Monthly Archives: January 2022

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Why is the Enlightenment important for the development of sociology?

ANSWER:

The Enlightenment is important for the development of sociology because it helped in the development of secular, scientific and humanistic attitudes of mind during the late 17^th and 18^th centuries. This is because ‘enlightenment’ positioned the human being as the central figure of the universe, with rational thought at its core. Rational and critical thinking transformed human beings into both producer and user of all knowledge. Those who did not adopt the new ways of thinking and reasoning were deemed as deficient and primitive. This development influenced society as it was a product of human interaction. Thus, it helped sociology to grow as a rational and scientific subject with critical analysis.

Q2.How was the Industrial Revolution responsible for giving rise to sociology?

ANSWER:

The Industrial Revolution brought many changes in the society. The invention of new machines led to evolution in the organisation of labour and markets. The factory system and manufacturing on mass scale led to changes in modes of production and acquisition of raw materials from around the world. The growth of industries, urban space, slums and modern form of government was a social consequence of these developments. As a result, the industrial revolution caused significant changed in society, and thus the need to understand it also grew and led to the emergence of sociology.

The scientific analysis of developments and study of social behaviour in industrialised societies were the main subjects of sociology. This was made possible by empirical observation and study of the information about social indicators generated by the state.

Q3.What are the various components of a mode of production?

ANSWER:

Karl Marx’s philosophy of capitalism was based on the notion of modes of production which was associated with the historical period. The various modes of production at a general level are:

(i) Primitive communism

(ii) Slavery

(iii) Feudalism

(iv) Capitalism

At a specific level, the base of production is economic and includes productive forces and production relations. The productive forces include land, labour, technology and sources of energy. Production relations refer to economic relationships and forms of labour organisation that are involved in production. Property relations are based on the ownership of means of production.

Q4.Why do classes come into conflict, according to Marx?

ANSWER:

According to Karl Marx, the groups with similar interests and common objectives form same classes. This formation of classes is based on a historical process, which means that in every society class, identity among the people was present. With the change in modes of production, technology and social relations, these classes became antagonist to each other, thus resulting in class conflict. For instance, in a capitalist society, there is a conflict between the capitalists and the working class. In such a society, both of them are in a direct opposition to each other and hence the class conflict arises between classes.

Q5.What are social facts? How do we recognise them?

ANSWER:

According to Emile Durkheim, sociology is the study of social facts. Social facts are things that are external to an individual and constrain their behaviour. They are general in nature, which means that they are collective representations of social behaviour of a group of people. Social institutions like law, education and religion also constitute social facts along with beliefs, feelings and collective practices. In order to prove that sociology is based on social facts, Durkheim carried out the study of ‘suicide’. According to it, suicide is a personal choice that an individual commits, but the average rate of suicide in society reflects social behaviour and is a social fact. Hence social facts can be recognised through social behaviour, and the aggregate patterns of social behaviour.

Q6.What is the difference between `mechanical’ and `organic’ solidarity?

ANSWER:

	Mechanical Solidarity		Organic Solidarity
1.	It is found in primitive societies.	i.	It is found in modern societies.
2.	It is based on the similarity of its individual members.	ii.	It is based on the heterogeneity of its members.
3.	It is found in societies with less population.	iii.	It is found in the societies with large population and impersonal relationships.
4.	It is a group of people who are self sufficient and engaged in similar activities.	iv.	The people in this group are not self sufficient but dependent on other groups for their survival.
5.	This kind of society is not very tolerant of differences and violation of norms.	v.	This kind of society is tolerant and interdependent on each other.
6.	It has repressive laws that prevent deviation or opposition from the norms of community.	vi.	It has a restitutive law that corrects the wrong done by the criminals.
7.	The individual in this kind of society is totally submerged in the collectivity.	vii.	In this society the individual is given some autonomy.

Question 7:

Q7.Show, with examples, how moral codes are indicators of social solidarity.

ANSWER:

According to Durkheim, moral codes are indicators of social solidarity because society existed as a moral community above the individuals. Moral codes were codes of conduct that were collectively agreed upon. They reflected the prevailing social conditions and were manifested in the practices in everyday life. The ties that the individuals were bounded with, were important for the society, and these exerted a pressure on people to confirm that the norms and values of the society are not violated by any means. Therefore, the individual’s behaviour was limited and predictable which made it easy to understand the social solidarity which governed them. For example, caste system in India is a moral code that is reflective of social solidarity among various groups belonging to same caste.

Q8.What are the basic features of bureaucracy?

ANSWER:

The basic features of bureaucracy are:

(i) Functioning of Officials – It means that the officials have fixed areas of jurisdiction and are governed by rules and laws. The responsibilities of the officials are defined by the authority available to them and they have to function under the command of higher authorities. The officials are appointed on the basis of their qualifications.

(ii) Hierarchical Ordering of Positions – The authority of the officers is placed in a top down hierarchy.

(iii) Reliance on Written Document – The management of the organisation is carried out on the basis of written documents. Records are preserved for reference and decision making is cumulative.

(iv) Office Management – Office management is a specialised activity which requires trained and skilled officers.

(v) Conduct in Office – The conduct of the officers is maintained by strict rules and regulations. The public behaviour is separated from behaviour in private domain. Officials are also held accountable for their conduct.

Q9.What is special or different about the kind of objectivity needed in social science?

ANSWER:

The special or different kind of objectivity needed in social science is ‘value neutrality’. According Max Weber, it was important for sociologists to understand the subject matter of sociology in an objective manner as social interactions incorporated subjective human meanings, values, feelings, prejudices and ideals. For this, a sociologist had to study and record the views of people and their personal beliefs in a neutral way through empathetic understanding. That is, s/he had to describe and could not judge or imply her/his own conceptions to the understanding of others. Social scientists were themselves a part of society. Therefore, the exercise of such objectivity is deemed to be unique.

Q10.Can you identify any ideas or theories which have led to the formation of social movements in India in recent times?

ANSWER:

Many social theories have been at the root of social movements in India after independence. These include theories related to socialism, feminism and environmentalism. Socialist movements have strived to secure economic justice for backward classes. The ideal of socialism has been recognised in the preamble of the Constitution of India as well. Dalits and tribals have participated in socio-political movements to acquire political power based on the ideas of social reforms movements of nineteenth and twentieth century. These groups had been exploited from ancient time and are now endeavouring to claim their place in society. Feminism seeks to redefine the role of women in society and bring it on equal footing with that of men. Feminist movements have struggled against stereotypes and made efforts to secure the rights of women at home and workplace with some degree of success. Environmental movements have combined environmental and social concerns of people which have been overshadowed by developmental concerns. The Gandhian ideals of peaceful agitation and simplistic living have their association with most of these movements. Environmentalism has recently acquired a prominent focus among social concerns with problems like climate change and its attendant costs, particularly for developing countries. Major socio-environmental movements in India are the Chipko movement, the Appiko movement, Narmada Bachao Andolan and Silent Valley conservation.

Q11.Try to find out what Marx and Weber wrote about India.

ANSWER:

(i) Karl Marx – He referred to the villages of India as “little communities”. He was of the opinion that India was a self sufficient group which had no contact with the outside world. India had its own institutions and beliefs that controlled the human behaviour. Marx also opposed the British rule in Indian society and was totally against it. He wrote many articles on India under the British Raj, in order to throw light upon his views.

(ii)Max Weber – He studied India under his works on the ‘Sociology of Religion’. Weber understood the Indian society as orthodox and suppressed, under the barriers of the caste system. He emphasised throughout his studies the need of rational thinking, which was opposed by the caste system in India. He also believed that the religion and caste system together acted against economic development.

Q12.Can you think of reasons why we should study the work of thinkers who died long ago? What could be some reasons to not study them?

ANSWER:

The work of thinkers who died long ago needs to be studied because it is important to understand the impact of their ideologies in order to know the present-day societies well. For example, to understand the communist model and its failures, one needs to study the theories developed by Karl Marx on capitalism and communism.

Some theories of scholars are still relevant in the present day societies. The idea of bureaucracy by Max Weber is a very important element of functioning of present day societies in which we are living.

Their theories also provide many answers to social developments of the past. For example, the progress of western societies compared to Asian societies can be understood through the study of Protestant-Ethic and the Rise of Capitalism by Max Weber.

The difference between sociology and psychology can be understood by the study of ‘Suicide’ done by Emile Durkheim.

Reasons for not studying the works of early thinkers are that some of the old concepts may not be applicable to the present day societies. This can be attributed to unforeseen changes in social, economic, cultural and technological fields which accompany the advent of a new era. For instance, the theory of Karl Marx where he concludes that the working class would protest against the capitalist and a new form of socialist regime would emerge, was eventually proved wrong and later the theory of Max Weber was accepted. Also, there are many critics to the theory. For instance the ideology of the Indian villages being self sufficient entity by the western scholars, was highly criticised by the Indian scholars like M.N. Srinivas, according to whom, the villages were connected with the outside world.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Write a short note on Emile Durkheim.
Answer:
Emile Durkheim was bom on 15th April, 1858 in France. His elementary education was completed at Ecole. After graduation from the Ecole, he started working for the
doctoral degree. He obtained his doctorate in 1893, and was appointed Professor in the Paris University. Durkheim founded L ‘Anne Sociologique, the first social science journal in France. He died on Nov. 15,1917. His works include :

• Division of Labour in Society
• The Rules of Sociological Method
• Suicide
• The Elementary Forms of Religious Life.

According to Durkheim, social facts are the substance of sociological study. Durkheim was strongly concerned with outlining the nature and scope of sociology.

• They are general throughout society.
• They are external to individuals and exist independently on their will.
• They exercise external constraint over individuals.

Q2.Explain “theory of suicide” as stated by Emile Durkheim.
Answer:
Emile Durkheim identified four types of suicide:

1. Egoistic Suicide: A person gives too much importance to his own self or ego; is not properly integrated in society; excessive self- reflection on personal matters leading to withdrawal from the outside world; as a result there is weakening in the bonds of solidarity in the family, religious and political organizations

2. Altruistic Suicide: In this the person is over-integrated with the society. They commit suicide for the cause of society or a kind of self-denial, e.g. Sati, Jauhar.

3. Anomic Suicide: In societies that experience sudden changes. Anomic is a state which results from the weakening of the powers in the society that regulate social equilibrium. The person meets frustration and he cannot withstand it, he puts an end to his life.

4. Fatalistic Suicide: When there is excessive degree of regulation and an overly developed regime, e.g. seeing no alternative to enslavement under the master a slave takes his life.

Q3.Highlight the basic characteristics of religion.
Answer:
The basic characteristics of religion are:

• Belief in supernatural power.
• Emotional state of mind associated with the beliefs, happiness, fear, reverence etc.
• Material objects involved in the religious practices-altar, cross, sacrifice, flower, . incense sticks, special clothes, banana leaves etc.
• Variations in the types of material objects used in religious ceremonies-differ from culture to culture.
• Specific rituals – fasting, chanting, dancing, specific types of food etc.
• Specific mode of worship.
• Concept of heaven and hell; sacred and profane etc.
• A special place of worship.
• Generally rituals are performed in isolation but occasionally it is performed collectively.

Q4.How did Max Weber explain “social action”? Elaborate on the types of social action seen in society. (HOTS)
Answer:
According to Max Weber

• An action is social when it is oriented or directed to others in society.
• It is social in so far as by virtue of the meaning attached to it by the acting individual or individuals.
• All human behaviour to which the actor attaches a subjective meaning is social action.

