Short Answer Type Question:
Q1.How did Britain’s involvement in wars from 1793 to 1815 affect British industries?
ANSWER:
During 1760 to 1815, Britain remained engaged in numerous wars with Europe, North America and India. The basic rationale behind such wars was to expand the British colonial rule and draw out resources to feed the domestic industries of Britain. However, an overview of this period states that Britain’s involvement of wars had adversely affected its industrialisation process. Following are the ways in which the British industries got affected due to Britain’s involvement in wars from 1793 to 1815:
1) During this time, the capital borrowed with the motive of industrialisation was rather ploughed in the defence and expansion of the army. This led to a shortfall in the availability of investment for Britain’s industries.
2) On the other hand, the factory workers and the farm labourers were moved out of the industries and were made to join the army.
3) At the same time, the war expenses were financed by raising tax rates. As agreed by numerous historians, approximately 35% of the war cost was met via taxes. This left people with a meagre amount of disposable cash and consequently, it led to drastic reduction in the demand for goods in the economy.
4) Wars also led to an acute crisis for necessary goods. This further pushed up the prices of such goods, further worsening the economic situation.
Q2.What were the relative advantages of canal and railway transportation?
ANSWER:
With the development of industrialisation, England felt the need for an improved transportation system. An effective link of transportation could ensure hassle-free movement of goods and labour and establishment of canal and rail network provided the framework to achieve the same. The advantages of both these modes of transportation have been enlisted below.
1) The presence of a canal by the coal mine eased the transportation of coal to the industries and cities. This convenient transport of coal from the source to the destination due to the presence of a canal enhanced the value of a coal mine.
2) The places where two or more canals met developed as important trading spots. Overtime, these spots grew as marketing centres that further developed as hustling and bustling new towns. One such town was Birmingham that developed to its position of prominence from a small trading centre because of its position, which was at the heart of a canal system.The big landowners of that time were quick to understand the worth of building canals by their lands. This led to the construction of approximately 4000 miles of canal network between the years 1796 to 1856. However, soon this phase of ‘canal mania’ was replaced by the ‘rail mania’. The reasons that led to the establishment of approximately 17000 miles of railway tracks within a span of 17 years (1830–1847) have been drafted below.
1) Railways proved to be a faster mode of transportation. It was beneficial for the transportation of perishable goods from one corner of the country to the other.
2) Railways could carry much heavier commodities as compared to the canals.
3) Unlike the canals, which made transportation of goods in adverse climatic condition impossible, railways functioned efficiently all year around. This made the railways a much more reliable way of carrying goods.Thus, it will not be wrong to state that the railways had relatively more advantages as compared to the canals. Railways were more efficient and reliable mode of transportation. However, both these modes together marked a shift from a rudimentary mode of transportation to a highly advanced transportation mode that served as the backbone of England’s industrialisation process.
Q3.What were the interesting features of the ‘inventions’ of this period?
ANSWER:
The transformation of England from an agricultural country to its establishment as the workshop of the world was possible due to several inventions and technological developments. It is estimated that around 26000 inventions were made in the 18th century. Some important features of the inventions of this period are as follows:
1) Furnaces in the industries were usually dependent on the use of charcoal, the availability of which was scarce. The invention of blast furnaces, which used coke, helped to reduce this dependency. In comparison to charcoal, coke produced much higher temperatures for the extraction of iron. This iron also permitted finer and larger castings than before.
2) With the invention of different machines, new products could be produced. These products soon flooded the English market. For instance, puddling furnaces and rolling mill made the production of broader range of iron products such as iron pipes and chairs, possible.
3) New inventions successfully reduced the gap between two units in a mill. This was a common problem in the cotton textile mill, where the weaver could start working only when the yarn had arrived from the spinners. With the invention of machines like the spinning jenny and flying shuttle loom, both the weaver and the spinner could work simultaneously.
4) New technology enabled increased production of goods in industries as compared to what was done earlier in smaller units. It is estimated that the British iron industry quadrupled its output between 1800 and 1830.
