmanas too eat fish.
Fishing has been a major occupation of the Bengalis.
Bengali literature contains several references to fish.
Lilatilakam: A fourteenth-century text of Sanskrit that deals with grammar and poetics.
Rajputana: The region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan was called Rajputana by the British during the 19th century.
Sati: The immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.
Kathak: The term is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for the story.
Rasa Lila: The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known as rasa Lila.
Gharana: Tradition of classical dance, music.
Classical: Old and memorable having permanent value.
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped their own Gods and Goddesses. As people were brought together through the growth of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to develop.
The idea that all human beings are not equal at birth gained ground during this period.
The idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from bondage through devotion or bhakti emerged.
Gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be identified with Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.
A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of a new religious movement, led by Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu).
They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems of praise of the deities enshrined in the village they visited and set them to music.
The Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many of the shrines.
Philosophy and Bhakti
Shankara, a philosopher, of Kerala advocated Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the ultimate reality.
Ramanuja of Tamil Nadu advocated that the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
Virashaivism movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi in Karnataka in the mid-12 century.
They argued strongly for equality of all human beings, opposed Brahmanical ideas on caste and treatment of women.
The Saints of Maharashtra
Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela focused on the bhakti of Vitthala (a form of Vishnu).
Some of these belonged to lower castes. They rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis
A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticized the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhcharas and Yogis.
Islam and Sufism
Islam propagated monotheism or submission to one God. ‘
It also rejected idol worship. Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat.
The Sufis rejected the elaborate codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
The sought unison with God, as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world.
Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
Sufism introduced many popular orders or silsilas of which the most widespread was the Shariat and Chisti Silsilas.
The Chisti silsila was among the most influential orders. A long line of teachers included Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti of
Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
New Religious Developments in North India
The period after the 13th century saw a new wave of bhakti movement in North India.
This wave was led by scholars like Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak
This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai. Mirabai was devoted to Lord Krishna.
A unique feature of most of these saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung.
Kabir ridiculed idol worship and believed in one formless Supreme God with devotion as the path of salvation.
Guru Nanak emphasized on the importance of one God and nam-japna, kirti-kama and vand- chhakna.The number of
Baba Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the 16th century under his successors.
Shankara was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God.
Various kinds of Bhakti and Sufi movements evolved since the eighth century.
Before the emergence of large kingdoms, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.
Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God. Such people sought the path of Bhakti to approach this Supreme God. As a result, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga came to be recognised as supreme deities. People began to worship them through elaborate rituals.
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including untouchables.
hey criticised the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path of salvation.
Elaborate temples were built by the Chola and Pandya kings between the tenth and twelfth centuries. Thus, the Bhakti tradition got strongly linked with temple worship.
Shankara, a Bhakti saint, was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge.
Ramanuja, another Bhakti saint, was deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions. This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas were against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
The saint-poets of Maharashtra such as Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram inspired people through their songs in simple Marathi. These saints rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth. They also rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families.
Several other religious groups such as Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis also criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order. They advocated renunciation of the world. They inspired people to lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of oneness with it. They gave importance to yogasanas.
ufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward religiosity and emphasized love and devotion to God and comparison towards all fellow human beings.
Islam propagated monotheism i.e. submission to one God. It rejected idol worship,
Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat. The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
The Sufis too composed poems like the saint-poets. Some of the great Sufis were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
The Sufi saints developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), rags (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control etc. under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus, emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers. The Chishti silsila is worth-mentioning in this regard.
The Sufi teachers held their assemblies in their Khanqahs or hospices (houses of rest for travellers). Here, they discussed spiritual matters.
Sufi shrines are visited by devotes of all backgrounds.
A new wave of Bhakti movement began in north India after the 13th century. This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of Bhakti and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another.
Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions. Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these accessible to all. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi, is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary work.
Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna.
Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai were some other important saints of this tradition.
The works of these saints were composed in regional languages and therefore they became very popular.
We come to know about Kabir through his sakhis and pads, Kabir’s teachings were based on complete rejection of the major religious traditions. He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was through Bhakti or devotion.
Guru Nanak emphasised the importance of the worship of one God. He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. He used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teachings which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct. Words that Matter
Virashaivism: It was popular in Karnataka during the mid-twelfth century. Its followers argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.
Hagiography: Writing of saint’s lives.
Vilthala: A form of Vishnu.
Hospice: House of rest for travellers, especially one kept by a religious order.