Types of social action

• Goal-Rational Action: Both means and goals are rationally selected by the individual.
• Value-Rational Action: These are performed under the influence of ethical values and religious beliefs of the individual.
• Emotional Action: The means and ends of the action are selected on the basis of emotional criteria. They may not be rational.
• Traditional Action: Tradition and customs guide the selection of the means and ends.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Describe in your own words what you understand by the term `ecology’.

Answer:

Ecology refers to the complex network of biological and physical systems and processes between the biotic and abiotic components of environment. It is responsible for the type of environment around living beings. Humans are also a constituent of ecology. Various physical features like mountains, rivers, plains and oceans, each with their unique flora and fauna, form their own ecology. The ecology of a place is affected by the interaction between its geography and hydrology. The flora and fauna of a particular region adapt themselves according to its ecology, in order to survive. Ecology of a place has an impact on the human living conditions and the lifestyle, food, clothing, occupation and culture of the people of that place.

Q2.Why is ecology not limited only to the forces of nature?

Answer:

Ecology is not limited to the forces of nature as it gradually gets modified by human actions. Many seemingly natural features and phenomena associated with the environment are the caused by human activities. For example, the change in climate because of global warming seems to be a natural process, but is an outcome of the human activities. The conservation of soil and water, usage of pesticide, and other man-made materials in agriculture are other examples of human transformation of nature. Artificial environment is prominently visible in cities in the form of built environment made from concrete, cement, brick, stone, glass and tar.

Q3.Describe the two-way process by which social environments emerge.

Answer:

Social environments emerge as a result of a two-way process in the form of interaction between biophysical ecology and human interventions. This can be explained as the shaping of human society by nature and the shaping of nature by human society. For example, the soil fertility of Indo-Gangetic plain enables agriculture and sustains high density of population while the arid and dry condition in Rajasthan barely supports pastoral form of life. This represents the impact of nature on human life. Contrary to this, technological developments like invention of automobiles have had an impact on the landscape. Air pollution and global warming are examples of the impact of human activities on nature.

Q4.Why and how does social organisation shape the relationship between the environment and society?

Answer:

Social organisation shapes the relationship between the environment and the society because the relations of property determine the usage of natural resources. For example, there would be a difference in the ownership of forests by the government and the private companies. This is because both of them would have different purposes and aim out of these resources. Hence the use of forests by both of them would be different.

The ownership of natural resources also vary with the division of labour. For instance, the relationship of landless labours and women with resources would be different than that of men because women experience scarcity of resources more acutely in a rural area, as they have to go to fetch water and collect firewood without controlling these resources.

Q5.Why is environmental management a complex and huge task for society?

Answer:

Environmental management is a complex and huge task for society because sufficient information is not available about the biophysical processes to predict and control them. The relation between humans and environment has become complex as industrialisation has accelerated the extraction of resources. This has affected ecosystems in ways which were not possible earlier. The industrial management systems are fragile and often vulnerable. This has also given rise to many environmental problems and risks. Disasters like the Bhopal Gas Tragedy are consequence of such hazards.

Q6.What are some of the important forms of pollution-related environmental hazards?

Answer:

Some of the important forms of pollution-related environmental hazards are as follows:

(i) Air Pollution – It is caused by emissions from industries and vehicles in urban areas and burning of wood and coal for domestic use in rural areas. It is one of the major environmental problems in both – urban and rural areas. Air pollution causes many diseases, such as respiratory disease that may result in serious illness and death.

(ii) Water Pollution – It is another form of pollution that affects the quality of water on surface and groundwater. It is mainly caused by domestic sewage, factory effluents and water from farms, which have large amounts of pesticides and synthetic fertilisers. Rivers and other bodies are particularly affected by water pollution.

(iii) Noise Pollution – Noise pollution mainly occurs in the cities as a result of continuous honking by vehicles, use of amplified loud speakers, traffic and construction work, etc. Noise pollution has been a subject in many court orders, for its control.

Q7.What are the major environmental issues associated with resource depletion?

Answer:

The depletion of resources is associated with the using up of non-renewable natural resources. The major environmental issues as associated with resource depletion are as follows:

(i) The depletion of land and water resources. The decline in groundwater levels has caused an acute shortage of water all over India, particularly in states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. With the growing demands of agriculture, industries and urban sector, the water shortage is one of the major problems faced by the world today. The fertile soil of the land also gets destroyed due to erosion, water-logging and salinization and activities like production of bricks.

(ii) Depletion of biodiversity habitats like forests, grasslands and wetlands is another major environmental concern. This has been caused by expansion of areas under agriculture. Many species of flora and fauna have been endangered by the loss of biodiversity. This includes the tiger population, which is now threatened by declining numbers.

Q8.Explain why environmental problems are simultaneously social problems.

Answer:

Environmental problems are simultaneously social problems, as the way they affect different social groups is associated with ‘social inequality’. This is because social status determines the extent to which a person is able to cope up with environment related problems. For example, in places like Gujarat where water is scarce, the rich farmers invest in deep bore tube wells to get underground water, whereas the poor farmers cannot afford to get tube wells. The depletion of water is compounded when the rains fail, as the wells of poorer farmers become dry.

However, some environmental problems, like air pollution and loss of biodiversity, are universal concerns. Differences in perception exist over the constitution of public interest in terms of environment. These differences often result in decisions which hurt the interest of weaker groups and minorities. For example, debates over construction of large dams and the displacement of people.

Q9.What is meant by social ecology?

Answer:

Social ecology emphasises the role of social relations in environmental practices and perceptions. It is particularly related to the organisation of property and production. Various social groups share a different relation with the environment and have a different approach to it. The varied interests and ideologies generate environmental conflicts. Thus, social ecology indicates the solution of environmental problems by changing relations between environment and society. To achieve this result, it advocates changing the relation between different social groups like men and women, urban and rural people, landlords and labourers. Change in social systems enables the development of new methods of managing the environment.

Q10.Describe some environment related conflicts that you know of or have read about. (Other than the examples in the text.)

Answer:

Note: Any answer supported with explanation would solve the purpose.

One sample answer has been provided to you:

Some of the environment related conflicts are:

(i) The Chipko Movement or the Chipko Andolan.- It was a socio-ecological movement which started in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. It was started by women, who hugged the trees to protect them when the lumbermen came to cut them. Later, this movement spread all over India and came to be known as the Chipko Movement.

(ii) Narmada Bachao Andolan- This was a movement for the rights of people who were displaced by the construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river Narmada. Medha Patkar and Baba Amte were the leading figures associated with this movement. The Supreme Court initially stopped the ongoing work at the dam site and later ordered the monitoring of the dam project along with its environmental aspects.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.Elaborate three aspects of human ecology seen in human society.
Answer:
Three aspects of human society are as follows:

• Population: Human beings are dependent on the geographic environment for air, water and food. These things are important for the survival of human beings. Therefore, many ways are evolved for the development of the relationship between needs and environment.
• Environment: The geographic environment is explored for the requirements of air, water and food. There is a distinct set of relationships that exist with the physical environment.
• Technology: The improvement in technology makes the relationship strong. The changes in technology also bring about changes in social life. Technology is the means by which adaptation to the environment takes place.

Q2.Why are environmental problems treated as social problems?
Answer:

• Social ecology emphasises that social relations shape environmental perceptions and practices e.g. the artisans may be interested in bamboo forest for making baskets but forest department may be interested in supplying large amount of bamboo to the paper industry.
• Environmental crisis arises from social issues. On the one hand, in metropolitan cities we enjoy water parks, Ice skating, malls etc. On the other side in rural areas, there is acute shortage of water and electricity.
• In cities people maintain their houses, gardens and wash cars using excess of water whereas in slums people are deprived of water.
• Economic, social and health hazards may occur due to environmental disasters like Kedamath, Tsunami and Jammu and Kashmir floods. Such disaster leads to extreme poverty.

Q3.What is Sustainable Development?
Answer:

• Sustainable Development means development that meets the needs of the present without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• Economic growth and modernisation as a means not only satisfy basic material needs, but also provide resources essential to improve quality of life, e.g., access to healthcare and education.
• However most forms of economic growth cause harm to natural resources and generate waste or pollution which jeopardizes growth for future generations.
• The philosophy of sustainable development attempts to resolve this dilemma by insisting that decisions taken at every level throughout society should have due regard to their possible environmental consequences.
• In this way the right kind of economic growth based on biodiversity, the control of environmentally damaging activity, and replenishment or to fill up the renewable resources such as forests is generated and this can protect or even enhance the natural environment.
• It is often difficult for governments (particularly those who are accountable to electorates over short term period such as five years or so) to accept the political consequences of promoting sustainable development, e.g., by imposing tolls or fines for the use of cars in cities.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Define social change.
Answer:
Social change refers to any change in the system in which social-relationships remain organised, controlled and stable.

Q2.Define authority.
Answer:
Authority refers to a person who has inherent power to give reward and punishment. According to Max Weber, authority refers to legitimate power.

Q3.Define law.
Answer:
“Law is the body of rules which are recognised, interpreted and applied to particular situations by the courts of the state.”
Law is collection of customary standardised and formalised norms that regulate human conduct. They have the support of customs and law making bodies.

.
Q4.What is traditional authority?
Answer:
Traditional authority emphasises on social values, beliefs and continuity. Family based on kinship are its example.
It maintains the social order and brings desired changes according to social demands.

Q5.What is socialisation?
Answer:
Socialisation is a process of social learning through which a child acquires the norms, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that are acceptable in his/her culture. The principal agents of socialisation are the family, school, peer group and media.

Q6.What is conformity?
Answer:
Conformity is a type of social influence in which individuals change their attitude or behaviour in order to adhere to existing social norms.

Q7.What do you understand by Ghettoisation?
Answer:
Ghettoisation is the process of creation of ghettoes through the conversion of mixed composition neighbourhoods into single community neighbourhoods.

Q8.What is the meaning of social influence?
Answer:
It refers to the efforts by one or more individuals to change the attitudes, beliefs, perception or behaviour of the people.

Q9.Define social norms.
Answer:
It refers to rules indicating how individuals are expected to behave in specific situations.

Q10.What is contestation?
Answer:
It refers to broad forms of insistent disagreement. It is a situation in which people tend to protest against or refuse to conform to existing social norms.

Q11.What is charismatic authority?
Answer:
A particular political or religious leader with whom people get attached due to his exceptional and supernatural qualities is called charismatic authority. Such people have great power to influence people.

Q12.How technology can bring social change?
Answer:
Technology refers to the use of sophisticated methods to fulfil material needs which is capable of bringing vast changes in the society.
It changes the simple society into complex one. Social changes due to technology is being labelled as technological revolution.

Q13.How was the word ‘culture’ derived?
Answer:
The word ‘culture’ comes from the Latin word “colere” which means to cultivate. It was used to refer to progressive refinement.
Q14.What is city?
Answer

A city is the core of metropolitan area. It has a large population, high density of population, heterogeneity, predominantly engaged in non-agricultural occupations.

Q15.What is a suburb?
Answer:
A suburb is a community situated just on the outskirt of a city having low population density and smaller population. It is located in the metropolitan area.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Would you agree with the statement that rapid social change is a comparatively new phenomenon in human history? Give reasons for your answer.

Answer:

Yes, rapid social change is a comparatively new phenomenon in human history. It has been estimated that the human beings have been in existence for 500,000 years, but civilization started only around 6,000 years ago. The most rapid changes started 400 years ago and the pace of changes increased in the last100 years. This acceleration in changes was mainly due to advancements in technology and the advent of industrial revolution. Therefore, the speed of these changes that are occurring, is increasing day by day, every decade. The human beings are progressing towards development and new scientific milestones everyday.