5) The Industrial Revolution marked the beginning of the factory system. In factories, workers were required to do one specific task rather than conducting several activities or the entire production job. This job specialization of the labourers along with strict quality control by managers of the factories facilitated the production of high quality goods.
6) Before Industrial Revolution, hydraulic power was the most important source of energy. However, the use of hydraulic power remained limited due to factors like climate and speed of water. The invention of steam power provided an alternative source of energy that was effective, cheap and reliable. The high pressure created by steam at high temperature could be used to run heavy.machines
7) The invention of steam power facilitated the establishment of railway engines. Railways reduced the time taken to travel from one place to another and helped in transportation of heavy goods throughout the year.
Q4.Indicate how the supply of raw materials affected the nature of British industrialisation.
ANSWER:
Before the beginning of industrialization, England imported bulk of cotton textile from India. For this import, England had to pay high amounts to India. The initiation of England’s industrial era changed this equation forever. With the establishment of industries in England, it became capable to spin and weave its own cloth; however, it faced the problem of raw materials. To seek its own interest, England changed the terms of trade with its colonies. Its colonies such as India now became only raw material-producing countries for their colonizer. England would buy cotton from India at low cost, weave them into finished textile in factories back home and then export back the finished product to its colonies. This trading relation proved to be highly profitable for England as it successfully sustained the process of colonisation and also provided a channel for easy flow of raw material and ready market for its finished goods.
Q5.How were the lives of different classes of British women affected by the Industrial Revolution?
ANSWER:
The Industrial Revolution in England was a potent factor that reshaped family relations, gender equation and position of women in society. Frederick Engels, writing in the late 19th century, thought that the Industrial Revolution increased women’s participation in labour outside the home and claimed that this change was emancipating. However, the story was not the same for all classes of women. The changes affected different classes of women in different ways. For some, the Industrial Revolution guaranteed mobility and independence but for most, it brought forth a life of hardship.
Poor women working in the factories suffered immensely. Women had to work in the filthiest atmosphere for extremely long durations. For such hard labour, they were paid a meagre sum of money, usually much lesser than what was being paid to their male counterparts. Apart from the hard toil in the factories, women also had the responsibility of their households; raising the family and taking care of the household were the responsibilities of the women.
Condition of the women working in the mines was the worst. Females submitted to work in places where no man or even a lad could be got to labor in. Women worked up to their knees in water in passages eighteen inches high or less. They carried hundreds of pounds of coal in baskets suspended from their foreheads or pulled carts of coal.
Many poor women also took up the job of housemaids. There too, they had to work for more than 16 hours, and there was no job security. If they fell ill or were pregnant, they were immediately dismissed.
In contrast to this, the middle or rich class women enjoyed most benefits that the Industrial Revolution had to offer. The best and finest of goods were available to them. Maids were available for conducting the household chores. The development in the means of transport made their lives more comfortable. References also state that few women stepped out of their houses and began to work as typists and secretaries under the government, thus establishing their individual identity.
Q6.Compare the effects of the coming of the railways in different countries in the world.
ANSWER:
“Railroads are more than tracks and trains; they are a whole new way of life, the forerunners of a new civilization”, writes Headrick, D. R. in his work, ‘The Railroads of India’. This statement can well be understood if we study the inception of railways in Britain, a colonizer nation and India, a colonised country. Though the motives for the establishment in the two nations were different, its impact on the economy, society and polity was immense for both the categories of nations.
The establishment of railways in England was initiated to support the increasing demands of industrialisation in the country. Railways could link the factories and mines to the ports, thus facilitating the quick transport of raw materials to the industries and finished goods from the industries to the ports for export. Carrying of bulky goods was no more a problem with the railways coming to function. Other than just transporting goods, railways also served to achieve the following benefits for Britain:
1) The ‘railway mania’ of the 19th century provided employment opportunities for many. Every aspect of the railways such as production of parts of the engines and bogeys, the laying down of tracks and efficient running and maintenance of the railways generated employment for the population.