Khanqah: It literarily means hospice.
Dargah: It is a tomb of a religious saint in Muslim community recognised as a pilgrimage.
Langer: A common kitchen where people of all backgrounds eat together.
Dharamsala: A sacred space created by Baba Guru Nanak.
Khaba Panth: The community of the Sikhs.
Bhakti: It means devotion to God.
Sufi: He was a Muslim mystic.
Silsila: A genealogy of Sufi teachers.
Salvation: Getting freedom from the cycle of birth and death.
Shariat: Holy law made by Muslim Scholars.
Gurmukhi: A new script introduced by Guru Nanak.
1469-1539 – The period of Baba Guru Nanak.
1539 – Baba Guru Nanak died.
1604 – Guru Arjan compiled all the compositions written by the three successors of Guru Angad.
1606 – Guru Arjan was executed.
1699 – The Khalsa was instituted by Guru Gobind Singh.
Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 7
During the Medieval Age, several social, economic and political development took place.
The Indian society was divided on the basis varnas. During the medieval period, gap between the rich and poor increased.
There were, however, several communities which did not follow rules laid down by the Brahmins. These included the tribes, nomads and settled communities.
Tribal Societies
Tribes are people who do not follow norms laid down by society.
Most of the tribes were dependant on agriculture. Others were herders or hunter-gatherers.
Tribes were even nomadic and moved from one place to another.
Many tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts and other places which were difficult to reach. They preserved their culture and heritage through oral tradition.
There were even clashes between tribes and powerful caste-based societies.
Contemporary historians and travellers from medieval India hardly give any information about the tribes.
Many of the tribes emerged as politically powerful groups through their areas of influence and activities varied.
Some of the powerful tribes were Khokhar tribe in Punjab; Langahs and Arghuns in Multan; Gaddis in the Himalayas;
Kolis and Berads of Gujarat; Gonds of Chhattisgarh, Bhil tribe in Central India, etc.
The tribal societies underwent a change as a result of interaction with the Hindu and Islamic societies.
Pastoral Nomads
The pastoral nomads moved from one place to another with their herd of animals.
They survived on milk products and exchanged ghee, wool, etc. with farmers for grains, cloth, utensils, etc.
The most important trader nomads were Banjaras. Their caravan was called ‘tanda’. Sultan Alauddin Khilji used Banjaras to move grain to the city markets.
Pastoral tribes thus basically reared and sold animals like horses and cattle to the prosperous people.
Changes in Caste Structure of India
In the fields of trade and agriculture, there emerged a multi-caste population in many villages on account of the spread of Islam.
Sufi and Bhakti movement preached equality between different castes and religious groups.
Inter-caste marriages started between Rajputs and Muslim nobles.
With the growth of the economy, new jatis and varnas emerged.
Many tribes became part of rule changes.
The Gonds
Gonds were sometimes referred to by their tribal dialect, Gondi. They practised shifting cultivation.
The Gonds rose when Delhi Sultanate declined.
The Gond kingdom Gondwana in southeastern Madhya Pradesh was founded in the 15th century.
Ahoms
The Ahom tribe is traced to some tribes living in south-east Asia who had travelled overland through the forests of Assam.
The religion and culture of Assam is a fusion of the local traditions and of migrant tribes.
The Ahoms belonged to a warrior class and built roads and irrigation system even before establishing their rule.
The Ahoms formed the new kingdom by suppressing the older political system of Bhuiyans.
Tribal societies were absolutely different from those which existed in big cities.
Tribal societies did not follow the social rules and rituals, prescribed by the Brahmanas, because they divided societies into numerous unequal classes. These societies were known as tribes.
There was a unique bond of kinship among the members of each tribe.
Their main source of livelihood was agriculture. However, hunter-gatherers or herders were also there.
Some tribes were nomadic and kept on moving from one place to another.
A tribal group controlled land and pastures jointly and divided these amongst households as per its own rules.
Tribal people did not keep written records. But they preserved rich customs and oral traditions which help historians to collect knowledge about them.
Tribal people were spread in almost every region of the subcontinent. Some powerful tribes controlled large territories.
In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential during the 13th and 14th centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important.
In Multan and Sind, the Languages and Arghuns dominated extensive regions.
The Balochis were found in the north-west.
The Shepherd tribe of Gaddis lived in the western Himalayas.
The north-eastern part of the subcontinent was dominated by the Nagas, Ahoms and many others.