Q2.How is social change to be distinguished from other kinds of change?

Answer:

Social change, unlike other forms of change, refers to significant changes that take place in the foundations of social structure and systems of a society. Other forms of change may impact certain aspects of social life without encompassing it as a whole. Such restrictions are not applied to social changes.

It does not include the small changes but only the big changes that alter the society fundamentally. The influence of such changes has to be both intensive and extensive.

Therefore, the changes that impact a large section of the society are called social changes. For example, a change in the government may not necessarily qualify as a social change. However a change in the social ideals from capitalism to socialism or abolition of practices like untouchability, that impact a large number of people, does represent social change.

Q3.What do you understand by `structural change’? Explain with examples other than those in the text.

Answer:

Structural change refers to the transformation in the structure of a society. This type of change includes changes in the structure of social institutions or the rules by which they are run. Structural changes are thus long term and permanent changes. For example, globalization is a structural change. It took place in order to integrate the economies of the world through a global network.

Q4.Describe some kinds of environment-related social change.

Answer:

The nature of a society is altered by its ecology and environment. Modern technology has significantly altered the impact of environment on society. However, catastrophic events that take place can change the structure of a society completely. For instance, the tsunami that occurred in the Indian Ocean changed the lives of people drastically. These changes are irreversible and permanent in nature. There was a great loss of lives, loss of livelihood and in many cases, large scale migration of people to new areas in search of new opportunities. Thus, the tsunami became an agent of social change. Similar phenomena are associated with floods, draughts and earthquakes.

Q5.What are some kinds of changes brought about by technology and the economy?

Answer:

Technology and economy have immensely changed the structure of the society. Technology, through its association with the economy, has caused major social changes. Various examples of these changes are as follows:

(i) The Industrial Revolution, which brought about many industries and the development of capitalist system of production in society.

(ii) The invention of steam engine and development of various modes of transport like rail and aeroplane transformed the entire economy and social geography of the world.

(iii) Steam ships made gigantic changes not only in the economy, but also in the social, cultural and demographic directions, by enabling large scale trade.

(iv) Development of textile industry in Britain had a negative impact upon the handloom industry in India which was very distant from Britain. This type of integration of economies was enabled only by the advent of technology.

(v) Changes in economic institutions caused a skewed demand for labour and adoption of new social practices. For example, development of plantation agriculture of cash crops established slavery and slave trade between Europe, America and Africa.

(vi) The ongoing process of globalisation, while being beneficial for multinational corporations, has had a negative impact on indigenous industries.

Q6.What is meant by social order and how is it maintained?

Answer:

Social order is the tendency of social institutions to resist and regulate change. It is useful as it provides a backdrop and relativity to compare social change.

Every society strives for social order in order to maintain stability and provide a strong and viable social system. This inevitably leads to the process of stratification of society as social rules need a visible authority for them to be followed. Thus, social order is maintained by the people who are in power because they do not want to lose control over the societal norms and access to resources. Therefore, the dominant groups in societies resist social change because it may reduce their status. As power generally lies with such groups, they are successful in their endeavour and societies acquire stability.

Q7.What is authority and how is it related to domination and the law?

Answer:

Authority, according to Max Weber, is the power which is legitimate, justified and proper. It is generally derived from the official position of a person and the powers are specified on written documents. Other members of a society implicitly agree to follow the authority. For example, the authority of police or a judge.

A law is an explicitly codified norm or rule and usually exists in a written form. Authority is related to law and domination as the difference between the strict authority, which is explicitly codified, and the informal authority, lies in the notion of law.

In a modern democratic state, the laws are created by legislature. They act as a binding force on citizens and, hence, dominate them. This domination works through legitimate power or authority, a large part of which is codified in the law. It requires consent and cooperation on a regular basis to maintain legitimacy.

Q8.How are a village, town and city distinguished from each other?

Answer:

In sociological terms, a village and a city are distinguished by their social organisation, administrative factors like population density and the proportion of agriculture and its allied economic activities.

Villages emerged as part of the major changes in social structure which was brought by the transition from nomadic life to a more settled form of life. They are traditionally dependent upon agriculture and other primary activities for income. They also have lower density of population. In comparison, towns and cities have higher population density and are more dependent upon industries for income.

The difference between a city and a town is based upon their size. A city is similar to a town, except that it is much larger in size and area.

Q9.What are some features of social order in rural areas?

Answer:

Every rural area has a different condition. Thus, the social order also varies from village to village. The features of social order in rural areas are as follows:

(i) The small size of a village is suitable for more personalised relationships.

(ii) The social structure of a village follows traditional lifestyle. Institutions such as caste and religion are stronger here.

(iii) The social institutions do not welcome change easily, as compared to towns and cities.

(iv) A village also has a strong power structure as the people in power control all the resources and resist change.

(v) It is not easy for subordinate groups to challenge the dominant groups. The poor are dependent upon dominant sections for support and employment.

(vi) The villages are not very well connected to the towns and cities and thus not conducive to change.

(vii) New modes of communication, land reforms and technology have reduced this gap and accelerated the pace of change.

Q10What are some of the challenges to social order in urban areas?

Answer:

Most of the challenges to social order in the urban areas are related to the ‘space’. This is because of the high population density which leads to the problem of logistics. The following are some of these challenges:

(i) The management of space is related to development of housing, transportation, land use and public facilities like sanitation, policing and urban governance.

(ii) Inadequate facilities for housing results in homelessness and development of slums that are congested and overcrowded neighbourhoods, with improper facilities.

(iii) Law and order issues due to criminal activities in slums. The major cause is the undefined rights over property of slum owners.

(iv) The residential colonies in urban areas are mixed with people of all class, caste, religion and ethnicity, which also give rise to communal problems, such as riots, and the phenomenon of ghettoisation.

(v) The gated or affluent communities are separated from their surroundings by walls, gates and run their own parallel facilities for water and electricity supply, policing and security.

(vi) Large distances between residential, industrial and commercial areas place a burden on transport. People rely on private transport, which results in congestion and pollution.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Q1.How demographic factors, education and social legislation cause social change?
Answer:

• Population growth, its size and composition cause social change.
• When population starts multiplying, unemployment, housing, cleanliness and hygiene, poor economic condition, severe stress due to competition.
• Education is one of the core factors which has far reaching consequences on the evolution, revolution and progress of individual and society by and large.
• Modem educational system aims at imparting empirical knowledge.
• Education enables the members to participate effectively in social domains.
• Education can bring radical changes in the status of women.
• Modem education has brought significant changes in customs, traditions, superstitions and beliefs of people in the society.
• Social legislation has brought significant changes in society if it is supported by
  social opinion.
• After independence in India many legislations have been passed out. Of so many, a few could bring about significant changes e.g. legislation related to SCs and STs. But there are many which are unplemented. It could not bring about significant changes particularly in the rural society like ‘Sharda Act’ related to child marriage

VERY SHORT QUESTION AND ANSWER:

Q1.What do you mean by social structure?
Answer:

• Structure refers to some sort of ordered arrangement of parts or components.
• The term ‘social structure’ refers to any recurring pattern of social behaviour or the ordered relationship between the different elements of a social system.
• Main elements of social structure are status, role, norms and values.

Q2.What do you understand by social processes?
Answer:
The repetitive forms of social interaction are called social processes.
It is the continuous change in a situation which happens in a particular way because of the activities of its inherent forces.

Q3.What do you understand by social stratification? Why is it essential?
Answer:
The term ‘stratification’ refers to studies of structured social inequality between groups of people, which arise as the unintended consequence of social processes and relationships.

Q4.Explain the concept of caste stratification.
Answer:
Caste is an institution of considerable internal complexity. Caste stratification is a type of rigid hierarchical social division of society in permanent groups or categories.
This division is based on the relationships of superiority and subordination.

Q5.Explain the concept of class stratification.
Answer:
A social class is any position of the community marked off from the rest of social status. These classes are arranged on the basis of economic conditions but social classes are more than economic groups. They show a common pattern of behaviour and develop in group bias. It may be defined as broad category of people who share similar economic conditions.

Q6.Explain the concept of gender stratification.
Answer:
Gender stratification refers to socially unequal division into femininity and masculinity. It is not only related to the difference between males and females and to individual identity and personality but also at symbolic level, to cultural ideals and stereotypes of masculinity and femininity at the structural level, to the sexual division of labour in institutions and organisations.

Q7.What do you mean by Ethnicity?
Answer:
The term ‘Ethnicity’ refers to the individuals who consider themselves to share common characteristics that differentiate them from the other collectivities in a society and from which they develop their distinctive cultural behaviour, form an ethnic group.
One race hates the other race due to the sense of superiority. It is not inborn.

Q8.What is Accommodation?
Answer:
Accommodation is a form of social process in which two or more persons or groups interact in order to prevent, reduce or eliminate conflict.
It is a process whereby the subordinate groups simply conform to the expectations of the dominant group.

Q9.What is Assimilation?
Answer:
Assimilation implies that the subordinate groups actually come to accept and internalise the values and culture of the dominant group.
It is a social process through which, persons or groups accept the behaviour of others.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Explain the concept of status.
Answer:
The term ‘status’ has two meanings in sociology:

1. It refers to the position a person occupies in the social structure, such as a teacher or doctor. This status (position) may be ascribed or achieved.
2. Status refers to a form of social stratification in which social positions are ranked and organised by legal, political and cultural criteria into status groups.

Q2.What are Norms? Explain its importance.
Answer:
Norms are shared expectations of behaviour. It connotes what is considered culturally desirable and appropriate.
Norms are similar to rules or regulations in prescriptive, although they lack the formal status of rules.
The sociological concept of norm is closely related to that of ‘role’, which is commonly defined as a set of norms attached to social position.

Q3.Distinguish between mechanical and organic solidarity.
Answer:

• According to Durkheim, traditional cultures with a low division of labour are characterised by mechanical solidarity.
• Most of the members of the society are involved in similar occupations. They are bound together by common experience and shared beliefs.
• According to Durkheim, societies characterised and held together by people’s economic interdependence and a recognition of the importance of others contributions are called organic solidarity.
• Its division of labour becomes more complex, people become more and more dependent on each other.
• Relationships of economic reciprocity and mutual dependency come to replace shared beliefs in creating social consensus.

Q4.How voluntary cooperation is different from enforced cooperation?
Answer:
Cooperation may be voluntary, may be enforced. It depends on the situation.
In agricultural operations different members of the group perform different activities. They grow different crops. Some focus on fishing or growing vegetables and some perform supportive activities. For example, preparing tools and equipment. They all cooperate each other to get good harvest. This is voluntary cooperation, which is intrinsic in nature.

But the factory workers do cooperate with the owners in performing their tasks because total production depends on their mutual relations but it is actually system requirement. This cooperation is a prerequisite for job sustenance. Behind the cooperation there are many norms. So this is enforced cooperation which is extrinsic. The feeling of fulfilment and creativity of a weaver or potter or ironsmith is voluntary cooperation.
In contrast, a worker involved in a factory whose sole task may be to pull lever or press a button throughout the day. Cooperation in such a situation would be enforced.

Q5.How Durkheim and Marx differ on the issue of cooperation?
Answer:
For Durkheim, solidarity, the moral force of society is fundamental for understanding of cooperation and thereby functioning of society.

The role of division of labour which implies cooperation is precisely to fulfil certain needs of society. It is simply system requirement. For Marx, cooperation is not voluntary in a society where class exists. He argues, “The social power i.e. multiplied productive force (surplus) arises through the cooperation of different individuals as it is caused by the division of labour. Cooperation is not voluntary but naturally. In this enforced cooperation, workers lose control over how to organise their own work and they lose control over the fruits of their labour.”