2) The railway links helped in bringing new varieties of products to the market, thus increasing the variety of available goods and commodities for its population. Fish became a staple diet for maximum population, with the connection of the coastal areas being established to the cities and towns.
3) With the tremendous success and profit earned in the railway sector, more people started investing in stocks of the railways. This gave a further boost to the British economy.
4) The thick network of railways helped to connect different parts of the country, which made the movement of labour easier. People could now move out to other parts of the country in search of jobs.
5) One of the most important aspects of the development of railways in England was that it served to establish the strong pedestal of colonialism for England. The railway lines helped to bring the cheap raw materials of the colonised countries to the industries and send the complete textiles from the textiles to the port for export to the colonies.Now that we have seen how the railways benefitted Britain, we shift our attention to the impact of railways in India, a colony of Britain. The construction of railways in India was started by the British in the 19th century to facilitate the export of raw materials and create a ready market for British goods. Construction of railways in India was aimed for the economic advancement of England and not India.
Several western thinkers believed that the railways could bring Industrial Revolution to India but nothing of that sort took place. It rather facilitated further drain of Indian resources and provided no better opportunities for natives.
The following points will provide a glimpse of the scenario:
1) Indians hardly had any shares of the railways as they could be traded only in London. According to the available data, only 500 out of 50000 shareholders of Indian rail road were Indians. This proves that railways did not provide any economic boost for India.
2) There were hardly any Indian workers who were involved in the railway construction process. Engineers, foremen and other skilled workers were all brought in from England. The salaries, medical expenses and other allowances of these officers were borne by India.
3) Unlike in England, railways in India did not foster industrialisation. All necessary raw materials like iron goods, rolling stocks, locomotives, etc were imported from Britain. At times, even coal was imported from Britain.Even though the railways catered to British interests, it was a boon in disguise for India. It enabled to connect different parts of the country. National newspapers could now be transported to different parts of the country, making possible the spread of nationalist fervour quickly. The railway bogies, where people of different groups had to sit together, broke the stereotypes of castes and classes.
Thus, we can conclude that the impact of railways was very different for the colonial power and the colonised nation. On one hand, where it helped in placing Britain as a superpower on the global front, on the other hand, it made India an economy more dependent on England.
Long Answer Type Questions :
Q1.What were relative advantages of canal and railway transportation?
ANSWER: Advantages of Canal Transportation
- Canals were mainly built to transport coal to cities. The bulk and weight of coal made its transport by road much slower and expensive than by barges on canals. Coal was mainly used for heating and lighting homes in cities. The demand for coal grew constantly. The first English canal was made by James Bindley in 1761. It was known as Worsely canal. Its main purpose was to carry coal from the coal deposits at Worsely (near Manchester) to that city; after the canal was completed.
- Canals were usually built by big landowners. The confluence of canals created marketing centres in new towns. For example, the city of Birmingham owed its growth to its position at the heart of a canal system connecting London, the Bristol Channel, and the Mersey and Humber rivers. Between 1760 to 1790, 25 projects of canal building began. The period between 1788 to 1796 is known as canal mania. In it, there were another 46 new projects and over the next 60 years more than 4,000 miles of canal were built.
Advantages of Railway Transportation
- Railways emerged as a new means of transportation available throughout the year. It was both cheap and fast, to carry passengers and goods.
- In the second stage, the invention of the railways took the entire process of industrialisation. In 1801, Richard Trevithick had devised an engine called the ‘Puffing Devil’. In 1814, the railway engineer George Stephenson invented a lomocotive called ‘The Blutcher’. It could pull a weight of 30 tonnes upto a hill at 4 mph. The first railway line connected the cities of Stockton and Darlington in 1825. The distance between the two cities was just nine miles which could be covered in 2 hours at the speed of 24 KPh.
Q2.Which factors were responsible for Industrial Revolution in England? Explain.