The Kolis were found in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat.
The Bhils were spread across western and central India.
The Gonds lived in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
Nomadic pastoralists lived on milk and other pastoral products. The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads.
Smaller castes or jatis emerged with the growth of society. Smiths, carpenters and masons were recognised as separate jatis.
Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the 11th and 12th centuries. They belonged to different lineages such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas, etc. Some of these had been tribes earlier. Many of these clans came to be regarded as Rajputs.
The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal people to follow.
The Gonds lived in a vast forested region known as Gondwana. They practised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribe was further divided into many smaller clans. Each clan had its own raja or rai. About the time that the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gond kingdoms were beginning to dominate the smaller Gond chiefs. The Akbar Nama mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga.
Garha Katanga was a rich state. However, it was defeated by the Mughals. Despite that, the Gond kingdoms survived for some time.
The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the 13th century. They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).
During the 16th century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas and of Koch-Hajo and subjugated many other tribes. Thus, they built a large state. However, they faced many invasions from the south-west and finally, they were defeated by the Mughals.
Ahom society was divided into clans or Khels. The society was very sophisticated.
The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. However, in the reign of Sib Singh Hinduism became the predominant religion. But the Ahom kings did not completely give up their traditional beliefs.
Clan: A clan is a group of families or households claiming descent from a common ancestor. The tribal organisation is often based on kinship or clan loyalties.
Nomads: People who keep on moving from one place to another.
Nomadic pastoralists: People who move over long distances with their animals.
Tanda: The caravan of the Banjaras was called tanda.
Itinerant Group: This group consists of craftspersons, peddlers and entertainers who travel from place to place practising their different occupations.
Shifting Cultivation: Trees and bushes in a forest area are first cut and burnt. The crop is then sown in the ashes. After some time when this land loses its fertility, another patch of land is cleared and planted in the same manner.
1591 – Cheros were defeated.
1523 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of the Chaityas.
1581 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of Koch-Hajo.
1662 – The Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahonri kingdom.
One of the most interesting aspects of the medieval period in the 17th century was the growth of urbanization. In medieval India, there were three types of towns—a temple town, an administrative town and a commercial town or a port town.
The Arabs, Turkish and Afghans settled in many parts of the country leading to the evolution of towns and cities.
Sources of Knowing about the History of this Period
The sources of history are travellers’ accounts.
Monserrate, Flitch, Thomas Roe, Domingo Paes, Nicolo Conti and Abdul Razzaq Samarqandi wrote about the life of this period.
Court Towns
Some of the important court towns were Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Delhi.
Fatehpur Sikri was the new capital founded by Akbar.
Delhi was known as Shahjahanabad and was built by Shah Jahan in 1639.
Port and Trading Towns
Some towns developed as ports due to their proximity to the seashore.
Some major ports were Cambay, Surat, Broach, Masulipatanam, Nagapattinam, etc.
Administrative Towns
Some towns were capital cities. They were centres of administration.
Thanjavur and Uraiyur were important centres.
Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres
Temples towns were important centres of urbanization and led to the development of cities, economy and society.
Pilgrims gave huge donations to temples. This wealth was used by temple authorities to finance their trade and banking.
Important temple towns were Bhillasvamin in Madhya Pradesh, Somnath in Gujarat, Kanchipuram and Madurai
How Important was Bronze
Bronze is an alloy compound of copper and tin.
Chola rulers used this metal to make statues through the Tost wax’ technique.
The Emergence of Small Towns
From the 8th century onwards, small towns emerged in India. They emerged from large villages. They had a ‘mandapika’ where villagers sold their produce.
Likewise, there were market streets, called ‘hatta’, full of shops.
Many villagers came to buy local articles and sell products like horses, camphor, saffron, betel nut, spices, salt, etc.
Normally a Samanta was appointed who fortified the palaces and gave the right to collect taxes from traders, artisans, etc.
Name of Traders
Many kinds of traders existed.
Trader travelled in caravans by forming guilds.
Trade was done on a regular basis within the peninsula and with South-east Asia and China.
Some other important traders were the Chettiars, Marwari, Banjaras, Baniyas, Muslim Bohras, etc.
Crafts in Towns
Craftwork was famous by the name of Bidri in the region.
The goldsmith, bronzesmith, blacksmith, masons and carpenters were together called as the ‘Panchalas’ or ‘Vishwakarma’.