Q6.What is competition? How is it different from cooperation?
Answer:
Cooperation is a dissociative social process in which it sets up its own values in opposition to the mainstream.
Competition is a social process in which many people struggle to achieve something which has hunted availability.
Competition is for getting scarce resources, may be money, jobs, prestige, position, power or love.
Competition is a universal social process but it varies from culture to culture.
Concept of competition involves attainment of goal without using force or terror. Cooperation represents all relations among persons or groups which work together towards a shared common goal.
Cooperation is an associative social process. It may be conscious or unconscious. It involves an element of sympathy, sacrifice and feeling of togetherness.

Q7.What is Laissezfaire liberalism?
Answer:
A political and economic approach based on the general principle of non-interference in the economy by government and freedom for markets and property owners, is called Laissez faire liberalism.
Laissez faire liberalism is an approach to economics that asserts the importance of the free, competitive market of the individual suppliers and individual purchasers to the efficient production, distribution and allocation of goods and services and emphasises on the need to keep state regulation to a maximum.

Q8.What do you mean by division of labour?
Answer:
The specialisation of work tasks by means of which different occupations are combined within a production system. With the development of industrialisation the division of labour becomes more complex than any prior type of production system. In the modem world, the division of labour is international in scope. On the basis of division of labour, the concept of organic solidarity functions with the form of social cohesion. The interdependence of members of society is the result of such kind of solidarity.

Q9.What is dominant ideology?
Answer:
Dominant ideology refers to shared ideas or beliefs which serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. Such ideologies are found in the societies in which are systematic. The concept of ideology connects closely with that of power, since ideological system serves to legitimise the differential power which groups hold.

Q10 What is alienation in terms of Marx?
Answer:
Marx used the term alienation to refer to the loss of control on the part of workers over the products of their labour.
In general term, it describes the estrangement of individuals from one another or from a specific situation or process.

Q11.Do you think that conflicts are always manifestations through overt clashes? Explain with suitable examples.
Answer:
Conflict is often not overtly expressed. Many a time conflict appears as a discord or overt clash only when it is openly expressed e.g. the existence of a peasant movement is an overt expression of a deep rooted conflict over land resources. But it is not always true. This can be explained through a few examples.

Traditionally the family and household were often seen as harmonious units where cooperation was the dominant process and altruism (doing some thing good for other without having any vested interest) the driving principle of human behaviour. ‘Maternal altruism’ in the northern Indian plain is likely to be biased towards sons and can be seen as women’s response to patriarchal risk.
Mostly we observe that women’s subversion of male decision-making power tends to be covert e.g. doing small business or money landing.

Another example of covert conflict and overt cooperation is related to property rights where a woman demanding her rights is named as greedy. Woman mostly shows cooperation by not demanding her right but inside the conflict occurs and causes bitterness.

Q12.Differentiate between functionalist perspective and conflict perspective in terms of social processes.
Answer:
Karl Marx is usually associated with conflict perspective and Emile Durkheim is usually identified with a functionalist perspective.
Conflict theories emphasised the importance of interests over norms and values and the ways in which the pursuit of interests generated various types of conflicts as normal aspect of social life, rather than abnormal or dysfunctional (interfering) occurences e.g. class conflicts in industrial society.

According to conflict perspective, societies divided by caste or class or patriarchy, some groups are disadvantaged and discriminated against. The dominant groups sustain the unequal order by a series of cultural norms and often force or even violence.
In functional perspective, society is seen as an organic whole, each of its constituent parts working to maintain the others just as the parts of the body coordinate.

This idea is basic to the conception of organic solidarity which emphasises on people’s economic interdependence and recognition of the importance of other’s contributions. Functionalist perspective is mainly concerned with the system requirements of society-certain functional imperatives, functional requisites and prerequisites. These refer to the fulfilment of conditions which are necessary for the existence of a system.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Why is the question of a scientific method particularly important in sociology?

Answer:

The question of scientific method is important because it helps sociologists to acquire knowledge.

Sociologist deals with different societies whose culture may be similar or different. They have to conduct research and field work in which they need to take opinions and feelings of people or respondent in that area. Hence, sociologists try to adopt an objective point of view which is neutral and not based on one’s own perception. Some sociologists like Emile Durkhiem believed that in order to study the society with objectivity, it is important to have a scientific approach. Therefore a need for scientific method was felt. He even carried out a scientific study on the phenomenon of ‘suicide’ by giving various rules in sociological method.

Q2.What are some of the reasons for `objectivity’ being more complicated in social sciences, particularly disciplines like sociology?

Answer:

Objectivity means being unbiased, neutral or based on facts alone.

(i) In case of social science, especially sociology, objectivity becomes more complicated because, like every human, there are some notions perceived by sociologists which make it difficult for him/her to study the culture and norms of a different society in a neutral manner. This can lead to incorrect research.

(ii) The sociologist who is conducting a research can also get biased if the issues are related to his/her society and can imply his/her personal notions to that study. Hence, despite of being reflexive there are chances of unconscious bias.

(iii) There are many versions of truth in the social world. A boy and an old person would have different notions on a particular thing. A shopkeeper and a customer would have different ideas regarding the ‘good price’ of a product. Thus, there is no universal truth in social sciences, making them difficult to arrive at a conclusion.

(iv) Sociology is a ‘multi-paradigmatic’ science. There are different schools of thought that sometimes contradict each other. As a result, ‘objectivity’ becomes complicated in social sciences, especially sociology.

Q3.How do sociologists try to deal with these difficulties and strive for objectivity?

Answer:

To deal with the problem of objectivity sociologists use the technique of ‘self-reflexivity’ or ‘reflexivity’. The sociologist views opinions, norms or behavioural patterns of different societies from all the perspectives. The sociologist continuously subjects her own attitudes and opinions to self-examination. Also, emphasis is laid on proper documentation of the research. This helps others to retrace the steps taken by the sociologist and scrutinise the study that has been conducted. It also helps the sociologist to check and recheck his/her work. The sociologist then tries to judge different conceptions of people.

Thus, the sociologists take objectivity as a goal of a continuous ongoing process rather than an already achieved end result.

Q4.What is meant by `reflexivity’ and why is it important in sociology?

Answer:

‘Self-reflexivity’ or ‘reflexivity’ is a technique to deal with the problem related to objectivity in social science and is closely related to empathy. In this, the social scientist views different opinions of the people in an unbiased or a neutral manner. Attaining objectivity is a difficult and complicated task in social science therefore, reflexivity becomes very important to carry out social research.

There are different schools of thought within the subject of sociology that study issues from different perceptions and ideologies. At these places the sociologist uses reflexivity.

Q5.What are some of the things that ethnographers and sociologists do during participant observation?

Answer:

Participant observation is a method to study societies. Ethnographers and sociologists use this method when they have to conduct field work that may last for months and years. Some of the things that ethnographers and sociologists do during participant observation are:

(i) They either live or spend most of their time with the community people upon which the research is to be carried out.

(ii) The sociologist or the ethnographer almost becomes like a part of the community.

(iii) They participate with the communities in their rituals and customs, and record the observations on a regular basis.

(iv) The sociologists and ethnographers have limited people from the community on whom they depend for the information. These people are called informants or principal informants.

(v) Although the sociologist’s goal is to study a specific area of interest, but the overall goal of the participant observation is to learn about the entire life of community.

Q6.What are the strengths and weaknesses of participant observation as a method?

Answer:

Participant observation is a micro method used in conducting field work. Its strengths and weaknesses are mentioned below:

Strengths

(i)It provides a very rich and detailed picture of the people on whom the research is being conducted.

(ii)The sociologist can talk to the native people of the community directly which helps in the authenticity of the data.

(iii)The sociologist is free to ask endless number of questions to the person. This is not possible in case of questionnaire and survey.

(iv)A daily record is maintained which reduces the chances of incomplete data.

(v) It helps in correcting initial impressions that may often be biased.

(vi) Because of the long hours spend with the field many errors and biases are avoided that are present in other methods.

Weaknesses

(i) The method involves a lot of time and effort.

(ii) It also involves lot of expenses during the work.

(iii) It is not necessary that the report consists of the views of the insider or of the sociologist, as the sociologist may become consciously or unconsciously bias in selecting what to write and what not to.

(iv) There is no other version available to check or confirm the findings except the sociologist him/herself.

(v) The sociologist or anthropologist is only able to study a very small community. Therefore, it cannot be guaranteed that the observation of the study of the village is really common in the larger community.

(vi) The report of the sociologist based on participant observation method is often criticised to be biased by other sociologists because of the one-sided relationship they project. Hence, it is advised that the report should be translated in the local language of the community so that the people of the community can read and make sure that the report contains proper information.

Q7.What are the basic elements of the survey method? What is chief advantage of this method?

Answer:

The basic elements of the survey method are:

(i) Survey is the best method applied in studying a large area.

(ii) It is mostly based on random sampling.

(iii) These samplings are done in such a way that the samples represent every strata and characteristics of the community.

(iv) Random sampling is preferred to avoid biasness.

(v) Interviews and questionnaire techniques are used in sampling method.

(vi) The questionnaire can be filled by the respondent at his place and sent through post or the sociologist himself may go to the respondent and complete the questionnaire.

(vii) The questionnaire can be filled and sent through email.

(viii) The interview can be conducted online or on telephone.

Its main advantages are:

(i) Survey method is the best known sociological method. In situations where census is not possible survey method is used.

(ii) It gives an accurate picture of the community through sampling.

(iii) In comparison to census or participant observation, less time and money is spend.

(iv) It provides a real picture that is made on the basis of collective representativeness than on single individuals.

(v) Many problems are visible at this level, which cannot be identified at the micro level research.

Q8.Describe some of the criteria involved in selecting a representative sample.

Answer:

Some of the criteria involved in selecting a representative sampling are:

(i) The representative sampling is done in such a way that it represents and recognises all the relevant groups of the particular community.

For example if the lifestyle of working women in India has to be studied then five samples would be collected, each from the organized sector and unorganized sector. Then the combined study is conducted on the basis of these samples.

(ii) These samples are randomly selected, that is, they are to be selected on the basis of chance. This process is known as randomisation and depends on probability. The randomisation is done through lottery method, rolling of dice, use of random number tables prepared for this purpose and random number generated by calculators and computers.

Q9.State some of the weaknesses of the survey method.

Answer:

The weaknesses of survey method are as follows:

(i) It is not possible to get detailed information in a survey method.

(ii) There are a number of respondents and the time spent on each respondent is limited.

(iii) The detailed answers that require detailed prompting cannot be asked again once the questionnaire is filled and sent.

(iv) These differences in the way the questions are asked and answered could introduce errors into the survey.

(v) Questions of a personal and sensitive type cannot be asked. If it is asked then the answer would definitely be given in a safe manner by the respondents. This will make error in the survey.

Q10.Describe main features of the interview as a research method.

Answer:

The main features of interview are:

(i)It is conducted in the form of conversation which is shaped by certain guidelines and questions between the researcher and the respondent.

(ii)It is used in surveys and participant observation method.

(iii)The interview is flexible in its structure.

(iv)This flexibility can lead to a change in the mood of the respondent or lack of concentration, which is one of its disadvantages.

(v)Some interviewers have very structured format with specific questions whereas some have loosely structured format with only a check-list of topics rather than the actual questions.

(vi)During interview the interviewer can ask cross questions or other questions that are required during the process which are not possible in a questionnaire.