ANSWER:
The factors responsible for Industrial Revolution in England were as follows:
- Natural resources: There was plenty of natural resources like iron and coal in England. These resources are essential for the industries.
- Capital: The traders of Britain had established good trade relations with numerous countries since a long time. They were quite affluent. So, they were successful in doing any kind of business.
- Climate: The climate of Britain is humid. Because it is located near the sea. It was also one of the factors of Industrial Revolution.
- Control over the colonies: British had established a large number of new colonies from where she could get the cheap raw materials and they could also serve as markets to sell the finished goods. Now they could sell their products in the colonies.
- Shipping Industry: Shipping industry of England was much developed. Through ships, they could do their business in proper way. They could now transport the things from far away countries and also sell their products in the market.
- Foreign Trade: The British had established their trade relations with another countries. Through this, they were able to expand their business. Foreign trade was also one of the main factors of Industrial Revolution.
- Innovative Ideas: The British had developed innovative ideas. That is why they made new discoveries. It was one of the main causes of the Industrial Revolution.
Q3.Discuss the socio-economic effects of the Industrial Revolution.
ANSWER: The Industrial Revolution made tremendous impact on the life of British people. It affected not only their social life but economic life too. The socio-economic effects of Industrial Revolution are as follows
- End of Cottage Industries: During the Industrial Revolution, a lot of new machines were prepared. Through these machines, numerous products were made. In cottage industries, it was not possible to manufacture these products. So, cottage industries in England have almost ended.
- Development of new Industrial Towns: After the Industrial Revolution, a number of new industrial towns were set up. Before it, industrial towns were not much developed. As a result, the industrial towns like Birmingham, Lancashire, Manchester, etc. came into existence.
- Growth of Agriculture: After the Industrial Revolution, new types of cropping machine, high-yielding seeds, fertilisers and new techniques of farming came into being. The farmers could now produce high yields. It also made their economic condition strong.
- Exploitation of women and children: Women and children were also employed in industries. They were forced to do work without wages or wages less than the male workers. It badly affected their health.
- Increase in National Income: After the Industrial Revolution, they were now able to produce new items. These items were sold in international market at high prices. This way their national income increased.
- Appearance of New classes: As a result of Industrial Revolution, two distinct classes appeared, i.e. the capitalists and the workers. The capitalists became more and more richer and the workers became more poorer.
- Standard of living: After the Industrial Revolution, people became more and more rich. Transport and communication, railways, ships, etc. made their life happier and comfortable. Thus, their standard of living improved.
- Population increased: After the Industrial Revolution people became well-off. Their standard of living improved. Now they could take nutritious diet. Numerous medicines were discovered. It also helped in checking the various diseases. Ultimately, it led to an increase in population.
Q4.How did the Industrial Revolution in England affect India’s economy?
ANSWER:
Industrial Revolution in England became the main cause of poverty in India. As India was a colony of England, it hit the Indian economy adversely. Due to the Industrial Revolution in England India’s economy was affected in the following ways:
- The Industrial Revolution enabled England to produce more goods than needed there. Indian markets were flooded with the machine made goods from England. In this way, India became a big consumer of the English goods.
- The Industrial Revolution in England threw the Indian artisans and handicrafts men out of job. As a result, small industries of India collapsed.
- The British Government forced the Indian farmers to sell their raw materials at cheap rates to the British factory owners. The policy of exploiting the Indian economy for the benefit of the British capitalist was the direct consequence of the Industrial Revolution on India’s economy.
- The unemployed artisans again became the farm labourers. They became a burden on the Indian agriculture. In this way, within very short-time, India became a poor country where agriculture was the only occupation of the people.
- Before the Industrial Revolution, India was the major producer of cotton, woollen and silken clothes. Now India suffered a severe setback in these industries. Clothes made by the British mills were cheaper than the Indian clothes.
- The Indian goods could not compete with the British goods. The British Government in India imposed heavy duties on the Indian goods and discouraged the Indian craftsmen ir. many ways so that they could never think of competing with the British goods.