Some other crafts were cotton cleaning, spinning and dying.
Surat in Gujarat was a cosmopolitan city. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders known as zari and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.
There were three types of medieval towns—a temple town, an administrative centre, and a commercial town or a port town.
Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas a thousand years ago, emerged as an administrative centre as well as a temple town.
The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town. The famous Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajarja Chola lies here.
As Thanjavur was an administrative centre, Kings held courts in the mandapas, which were parts of palaces, issuing orders to their subordinates.
Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop. – ‘
hulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities.
Important temple towns were Bhillasvamin in Madhya Pradesh, Somnath in Gujarat, Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu and Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
Pilgrimage centres also developed into townships. Examples—Vrindvan in Uttar Pradesh and Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu.
Small towns emerged from large villages. They usually had a mandapika or mandi of later times to which nearly villages brought their produce to sell. They also had market streets called hatta or heat of later times lined with shops.
Different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths, etc. also lived in these towns.
There were many kinds of traders. They usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests.
There were also communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal. Gujarati traders traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, South-east Asia and China.
Indian spices such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc. became very popular in European homes. Indian cotton cloth was also in great demand. This eventually drew European traders to India.
The craftspersons of Bidar were very famous. Their inlay work in copper and silver came to be known as Bidri.
The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters contributed a lot in the building of temples.
The weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars also donated to temples.
Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. The architecture of Hampi was distinctive. It bustled with commercial and cultural activities during the 15-16th centuries.
Moors, Chettis and agents of European traders thronged the markets of Hampi.
Temples were the hub of cultural activities.
Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans.
Surat in Gujarat was a cosmopolitan city. People of all castes and creeds lived there.
The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders known as zari and had a market in west Asia, Africa and Europe.
The Kathiawad seths or mahajans had huge banking houses at Surat. The Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antworp in Belgium.
Surat began to decline towards the end of the 17th century.
The town of Masculipatnam was a centre of intense activity in the 17th century. As it became the most important port on the Andhra coast both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control it.
The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda decided to prevent the attempts of the various East India Companies. As a result fierce competition among various trading groups made the city populous and prosperous. However, Golconda was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686-1687.
This caused the European Companies to look for the alternatives. The Company traders moved to Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. This caused the decline of Masulipatnam in the 18th century.
The English emerged as the most successful commercial and political power in the subcontinent.
Indian textiles were in great demand in Europe and west Asia. More and more people began to engage themselves in the crafts of spinning, weaving, bleaching, dying, etc. But the craftspersons were no more independent. They now began to work on a system of advances which meant that they had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents.
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras became important cities in the 18th century.
The Europeans established Black Towns in these new cities and merchants and artisans were made to move there.
The ‘white’ rulers occupied the superior residences of Fort St George in Madras or Fort St William in Calcutta.
Administrative town: A town from where the administration is carried on.
Temple town: A town with a number of famous temples.
Commercial town: A town which is the centre of sale and purchase of commodities.
Emporium: A place where goods from diverse production centres are bought and sold.
Hundi: It is not recording a deposit made by a person. The amount deposited can be claimed in another place by presenting the record of the deposit.
Factor: It referred to an official merchant of the East India Company.
Sthapatis: Sculptors who made beautiful bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps.
Pilgrimage Centres: Religious places where people go for pilgrimage.
1336: Vijayanagara Empire was founded.
1565: Vijayanagara Empire was defeated.
1704: Murshidabad became the capital of Bengal.
At the end of the 17th Century: Surat began to decline.
In the 17th Century: The town of Masalipatnam was a centre of intense activity.