(vii)Use of recorders and other equipments are also taken during the interview. Their use makes the respondent uncomfortable that introduces a degree of formality into the conversation, which is another disadvantage.

(viii)The mode of recording depends on the social and physical circumstances in which the interview is conducted.

(ix)The authenticity of this method also depends on the memory of the interviewer after it is conducted.

(x)Sometimes important information goes unnoticed or it is not at all recorded.

(xi)On a whole, a good interview is often based on the rapport build by the researcher with the interviewer.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.Discuss the research process in sociology.
Answer:
Steps in Research
1. Selection of a specific problem (relevant, current): The problem should have sociological significance. Define and formulate the problem. Reviving literature/ secondary research-use different sources e.g. Internet, magazine together information about the problem (reliable sources). Find out information about a specific aspect of the problem. This helps to formulate a conceptual framework. Now the path for the research is paved. Formulating a hypothesis. Assumption/tentative, conclusion/opinion of the researcher on certain aspects of the problem – may/may not be true.

2. Measurement – [Quantitative and Qualitative]:
By assigning values to variables that can be measured by features, attributes etc. It means research from abstract to concrete and further to a conclusion. It involves validity and reliability-reliable sources and measuring.
What do you want to measure objectively? When the researcher gets the same result, if he conducts a research in the same way as another researcher in the same circumstances by using quantitative methods like statistics and analysis of data.

3. Choosing a research design/technique: Survey is the best research technique. It is a method used to gather information about a particular issue/problem and also finding out the views of people and/or interests of people. It is the most common/ effective method of research. It is usually quantitative.

• Sample survey: A small audience represents the population. These are selected from an area and they represent the whole area.
• Random survey: It is done asking people randomly (people selected at random) and they represent the population.

In a survey, there are three most common ways:

• Question uestionnaire
• Interview
• Case study

4. Collection of Data: After the questionnaire is formed, it is distributed and data is collected from respondents.
Depending upon the problem, the respondents are selected.

•  Keep in mind the age/gender/class and the kind of questions when distributing the questionnaire.

5. Analysis and interpretation of Data:
After the data is collected the whole information is analysed and interpreted. Analysis is always in percentages specially for close ended questions (choices).
eg. Yes – 75%  No – 15 %

6. Evaluation: Conclusion of the whole analysis and the interpretation of the data.
Summary of all the questionnaires/hypothesis Includes

1. Summary
2. Whether your hypothesis has been proved or not.
3. Problems the researcher faces while doing the research such as :
   • Dishonesty
   • No interest
   • Incomplete
   • Stupid answers
   • No time
   • Shyness
   • If someone was offended by a certain question etc.
   • More serious problems.

Besides survey, other methods of collecting data can be used:

• Ethnography-Field work, stay with population for months and find out the stuff.
• Archives-historical facts.
• Do commentary (make a movie about it).

Q2.What is questionnaire? Discuss advantages and disadvantages.
Answer:
Questionnaire:
Set of questions prepared by the investigator and given to the respondent with option like yes, no, mock.
A method of collecting data systematically by asking questions which are answered by the respondent.

Types of Question:

1. Close Ended: Fixed choices are given and you have to tick one. MCQuestion s, Yes/No/ May be. An analysis is easier.
2. Easier to understand as it is based on facts. Easier for respondent to answer.
3. Objective.
4. Open Ended.
5. Opinion of respondent is asked. Subjective analysis is difficult as you will get different answers for the same question. It gives more detailed information.
6. A questionnaire should be a combination of these with more close ended questions to make analysis easier. This will give us percentage of choice and reasons for that choice.

• Question uestions should not be lengthy.
• Question uestions should be short/precise and to the point.
• Use simple language and convey the same meaning to everyone.
• Question uestions should be sensitive to the audience.
• Question uestions should not be too personal/ more general.
• No G.K. questions like who is the prime minister.

Advantages

• You can cover a large area in limited time period and large number of people.
• Objective, subjectivity doesn’t enter into it.
• Comparatively less expensive.
• Investigator’s presence is not required.
• No bias as there is no face to face interaction.
• Many questions can be covered.
• No hesitation for the respondent.

Disadvantages

• Many a time questionnaires are not taken seriously.
• Might be incorrectly filled out.
• False identity.
• You may not get it back.
• Could be incomplete.
• Can’t clarify doubts.
• Illiterate people can’t answer.

Q3.What is an interview? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages. (HOTS)
Answer:
In interview, a set of questions are asked face to face by the interviewer. Interview may be structured or unstructured. The success of interview depends on the following factors:

• Interviewer must be framed, sensitive, confident and qualified.
• Have some background of Interviewee.
• Should be well prepared for the discussion.
• Should be in control.
• Patient not pushy.
• Just guide the interviewee.
• Be as objective as possible.
• Has to have alternative questions.
• Should not deviate from the topic chosen.
• Question uestions showed always go from easy to difficult.

Advantages

• Facial expressions can give away emotions to a certain extent. Almost all questions are answered.
• No false identity.
• Question uestions are taken seriously.
• Universally acceptable.

Disadvantages

• Interviews are time consuming
• Expensive
• There is bias and subjectivity.

How can a researcher avoid bias and error?

• Interviewer should not get involved emotionally.
• Not forget the objective of the interview.
• Not deviate from what he /she has to find out.

Q4.What is observation? Discuss its types.
Answer:
Observation: It refers to systematically attending, recording and processing information through direct participation and observation of the group, tribe or community which is included in the study. •

• There is use of vision for collection of data.
• Collection of data by watching people’s behaviour without actually interfering with it.
• Noting down the data as it happens with regard to the cause, phenomenon and effect.

Observation – as a sociological research:

• Specific, valid, reliable, accountable, precise
• Precise and no extra details
• Objectivity.
• Researcher’s opinion should not be expressed.
• Validity is important. What you are observing must be related to the problem.
• Has to be reliable and accurate.

Types of Observation
Participant

• When you are a part of the observation, e.g. in a wedding, you are part of music and dancing along with observing.
• Participant takes active part in all activities of the observed group.
• Observed may or may not know the identity of the observer.
• Usually the identity of the observer is not known as the observed will become very conscious.
• Subjectivity is present and will be more as your identity bias.
• Complete participant observation : identity of observer is not known.
• Observer stays with the people for days/months. He gets completely involved in activities of group and stays with them in order to understand them completely and thorougly.

Non-Participant

• When you observe from outside. The observer is not part of the group that is being observed, e.g.; sitting out in sangeet.
• Observed may or may not know of the observer’s identity.
• More objectivity than subjectivity-less bias.
• Notes more than participant observer.
• Personal bias may contaminate the results.
• Question uantitative data is less and difficult to find.
• Noting sequence is after observation.

Steps involved for participant and non-participant observation:

1. Selection of appropriate group.
2. Familiarise with group and its activities.
3. Do research in sequence.
4. Get involved /observe from outside depending on the type of participation.

Q5.Elaborate on the functional method used for the study of sociology.
Answer:
This approach appeared initially as a reaction against the methods and claims of the evolutionists. Functional analysis is a method of sociological enquiry which examines social and cultural items by locating them in a wider context. This usually means showing how these items affect and are affected by others with which they coexist over time, within the same social system. In other words, functional method refers to the functional analysis which is also known as “functionalism”. This asserts that the principal task of sociology is to examine the contribution of social items that make the social and cultural life of human collectivities. It examines social phenomenon in a way so as to explain why these items occur at all,why they have persisted?
The central concern is with the source of order and stability in society.
The focus is on:

1. The way social institutions help to maintain order and continuity in social life.
2. The way structural arrangements in society influence behaviour.

It may be said that functional analysis is a method which refers to factors and forces of integration, equilibrium and also disequilibrium. At a given time, inter-relation between components of society can be studied from functional point of view.

Q6.What is survey method?
Answer:
Survey: It is a systematic collection of facts about a defined social group. The term usually refers to data collections that employ both interviewing and sampling to produce quantitative date-sets, amenable to computer based analysis.
Sampling and interviewing are employed in many other research designs. It is the combination of the two that has led to the social survey or sample survey, becoming the most important single type of social research, used by all the social sciences, market research and opinion polls.

1. Surveys can be used to provide descriptive statistics for national, regional or local population; to examine the clustering of social phenomena; to identify the social location and characteristics of subgroups for more intensive follow-up case-study research and to analyse causal processes and test explanations.

2. In recent years sociological survey analysis has been greatly extended to include the sophisticated multivariate modelling techniques that are common in econometrics.

3. One of the main attractions of the sample survey for both policy research and theoretical research is its transparency and accountability, methods and procedures can be made visible and accessible to other parties, unlike research designs that depend heavily on the contribution of individual researchers.

4. The key disadvantage is that surveys normally use structured questionnaires, which constrain an enquiry to paths fixed at the start of fieldwork.

5. Other criticism which are sometimes levelled at surveys are that numerical variables rarely provide adequate operationalization of sociological constructs; the highly asymmetric power relatipn between researcher and interviewee is detrimental to the quality of the data collected; they provide a false aura of objectivity which makes their result vulnerable to political manipulation.

6. Many of these criticisms can be overcome by good survey design and implementation.
Survey interviews may be personal, postal or conducted by telephone. Telephone surveys are particularly common.

Q7.What is sample?
Answer:
A group of people that take part in a research investigation and are presumed to be representative of the population from which they have been drawn. Because of the constraints of time, money and practicality, psychologists can hardly ever study the whole population and therefore are forced to sample from it using one of the sampling methods.

Sampling refers to the process by which research psychologists attempt to select a representative group from the population under study. As an entire population tends to be too large to work with, a smaller group of participants must act as a representative sample. In an attempt to select a representative sample and thus avoid sampling bias (the over-representation of one category of participant in the sample), psychologists utilize a variety of sampling methods, such as:

1. Random Sample: Each member of the population under study stands the same chance of being selected.
2. Stratified Sample: The composition of the sample reflects the composition of the population, e.g. 30 percent males, 70 percent females in the population determines that the sample shall contain a selection of 70 percent females, 30 percent males.
3. Question uota Sample: The researcher selects a quota of people roughly in proportion to their occurrence in the population (e.g. a quota of different age groups).
4. Opportunity Sample: Roughly a case of selecting whoever is available at the time at that location.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.How does the understanding of culture in social science differ from the everyday use of the word `culture’?

Answer:

The use of the word ‘culture’ in everyday life is limited, which refers to the artistic performances such as dance, music, painting, drama etc. But social science understands culture in a scientific and prescribed way that is not only limited to drawing and painting but more than it. Culture has shaped our life and the society as a whole. In sociological terms, culture implies the common understanding which is learnt and developed through social interaction and then passed on to the next generation.

Therefore, in everyday use, the term culture is used for individuals, whereas in sociology, it is used to denote the entire group or the society.

Edward Tylor was the first anthropologist to define culture that includes abstract and intangible dimensions. Later, Bronislaw Malinowski defined culture, which included the use of materials as well.

Q2.How can we demonstrate that the different dimensions of culture comprise a whole?

Answer:

There are three dimensions of culture cognitive, normative and material that comprise a whole.

(i) Cognitive: It refers to how we learn to process what we see and hear so as to give it a meaning. For example, looking at a flag and associating it with the country to which it belongs. Symbolising the waving of hand as a means of saying goodbye. Thus, every culture has given a different meaning to different actions.

(ii) Normative: It refers to the rules of conduct. Every society has some rules according to which its members have to behave. As a result, this behaviour and action of the individuals become the culture of that society.