Q5.What sort of reforms through laws were made by the British government to improve the condition of workers? What were the weaknesses of these measures?
ANSWER:
The reforms through laws made by the British government were as follows:
- Act of 1819: In 1819, laws were passed. It prohibited the employment of children under the age of nine in factories. It limited the hours of work of those between the age of 9 and 16 to 12 hours a day.
- Act of 1833: Under the Act of 1833, chi’dren under the age of nine were permitted to be employed only in silk factories. This act also limited the hours of work for older children. A number of Factory Inspectors Act were also employed to ensure that the Act was enforced.
- Ten Hours Bill: In 1847, the Ten Hours Bill was passed. This bill limited the hours of work for women and children and secured a ten-hour day for male workers.
- The Mines Commission of 1842: The Mines Commission was set up in 1842. This commission revealed that working conditions in mines had become worst, because more children had been put to work in coal mines.
- The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842: The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 banned children under ten and women from working in underground mines.
- Fielder’s Factory Act of 1847: In this act, it was laid down that children under eighteen and women should not work more than ten hours a day.
The weaknesses of the these measures were as follows:
- It was the duty of factory inspectors to enforce the factory laws. But the inspectors were poorly paid and easily bribed by factory managers.
- Parents lied about the real ages of their children, so that they could work and contribute to family incomes.
Q6.Do you think that industrialisation affects farming, transportation, communication and trade?
ANSWER:
Industrialisation definitely makes its impact on farming, transportation, communication and trade in the following ways:
- Effects on Farming: After the Industrial Revolution, farming was highly affected. The inventions of new machines for agriculture were made. Now the machinery took the place of mankind. The farmers could sow, reap and harvest their products through machines. On the one side, production doubled but on the other side, the unemployment problem increased.
- Effects on Transport: Roads were built for safe and fast transportation of goods. After industrialization, production of goods increased. So the businessmen had to send their goods to the different markets. Navigational canals were dug up to carry the goods and passengers. The rapid development of the means of transport made quite easy the transportation of finished goods. Now it became easier to send goods from one country to another.
- Effects on the Means of Communication: After Industrial Revolution, there occurred a change in the field of communication. Telegraphy and telephone were invented. Now it became easier to receive and send the message. Now people could establish contact with others in very short time.
- Effects on Trade: Trade was highly affected. As the products increased, it also encouraged trade. The international trade grew fast. It became easier for any industrialized country to import raw material and to export the finished goods to any part of the world market.
Q7.Do you think the period between 1780 to 1820 is considered to be revolutionary for the growth of cotton or iron industries?
ANSWER:
For textile industries, the raw materials like cotton was not grown in Britain. So, Britain imported it from other countries to produce their products. After the Industrial Revolution, a number of inventions were made. Machines of high quality and capacity were made. The production also increased. To sell their products, the manufacturers sent them to other countries. Most of the products were sold in Indian markets. Since 1780, the imports and exports of British goods also increased. After the War of American Independence, its trade with North America was interrupted. But after 1780, its trading relations with North America also established again.
After 1815-20, economic changes also occurred. After French Revolution, industrialization was highly affected. Industrialization is mainly related with growth in investment in capital formation. After 1820, these things gradually appeared. Now technical progress was not only confined to these areas but also other areas too. Now its progress could be seen in other branches too. So, growth in the cotton or iron industries from 1780 to 1820 is not called revolutionary.
Q8.What were the most favorable conditions for industrialization?
ANSWER:
The most favorable conditions for industrialization were as follows:
- Natural resources: For the development of any industry, the availability of natural resources is must. It must be in abundance.
- Capital: Sufficient capital is also necessary for the development of industries. Without the availability of capital, the development of industries is not possible.
- Raw materials: Availability of raw-materials is also needed for the industrialisation. It must be in plenty. The raw materials include cotton, jute, sugarcane, etc.
- Sources of energy: There must be sufficient sources of energy like electricity, oil or coal etc.