The 18th century: Rise of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
लेखक ने इस पाठ में देश की पहली बोलने वाली फिल्म का वर्णन करते हुए कहते हैं कि जब देश की पहली बोलने वाली फिल्म ‘आलम आरा’ प्रदर्शित होने वाली थी तो शहर भर में उसके पोस्टरों में कुछ इस तरह की पंक्तियाँ लिखी हुई थी कि- ‘वे सभी जिन्दा हैं, साँस ले रहे हैं, शत-प्रतिशत बोल रहे हैं, अठहत्तर मुर्दा मानव ज़िंदा हो गए, उनको बोलते, बातें करते देखो।’ इन पंक्तियों का अर्थ था कि फिल्म में जितने भी पात्र हैं वह सब जीवित नजर आ रहे हैं, सभी उनको बोलते, बातें करते देख सकते हैं, इस तरह का विज्ञापन तैयार करके लोगों को फिल्म को देखने के लिए आकर्षित किया गया था और यह ‘आलम आरा’ फिल्म का सबसे पहला पोस्टर था। 14 मार्च 1931 की वह ऐतिहासिक तारीख भारतीय सिनेमा में बड़े बदलाव का दिन था। इसी दिन पहली बार भारत के सिनेमा ने बोलना सीखा था। हालाँकि वह दौर ऐसा था जब मूक सिनेमा लोकप्रियता के शिखर पर था।
आलम आरा’ पहली सवाक फिल्म है। ये फिल्म 14 मार्च 1931 को बनी। भारतीय सिनेमा की पहली बोलती फिल्म ‘आलम आरा’ बनाने वाले फिल्मकार ‘अर्देशिर एम. ईरानी’ थे। अर्देशिर ने 1929 में हॉलीवुड की एक बोलती फिल्म ‘शो बोट’ देखी थी जिससे उन्हें इस तरह की फिल्म बनाने की प्रेरणा मिली और उनके मन में भी भारतीय सिनेमा में बोलती फिल्म बनाने की इच्छा जागी।
इस फिल्म में पहले पार्श्वगायक बने डब्लू. एम. खान। पहला गाना था ‘दे दे खुदा के नाम पर प्यारे अगर देने की ताकत है’। आलम आरा का संगीत उस समय डिस्क फॉर्म में रिकार्ड नहीं किया जा सका, फिल्म की शूटिंग शुरू हुई तो साउंड के कारण ही इसकी शूटिंग रात में करनी पड़ती थी।
आलम आरा फिल्म ‘अरेबियन नाइट्स’ जैसी फैंटेसी थी। फिल्म ने हिंदी-उर्दू के मेलवाली ‘हिंदुस्तानी’ भाषा को लोकप्रिय बनाया। इसमें गीत, संगीत तथा नृत्य के अनोखे संयोजन थे। फिल्म की नायिका जुबैदा थीं। नायक थे विट्ठल। वे उस दौर के सर्वाधिक पारिश्रमिक पाने वाले स्टार थे।
लेखक कहते है कि जब विट्ठल को फिल्म के नायक के रूप में चुना गया तो उनके बारे में एक कहानी बहुत ही मशहूर थी कि विट्ठल को उर्दू बोलने में मुश्किलें आती थीं। पहले तो उनका बतौर नायक चयन किया गया मगर उर्दू न बोल पाने के कारण उन्हें फिल्म में नायक की भूमिका से हटाकर उनकी जगह मेहबूब को नायक बना दिया गया। मेहबूब भी एक बहुत ही प्रसिद्ध और बेहतरीन कलाकार रहे हैं।
विट्ठल नाराज़ हो गए और अपना हक पाने के लिए उन्होंने मुकदमा कर दिया। उस दौर में उनका मुकदमा मोहम्मद अली जिन्ना ने लड़ा जो तब के मशहूर वकील हुआ करते थे। विट्ठल मुकदमा जीते और भारत की पहली बोलती फिल्म के नायक बनें।
इसके नायक बिट्ठल तथा नायिका जुबैदा थी। अर्देशिर को इस फिल्म को बनाने के बाद ‘भारतीय सवाक् फिल्म का पिता’ कहा गया। ये फिल्म 8 सप्ताह तक हाउस फुल चली थी। इस फिल्म में सिर्फ तीन वाद्य यंत्र प्रयोग किये गए थे। आलम आरा फिल्म फैंटेसी फिल्म थी। फिल्म ने हिंदी-उर्दू के तालमेल वाली हिंदुस्तानी भाषा को लोकप्रिय बनाया। यह फिल्म 14 मार्च 1931 को मुंबई के ‘मैजेस्टिक’ सिनेमा में प्रदर्शित हुई। फिल्म 8 सप्ताह तक ‘हाउसफुल’ चली और भीड़ इतनी उमड़ती थी कि पुलिस के लिए नियंत्रण करना मुश्किल हो जाया करता था।
इसी फिल्म के उपरान्त ही फिल्मों में कई ‘गायक – अभिनेता’ बड़े परदे पर नज़र आने लगे। आलम आरा भारत के अलावा श्रीलंका, बर्मा और पश्चिम एशिया में पसंद की गई। इसी सिनेमा से सिनेमा का एक नया युग शुरू हो गया था।