(iii) Material: It includes any activity which is made possible by the means of materials. It also includes tools and machines, which is said to be a part of the culture.

In the present industrial societies, advanced technology and machines are used. Some societies use them in abundance such as, USA while some do not make much use of it, such as Afghanistan. Thus, use of various materials in different ways for various purposes shows the culture of that society.

Therefore, culture can be identified as material and non-material. For the proper and integrated functioning of the culture, both material and non-material dimensions work together as a whole. The use of materials having different notions and ways of understanding different signs and symbols with certain rules of conduct as a whole describes the culture of that society.

Q3.Compare two cultures with which you are familiar. Is it difficult not to be ethnocentric?

Answer:

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.

One sample answer has been provided to you:

The two cultures with which we are familiar are:

(i) Urban culture

(ii) Rural culture

The urban culture represents the life in a city, while the rural culture represents the life in a village. In a city, there are industries for people to work with machines, on the other hand, in a village people work in farms to produce crops. The life in villages is simpler and traditional as compared to that of the life in a city. In a city, there is an emphasis on individualism, while in villages more importance is given to groups.

Hence, the way of life, culture, occupation and thinking is different in urban and rural areas.

Ethnocentrism means giving value to one’s own culture and regarding the other culture as inferior. Yes, it is difficult not to be ethnocentric because people mostly give value and superiority to one’s own culture. If we compare the villages and cities, it would be obvious that the villagers carry the notion that their culture is better because it is embedded with societal norms, values and traditions. On the other hand, the city dwellers would consider their culture superior because it is modern and liberal.

Historically also, the colonialists considered their culture superior and better to that of the colonised countries. The notion of ethnocentrism generates differences and wars between many ethnic and racial groups. For example, the riots of Godhra and Babri Masjid were a result of ethnocentrism.

Therefore, it is correct to say that it is difficult for people not to be ethnocentric even in contemporary societies.

Q4.Discuss two different approaches to studying cultural change.

Answer:

Cultural change is a way in which society changes its patterns of culture. Cultural change takes place through the process of adaptation, contact with other cultures and changes in the natural environment. This change is associated with many sources that can be external factors or can be the internal adjustments of the culture.

There are two different approaches of cultural change:

(i) Evolutionary

(ii) Revolutionary

Evolutionary change is slow, for instance in the case of education. In ancient times, the individuals were often taught orally. Gradually with the discovery of paper, writing and publication of books started. Eventually, new subjects were introduced according to the need of the society. Further, with the introduction of industrialisation, focus on professional courses also increased and with the introduction of information technology and globalisation the new ways of teaching emerged. Finally, several instruments and gadgets like computer and use of internet was invented.

Contrary to this, revolutionary change is fast. For instance, revolutionary change takes place through political intervention, as in the case of France. After the French Revolution the estate system of ranking was destroyed and the values of liberty and equality in the society were established. This was a radical change in the society and its culture.

Q5.Is cosmopolitanism something you associate with modernity? Observe and give examples of ethnocentrism.

Answer:

Cosmopolitanism means valuing other cultures for their difference. A cosmopolitan perception is always ready to adapt other cultures and share its own culture with others.

In this process of sharing, neither foreign culture becomes the legitimate part of one’s own culture, nor does the indigenous culture lose its base. Hence, it respects every culture.

Cosmopolitanism is associated with modernity, in contemporary period, as it is emerging in most parts of the world. Since modernity has to deal with time, cosmopolitanism is phenomenon of the modern world.

Ethnocentrism, on the other hand, refers to the standard cultural values that are considered more superior to that of cultural values of others. For example, the British people were ethnocentric as they regarded the Indian culture as primitive and orthodox. Similarly, the people belonging to cities consider the people of villages inferior to them. The above examples show that unlike cosmopolitanism, ethnocentrism ranks the culture as superior or inferior.

Q6.What in your mind is the most effective agent of socialisation for your generation? How do you think it was different before?

Answer:

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.

One sample answer has been provided to you:

In contemporary time, the mass media has emerged as a strong agent of socialisation. Earlier, family and the peer group was the socialising agent in an individual’s life. However, now, due to penetration of information technology into the house, people spend more time in front of computers and television sets, than being with their families and friends.

Children have started adopting new ways from what they watch on televisions. For instance, they choose their own career and lead a self-chosen lifestyle. They stay connected with their friends through internet and they even depend on the internet for their studies. Hence, their dependence on visual media is much more than that of print media.

Not only children, but even women, men and old age people are getting affected by mass media. Magazines, newspapers, radio, advertisements, etc. provide information on various aspects such as health, decoration, eating habits etc. Mass media has therefore spread itself in every sphere of our lives.

It gives a shape to our personality and ideas at every stage of life. It had its influence on the society earlier as well but this influence was little.

Thus, it is a boon for our society, as mass media has connected the world with one touch. For instance, on internet, information is available with just one click and with a touch one can view everything on television. Mass media has affected the society and also promoted globalisation. It has decreased the distance between different parts of the world.

Life before introduction of mass media was very different as people had very little information of the rest of the world. There was no television, radio, newspaper or internet. People in earlier days had to make a lot of effort to gather information and also to spread it.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.Discuss dimensions of culture.
Answer:
Cognitive-Ideas and beliefs
Normative-Norms (Value, norms, sanctions).
Customs or normative something is right or wrong-not an idea of something. Cognitive, myths, superstition, belief, customs, stories (mostly not true)

• Ideas etc. which refer to the thinking of the people, our understanding, how we absorb all information we get from the society. ‘
• Little tradition: It is transmitted orally from generation to generation in the form of songs/plays, stories (folklores) etc. It moves in illiterate and rural societies.
• Great tradition: It is transmitted from generation to generation through written work. Usually in literate societies ideas are recorded, written down and are available to us in the form of books etc.
• It is the cognitive dimension of culture which helps us to comprehend and relate to the societies.
• Little and great tradition can be converted into each other.
• Universalisation—converting great to little tradition.

Normative
It deals with controlling people’s behaviour by rules, norms, customs, values. It is basically different ways of controlling deviant behaviour.
To make society disciplined, to behave in a particular way etc.

Q2.How laws are different from norms?
Answer:
Laws may be formal and written exercised by institutions e.g.; Parliament, police.
Laws are explicit-very clear on paper and are the same for everybody in that society. They also provide severe, specific, unchangeable punishment. Rewards in forms of citations, medal, honor, cash prize, Bharat Ratna. Formal laws are the same everywhere and depend upon societal requirement.
Norms: Norms are informal and unwritten. They are exercised by the primary group which includes family and friends.
Laws are:

• Implicit: Ambiguity can be there, depends upon the people and situations.
• Punishment given in indifferent contexts.
• Informal reward like pat on back etc. hug etc.
• Differs from person to person, place to place, based on values/cultures of society.

Q3.What do you mean by cultural lag? Discuss its main features.
Answer: Cultural lag: When the material culture is moving ahead and fast with times, but the non-material culture is not able to keep up with the fast pace of material culture propounded the theory a cultural lag.

• Let us consider the basic need of hunger. We know that it has a biological basis, which is common among animals and human beings, but the way this need is gratified by human beings is extremely complex. For example, some people eat vegetarian food, while others eat non-vegetarian food.
• Sexual behaviour can be taken as another example. We know that this behaviour involves hormones and reflexive reactions in animals and human beings alike.
• While among animals sexual behaviour is fairly simple and reflexive (all animals indulge in sexual behaviour almost in the same manner).
• It is so complex among human beings that it can hardly be described as reflexive.
• Partner preferences are a key feature of human sexual behaviour. The bases of these preferences widely differ within and across societies.
• Human sexual behaviour is also governed by many rules, standards, values, and laws.
• These examples illustrate that biological factors alone cannot help us very much in understanding human behaviour.
• Human nature has evolved through an interplay of biological and cultural forces. These forces have made us similar in many ways and different in others.

Q4.Explain the concept of culture.
Answer:
Concept of culture
Human behaviour is fundamentally social. It involves relationships with other people, reactions to their behaviour, and engagement with innumerable products made available to us by our predecessors. Although many other species are also social like us, human beings are cultural as well.

In the simplest terms, culture refers to “the man-made part of the environment”. It comprises diverse products of the behaviour of many people, including ourselves. These products can be material objects (e.g., tools, sculptures), ideas (e.g., family, school). We find them almost everywhere. They influence behaviour, although we may not always be aware of it.

Let us look at some examples. The room you might be in now is a cultural product. It is the result of someone’s architectural ideas and building skills. Your room may be rectangular, but there are many places where rooms are not rectangular (e.g., those of Eskimos).

You might be sitting on a chair that some people designed and built some time ago. Since sitting in a chair requires a particular posture, this invention is shaping your behaviour. There are societies without chairs. Just try to think how people in those societies would be sitting in order to do some reading.
Much of our life as human beings involves interacting with various cultural products and behaving in accordance with them. This means that culture shapes our behaviour in a significant manner.

Q5.How culture and society are related to each other?
Answer:
The terms ‘culture’ and ‘society’ are often considered to carry similar meaning. Let us note at this point that they are not the same thing. A society is a group of people who occupy a particular territory and speak a common language not generally understood by neighbouring people. A society may or may not be single nation, but every society has its own culture. It is culture that shapes human behaviour from society to society. Culture is the label for all the different features that vary from society to society. It is these different features of society whose influences psychologists want to examine in their studies of human behaviour. Thus, a group of people, who manage their livelihood through hunting and gathering in forests, would present a life characterised by certain features that will not be found in a society that lives mainly on agricultural produce or wage earnings.

Q6.Discuss various socialisation agents of society.
Answer:
Socialisation agents of society:

• A number of people who relate to us possess power to socialise us. Such people . are called “socialisation agents”.
• Parents and family members are the most significant socialisation agents.
• Legal responsibility of child care, too, lies with parents. Their task is to nurture children in such a manner that their natural potentials are maximized and negative behaviour tendencies are minimized or controlled.

Parents

• Parents have most direct and significant impact on children’s development. Children respond in different ways to parents in different situations.
• Parents encourage certain behaviours by rewarding them verbally (e.g., praising) or in other tangible ways (e.g., buying chocolates or objects of child’s desire). They also discourage certain behaviours through non-approving behaviours.
• They also arrange to put children in a variety of positive experiences, learning opportunities, and challenges. While interacting with children parents adopt different strategies, which are generally known as parenting styles.
• A distinction is made between authoritative, authoritarian and democratic or permissive parenting styles.
• Studies indicate that parents vary enormously in the treatment of children in terms of their degree of acceptance and degree of control.
•  The conditions of life in which parents live (poverty, illness, job stress, nature of family) also influence the styles they adopt in socialising children.

School

• School is another important socialising agent. Since children spend a long time in schools, which provide them with a fairly organised set up for interaction with teachers and peers.
• Nowadays school is being viewed as a more important agent of child socialisation than parents and family. Children learn not only cognitive skills (e.g., reading, writing, doing mathematics) but also many social skills (e.g., ways of behaving with elders and age mates, accepting roles, fulfilling responsibilities).
• They also learn and internalise the norms and rules of society.
• Several other positive qualities, such as self-initiative, self-control, responsibility and creativity are encouraged in schools.

Peer Groups

• Friendship acquires great significance in this respect.
• It provides children not only with a good opportunity to be in company of others, but also for organising various activities (e.g., play) collectively with the members of their own age.
• Question ualities like sharing, trust, mutual understanding, role acceptance and fulfilment develop in interaction with peers.
• Children also learn to assert their own point of view and accept and adapt to those of others.
• Development of self-identity is greatly facilitated by the peer group. Since communication of children with peer groups is direct, process of socialisation is generally smooth.