- Markets: There must be potential markets for the consumers. If there is potential market, more finished goods will be consumed. And the economy will grow.
- Transportation facilities: There must be efficient transportation facility. Roads, railway lines, shipping facilities etc. play a major role in the development of country.
- Cheap labour: For the growth of any industry a number of labourers must be available at reasonable price.
- Suitable climate: For the growth of any industry, suitable climate is must. If the climate is not suitable, production will also be affected. Worker’s health will also deteriorate. If their health is ill, there will be shortfall in production.
- Govt’s policy: The policy of govt, is also one of the factors in the growth of industry. If the govt is stable, it will have positive results on the industry. The industry will grow at fast pace.
Q9.Discuss the developments that took place in Britain and in other parts of the world in the eighteenth century that encouraged industrialisation.
ANSWER:
Developments in Britain
- Population of town was increasing rapidly.
- London was the largest town in Britain. It had become centre of global trade. It had also established its trade relations with Africa and West Indies.
- The companies trading in America and Asia opened their offices in London.
- Banking facilities also developed.
- New machines for textile industry, silk industry, iron industry and coal industry were also invented.
- Raw material was imported from the countries outside England and finished cloth was exported.
- Railway lines were laid and steam engine was invented.
- The big farmers made large estates by fencing around the meadows and pasture land and also bought the lands of smaller farmers nearby their property. They installed factories in their estates and became rich.
- Landless labourers left their villages and settled in urban slums in order to work in factories there.
- Exploitation of men, women and children in factories started. Developments in other parts of the world
- Slaves were bought from Africa to get the work done in factories by them. British colonialism started in Africa.
- Raw material was imported from Asia, Africa and America. Consequentially, the local industries got closed there.
- In Britain, goods were manufactured on large scale due to the inventions of new machine. It was also cheaper than the goods produced manually in other parts of the world. Now British goods were sold in abundance.
Q10.The invention of steam power proved helpful in the industrialization of Britain. How?
ANSWER:
Steam generates tremendous power. Power is essential for the growth of any industry. Water has been the major source of energy since a long time. It was just used as hydraulic power. But it had been limited only to certain areas, seasons and by the speed of flow of the water. Now it was used as steam. Pressure was provided by steam power at high temperatures.
Mining industries and Steam Power. Firstly, steam power was used in mining industries. There was a very serious problem in mining and that was flooding. The increase of demand for coal and metals increased. Efforts were also made to obtain them from deeper mines.
Thomas Savery built a model of steam engine in 1698 to drain mines. Its name was Miner’s Friend. It worked in shallow depth and under intense pressure.
Another steam engine was built by Thomas New comen in 1712. It had the major effect of losing energy due to the continuous cooling of the condensing cylinder.
Steam Power used in Factories. The steam engine had been used only in coal mines till 1769. James Watt developed his machine in 1769. He converted the steam engine from being a mere pump into a prime mover. This machine supplied energy to power machines in factories. Watt created the Soho Foundry in Birmingham in 1775 with the help of Matthew Boulton. In this foundry Watt’s steam engines were produced in great numbers. Steam engine technology was further developed after 1800 C.E. Following factors contributed to its development:
- The use of lighter and stronger metals.
- The manufacture of more accurate machine tools.
- The spread of better scientific knowledge.
- Steam engine technology was further developed with the use of higher, stronger metals.
Q11.What are Trade unions? Discuss its aim while they were formed.
ANSWER:
Trade union is an organisation of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas, such as working conditions. Trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. This may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. The agreements negotiated by the union leaders are binding on the rank and file members and the employer and in some cases on other non-member workers. Trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Aims of the formation of Trade unions
- To fight for the well-being of the workers.
- To fight against the injustice and malpractices in the industries.
- To fight for regulating the working hours for the workers.
- To fight for higher wages of the workers for their work done.
- To demand better services facilities and the working conditions of the workers.
- These were formed to maintain the harmonious relations between the employer and the employees.