Media influences

• In recent years media has also become the medium of socialisation.
• Through television, newspapers, books and cinema the external world has made/ is making its way into our home and our lives.
• While children learn about many things from these sources, adolescents and young adults often derive their models from them, particularly from television and cinema.
• There is a need to use this agent of socialisation in a better way in order to prevent children from developing undesirable behaviours.

Q7.What is acculturation?
Answer:
Culture is determined by dynamic and evolving process. It is not static. Cultural changes occur due to acculturation and defusion.

• Acculturation refers to cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact with other cultures.
• Contact may be direct (e.g., when one moves and settles in a new culture) or indirect (e.g., through media or other means).
• It may be voluntary (e.g., when one goes abroad for higher studies, training, job, or trade) or involuntary (e.g., through colonial experience, invasion, political refuge).
• In both cases, people often need to learn (and also they do learn) something new to negotiate life with people of other cultural groups. For example, during the British rule in India many individuals and groups adopted several aspects of British lifestyle.
• Acculturation can take place any time in one’s life. Whenever it occurs, it requires re-leaming of norms, values, dispositions, and patterns of behaviour.
• For any acculturation to take place contact with another cultural group is essential. This often generates some sort of conflict. Since people cannot live in a state of conflict for a long time, they often resort to certain strategies to resolve their conflicts.
• Studies carried out with immigrants to western countries and native or tribal people in different parts of the world have revealed that people have various options to deal with the problem of acculturative changes. Thus, the course of acculturative change is multidirectional.
• Changes due to acculturation may be examined at subjective and objective levels. At the subjective level, changes are often reflected in people’s attitudes towards change. They are referred to as acculturation attitudes. At the objective level, changes are reflected in people’s day-to-day behaviours and activities. These are referred to as acculturation strategies.

Q8.Discuss differences between social change and cultural change.
Answer:
Malinowike, Gillin and Gillin and others gave their same opinions regarding social and cultural changes.
However Prof. Dawis has pointed out some difference between the two. According to him, change in social structure only represents social change.

Some important differences between social and cultural changes are:
Social Change:

• Change in social relations
• Change in social structure and relationship is a must.
• Scope of social change is limited.
• Social change effects culture.
• Society has its roots in the present, hence change in it has relative implications.

Cultural Change

• Changes in religion and art, language or literature which in turn effect social relationships.
• Cultural change is primarily responsible for new discoveries, inventions and change in cultural activities.
• Scope of cultural change is large.
• Cultural change effects social change.
• As culture has got its roots in their past, hence change in it has relatively less implications.

If society is a tributary while culture is the main river, cultural changes are more relevant. Still both the changes cannot be taken independently from each other as they effect mutually.

Q9.How material culture is different from non-material culture?
Answer:
Material Culture: Anything paid for stuff or money related is example of material culture. Material culture is tangible, concrete, physical, quantified and can be replaced. Non-material Culture: Values, respect, honesty, consideration, gratitude etc. are non-material culture.

Values are basically morals.
Values are those which are concerned with the morals of human beings. They are either right or wrong. They guide us as to how we are supposed to behave in society.
They define, what is proper and improper for an individual in order to reach his/her goal as per societal norms.
Non-material culture is standard of social life. Certain values which everyone has to follow in social life are: honesty, respect, integrity, responsibility.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Note what are the marriage rules that are followed in your society? Compare your observations with these made by other students in the class. Discuss.

Answer:

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.

One sample answer has been provided to you:

Every society comprises several types and rules of marriage. Our society particularly follows monogamy. Monogamy is a system of marriage wherein one man can marry only one woman, and one woman can only marry one man. People are only allowed to re-marry after the death of their spouse or after a divorce. Thus, they cannot have more than one spouse at the same time.

Generally, the marriages are fixed by the parents and this is known as arrange marriage. Parents choose the relevant partners for their sons and daughters. However, some people also prefer love marriages and their partners are self chosen.

Some societies also practice the rules of polygamy and polygyny, wherein the men and women can have multiple partners as their wives and husbands respectively. However, this practice is not allowed in laws of marriage of some religions.

Q2.Find out how membership, residence pattern and even the mode of interaction changes in the family with broader economic, political and cultural changes, for instance migration.

Answer:

Family is an institution where its members live together under one roof and have cordial relationships. It is affected by broader political, economic and cultural activities of the society. Some examples of the way these activities of the society affect the family are:

Cultural Change

With the change in culture, the membership, residence pattern and mode of interaction within a family also changes. For example, in a matrilineal society the women play a major role in decision-making in the family. However, in a patriarchal society, men exercise authority and dominance over the family.

Another example of cultural change is the preference or resistance towards individualism. If the members of a family are individualistic, then there are chances of having a nuclear family. On the other hand, increase in the inter-personal relationships leads to a joint family.

Political Change

During post-unification period in the 1990s, Germany witnessed a rapid decline in the number of marriages because the new German state withdrew all the protection and welfare schemes which were provided to the families prior to the unification. This is an example of broader political change influencing the family.

Economic Change

When a society undergoes economic changes, even the family gets affected indirectly. For example, industrialisation has led to the emergence of nuclear families and women have also adopted instrumental roles in the family.

Migration

Due to economic instability in a society, people migrate in search of work. For example, people from a flood affected village migrate to cities in search of new homes and new jobs. In some cases, women stay at their village and perform household activities, while the husbands migrate to the city for work.

Migration also leads to a change in the housing pattern because the people who migrate from villages have to live in slums and in tents. Similarly, in village they live with their parents and other relatives but in the city they either have to stay alone or with their husband or wife and children only. This change depicts a change in the membership pattern of the family.

Q3.Write an essay on `work’. Focus on both the range of occupations, which exist and how they change.

Answer:

Work means carrying out activities that require expenditure of mental and physical effort and can be paid or unpaid. It has the objective of production of goods and services that cater to human needs. Mainly, paid work is considered as real work and paid workers are referred to as being employed.

There are two types of occupations, namely informal and formal.

The informal employment is found in the unorganised sector of the society, whereas the formal employment is found in the organised sector of the society.

Informal employment is mostly unrecorded and the workers are not paid on a regular basis. Also, the payment is made either in terms of money or as goods or services.

Informal employment mostly includes physical work, whereas in the formal employment both physical and mental work is involved. Also, workers are paid a regular salary in terms of money.

Before industrialisation, in traditional societies, the work was performed in house itself. This formed the informal employment. However, after industrialisation, with the advancement of technology, work shifted from home to factories and offices, forming the formal sector of employment.

These occupations change gradually. For instance, as the variety of work expanded and became complicated, it led to a specialised division of labour. Human labour was replaced by machines and Industrialisation broke down processes into simple operations that could be precisely timed, organised and monitored.

Q4.Discuss the kind of rights that exist in your society. How do they affect your life?

Answer:

There are three kinds of rights that exist in our society:

(i) Political rights such as participation in the formation of the government by casting vote.

(ii) Civil rights, such as freedom of speech, choice of religion, the right to equal justice before the law. The citizen has the freedom to live anywhere in the state territory and has the right to own property irrespective of his/her gender.

(iii) Social rights, such as health benefits, unemployment allowance, and setting of minimum level of wages. The citizen can enjoy a minimum standard of economic welfare and security.

These rights help in the smooth functioning of life of individuals, as they help in the growth of personality. For instance, the individual can go for higher studies of his/ her subject of interest, he/she can learn any form of music and dance, and can also practice any religion. Therefore, the individual has right to make his/her own choice and can also demand justice by appealing to the court.

Q5.How does sociology study religion?

Answer:

Sociology studies religion as an institution and conducts it in three ways:

(i) An empirical study on the various functions of religion and its interrelatedness to the society.

(ii) It uses a comparative method.

(iii) It investigates the religious beliefs and practices in relation to other aspects of the society.

There are different groups of religion that originated with the change and need of the society such as Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Jainism, etc.

Religion has certain beliefs, norms, rules and regulations that are expected to be followed by its members, which govern and regulate their behaviour.

Further, religion has had a very close relationship with power and politics. There have been many social movements which were carried out on the basis of religion.

Classical sociologists believed that as societies have modernised, the influence of religion on the lives of individuals has decreased, which has led to secularism.

Many thinkers of sociology have presented their theories upon religion and their origin. For example, Max Weber in his study, The Protestant Ethic and The Rise of Capitalism viewed that capitalism was a result of Calvinism and their thinking of increasing the economic activity, in order to please the god.

Similarly, Emile Durkhiem presented the view of differentiating the sacred from the profane that existed in religious societies.

Further religion is not only a private matter of individual but it also has a public character, as it holds strong ties with other institutions like politics, economics, education and marriage and kinship.

Q6.Write an essay on school as a social institution. Draw from both your reading as well as your personal observations.

Answer:

The need for education gave rise to schools, and sociology terms this need as a process of transmission or communication of group heritage, which is common to all the societies.

The schools function in order to discipline and regulate human behaviour. Hence, acting as a permanent and binding character.

Furthermore, Ginsberg defines the established institutions as “the recognized and established usage governing the relations between individuals and groups”, and schools are established institutions that provide formal education to students.

They have their own norms and values and certain rules and regulations that are to be followed.

According to Durkheim, for its survival, a society needs a common base − a certain number of ideas, sentiments and practices which education must inculcate in all children indiscriminately.

For functionalists, education system maintains and develops the social structure and culture. For those who perceive society as unequally differentiated, education functions as one of the main stratifying agent.

According to common sense knowledge of a lay man, schools provide with one of the basic components of socialisation. As a child grows and learns to become a part of the group amongst his/her peers, this process of inculcating the values and norms of the society starts. Thus, the individual becomes a part of the society.

Q7.Discuss how these social institutions interact with each other. You can start the discussion from yourself as a senior school student. And move on to how you are shaped by different social institutions. Are you entirely controlled or can you also resist and redefine social institutions?

Answer:

All the social institutions of marriage, family and kinship, politics, education, economics and religion interact and affect each other.

For instance, religion had its deep impact on the various spheres of social and cultural life of the individuals affecting the family, marriage, kinship and education. The religious institutions were so strong that they even had their affect on political and economic institutions of the society.

The religion gave way to the capitalism and had the strongest position in the society. However, in modern societies religion comparatively has become less influential. But still has its hold on marriage, family, kinship and politics

Even in contemporary societies, family, kinship and marriages are affected by religion. Similarly, the family and marriages are getting affected by economic and political policies of the state as well. The functions of the family members are also indirectly decided by the policies of the state leading to the fragmentation of family.

These institutions offer many new opportunities while some even constrain the individuals. It is very difficult to resist and redefine any social institution but this can be done through social movements and protests.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.Explain concepts of community, nation and state and differentiate them.
Answer:
A community refers to a group of people whose members are connected to each other by consciously recognized commonalities which, may be based on language, religion, culture and so on.

Nation: A nation is a territorial community psychologically bound together by common ties of kinship, religion, language, history, customs or traditions. A nation has aspirations for political autonomy or political organization. It is not sovereign.
The desire for political unity of a nation expresses itself as the aspiration to form a state.

State: It is a community of persons, settled in a definite territory, having an organized government, and enjoying absolute independence from external control. It has the following elements:

• Population: There can be no state without people as state is an association of people. Exact number of people essential to form a state cannot be fixed. However, just a few families can’t constitute a state. Population should be more or less numerous.
• Territory: A group of people must occupy a clearly defined territory in order to constitute a state. A group of nomads cannot constitute a state. Territory of a state includes a clearly demarcated piece of land, territorial waters, and even the entire air above the territory of the state. This territory is under the supreme control of the state.
• Government: It is the machinery or agency through which the state functions and exercises its will. It includes selected people to enact laws, implement them and enforce justice. It maintains official relations with other states. All members of the state are not part of the government. It includes only those officials, and departments who are elected, appointed or employed to determine and carry out the regulations of the state.
• Sovereign: It is the absolute power of the state. State has full and independent control over its territory and population. It is independent of any external control.

2. Nation-state: Nation states are those states in which the great mass of population are citizens who regard themselves as a part of a single nation.
Differences between community, nation and state:

• Community: No political aspirations to form a state.
• Nation: A community with political aspirations not yet a state, not sovereign.
• State: A state is a politically organized community, sovereign and internationally recognized.

Q2.What is education? Discuss its importance and various forms.
Answer:
Education is an effort of the senior members of the society to transfer their knowledge, skills and values to the younger members of society. It is the process of giving intellectual, moral, physical and social instructions to a child for his all round development.

Importance of education:

• It socializes the child to play adult roles in society. A child through education learns the basic rules, regulations, norms and values of society.
• It helps in maintaining and perpetuating the society and its culture.
• It also helps in promoting change by instilling new ideas and values.
• It provides the necessary knowledge and skills to an individual to be a productive member of society.

Formal and Informal Education
Formal Education: It is in the form of systematic, planned and guided instruction. It is highly institutionalised and organized. It has the following characteristics:

• There is a definite and well defined content and curriculum of education.
• There are definite rules and regulations regarding admission, evaluation etc.
• Instruction is provided by specially qualified teachers.
• It is limited to a definite period or stage, For example, college education. Informal Education

1. Informal education is spontaneous and largely unplanned.

• There is no fixed curriculum and there are no specialized agencies like schools or colleges imparting such education.
• Informal education involves learning of values, norms, moral family rituals, ceremonies etc. through participation at everyday activities.
•  It goes on from birth to death. There is no particular stage or age for this.

2. Education in Primitive and Modem societies:
In primitive societies:

• The content of education was mainly related to religion, philosophy, metaphysics and scriptural subjects.
• There was no need for formal schooling and informal education played a greater role.

3. Modem industrial societies:

• Course content of education is rationalistic and secular. As the modem society relies on an extremely elaborate division of labour it stresses on teaching subjects like sciences, mathematics, languages etc.
• Being change oriented it lays emphasis on instilling principles of democracy, secularism, equality and a scientific world view.
• Formal education plays a greater role in modem societies rather than it did in primitive societies.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Why do we need to use special terms and concepts in sociology?

Answer:

We need to use special terms and concepts in sociology to understand the society better. In sociology, there are different ways of understanding the society. For example, Max Weber gave importance to individuals for existence of a society whereas Emile Durkheim laid emphasis on society as a whole.

For Karl Marx, the key concepts were class and conflict to understand society whereas for Emile Durkheim, social solidarity and collective conscience were important.

There are different kinds of individuals and groups in society that leads to different concepts and ideas. Therefore, we need special terms and concepts in sociology to differentiate it from our common sense knowledge of society.

An individual studies the society on the basis of his/her own common sense, which is often within a limited range, while sociology provides specific concepts and terms to study the structure, phenomenon and functions of the society in a scientific way.

Q2.As a member of society you must be interacting with and in different groups. How do you see these groups from a sociological perspective?

Answer:

(Within different groups)

We interact with different groups in our daily lives. The students of a classroom form a social group of that class and an individual (you) is a part of that group.

The individual has some of the classmates as his/her friends and this group of friends forms the primary group where interaction takes place with intimacy and co-operation while the rest of the class forms the secondary group.

The group of students of the class sharing common interest and ideas interact with each other in a formal manner. The friends of the individual from the class also shares common interests and ideas but with informal ways of interaction.

(In different groups)

An individual also interacts with the students association which forms a secondary group based on specific goals. The individual discusses his/her school problems with the members of these groups and the members help him/her.

Q3.What have you observed about the stratification system existing in your society? How are individual lives affected by stratification?

Answer:

Social stratification refers to the existence of structured inequalities between groups in a society, in terms of their access to materials or symbolic rewards. Historically, there have been four basic systems of stratification- slavery, caste, estate and class.

In India, there are several stratifications on the basis of caste, class, gender etc. In several organisations, stratification exists on the basis of the roles of the employees.

The life of the individuals is affected by stratification because people are placed in higher or lower strata. The lower strata is devoid of certain symbolic rewards and material advantages which improve the quality of the life of the recipient such as wealth, income, health, security in a job, etc. On the other hand, the higher strata enjoys all the benefits of the society. These material benefits or privileged position are also passed on to the future generations of the higher strata.

Q4.What is social control? Do you think the modes of social control in different spheres of society are different? Discuss.

Answer:

Social control refers to the social processes, techniques and strategies by which the behaviour of an individual or a group is regulated.

There are two types of social control:

(i) The formal social control, which is formal, official and codified. Its agents are law and the state.

(ii) Informal social control, which is personal, unofficial and uncodified. For example, family, religion and kinship. This mode of social control is very effective in our daily life. However, this form of social control may not be adequate to enforce conformity or obedience.

Social control can also be either positive or negative, as in the case of sanctions. It is a mode of reward or punishment that enforces socially expected forms of behaviour. In this case, individuals are rewarded for their good behaviour and are punished for their offence in the society.

The modes of social control in different societies are different because in pre-modern societies, the caste system controlled and regulated the activities of individuals and kept a check on violation against the prescribed norms. Likewise, in modern societies the government and the state control its citizens and act as agents of social order.

Different societies have different norms and values, different structure and functions. Therefore, they have accordingly different techniques and strategies of social control.

Q5.Identify the different roles and status that you play and are located in. Do you think roles and status change? Discuss when and how they change.

Answer:

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.

One sample answer has been provided to you:

An individual (you) has many roles and status. For instance, a student whose duty is to study, also plays the role of a son or a daughter. He/she enjoys the status of being a son or a daughter. This status will not change but a new status of husband or wife would get attached to him/her once he/she gets married. Later, the status of being a mother or a father would also apply to him/her.

Not only this, but the individual also plays the role of a brother, sister, nephew, niece, friend, etc.

Similarly, the status and duties of being a student would change accordingly, once his/her studies get over and he/she gets employed.

In this way, the status and role of the individual (you) changes according to time and place and the new status and roles get attached to the individual.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.What are social groups? Discuss various types of group.
Answer:
A number of individuals, defined by formal and informal criteria of membership, who share a feeling of unity or are bound together in relatively stable pattern of interaction are called social groups.

Sociology is primarily concerned with social relations and how these relations develop as a result of social interaction. When some people establish social relations with one another, their gathering is called a group. Direct or indirect relations between two or more people is the fundamental basis of a social group. A collection of human beings may be called a group only when it has a permanent set of patterns. The members need to influence one another by their internal activities. When members establish relationships on the basis of common characteristics and goals and influence each other, it is called a group.

Social groups differ in size, ranging from intimate associations, like a family to large collectivities such as a political party. Groups are organised system of two or more individuals. People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, knowledge and information. Group formation is a natural process of society. Proximity, similarity and common motives and goals facilitate group formation. Groups are of different types i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal and ‘in-group’ and ‘out-group’.

Primary groups are preexisting formations in which face to face interaction is possible and relationship bonds are based on personal relationship. In primary groups a person knows one another well and they establish close relationship among them, boundaries are more permeable. Secondary groups are those where relationship among members are more impersonal, indirect and less frequent. In this group it is easy to leave and join another group. Secondary groups provide experience lacking in intimacy.

Formal groups differ in degree to which the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an office organisation. The roles to be performed by group members are stated in the explicit manner. The formal and informal groups differ on the basis of structure. The formations of formal groups is based on same specific rules or laws and members have definite roles.

There are a set of norms which help in establishing order.
On the other hand, the formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws and there is close relationship among members. Formal groups are groups that are arranged and organised e.g. university. Formal groups tend to be large or a part of large organisation having a normative hierarchial structure. Informal groups are typically small and casually or spontaneously formed and function without formal rules, goals or leaders.

The term in-group refers to one’s own group, and out-group refers to another group. For in-group members, we use the word ‘we’ group while for out-group members the word ‘they’ group is used. By using the word ‘they’ and ‘we’, one is categorising people on similar or different basis. It has been found that persons in the in-group are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favourably, and have desirable traits. Members of the out-group are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the in-group members.

Perceptions of in-group and out-group affect our social lives. Co-operation and proximity are common features of in-group members. Hostile and aggressive relationship leading to conflict and competition is common feature towards out-group members. In-group members maintain mutual dependence, solidarity, faithfulness, friendship, cooperation and communication for members whereas out-groups are known as stranger group.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION:

Q1.Why is the study of the origin and growth of sociology important?

Answer:

Sociology is the study of social life of humans, their groups and societies. The subject matter of sociology is our own behaviour as social beings. It is important to study this subject, in order to understand the society as a whole. Hence, sociology helps us in the understanding of interconnectedness of the social systems across. It is important to study the origin and growth of sociology because it helps in shaping the subject matter according to its principles and perceptions. The study of the origin of the subject also helps us to understand the ideas that led to its origin.

Sociology studies societies that are different in size, characteristics, etc. by using certain methods, material contexts and methodologies. The study of growth of sociology shows the new ideas that were involved in making it a distinct subject of social science. These ideas which were gradually involved in bringing up this subject affects its subject-matter. Therefore, studying the origin and growth of sociology is important to understand the various institutions and their functions present in the society.

Q2.Discuss the different aspects of the term ‘society’. How is it different from your common sense understanding?

Answer:

The different aspects of the term ‘society’ have been made by early sociologists like Auguste Comte, Karl Marx and Herbert Spencer. They classified the societies into two broad groups:

(i) Pre-modern societies such as, hunters and gatherers, pastoral and agrarian and non-industrial civilisations.

(ii) Modern societies such as the industrial societies.

Sociology studies society on the basis of some rules and principles that depend on concepts, data and methods. On the other hand, our common sense understanding of the society depends on our naturalistic or individualistic understanding.

Common sense knowledge does not question its own origins but Sociology has both the systematic and questioning approach that is derived from a broader tradition of scientific investigation.

In our common sense understanding of the society, the aspect of the term ‘society’ is very limited which is quite different from that of sociology.

Q3.Discuss how there is greater give and take among disciplines today.

Answer:

The give and take among disciplines today, is discussed below:

(i) Sociology, as a subject studies the society in the form of social behaviour, social institutions, social policies and programmes that get affected from the historical, political and economic policies.

(ii) Political Science studies the polity of the country. The political atmosphere, political policies, etc. have an impact on society and its economy. Sociology has shared common interests of research with political science. Political sociology focuses mainly on the study of political behaviour of the various institutions and their interactions. Studies have been conducted to understand sociological reasons for support of political parties, the role of gender in politics, the process of decision making in organisations, etc.

(iii) The economy is the subject matter of economics that studies economic activities, economic policies etc. that gets affected by political policies and the needs of the society. The economic behaviour and activities are looked upon through sociological approach in a broader context of social norms, practices, values and interests. Also, the subject of economic sociology has been introduced, because of the wide and critical perspective of both sociology and economics.

(iv) History as a subject has been different from sociology. However, the historians nowadays have started using sociological methods and concepts to understand the social matters, gender relations, customs and other important institutions of the past.

(v) Psychology is the science of behaviour. Society gets affected from individual behaviour in collective form and even the individual behaviour is affected by the society that makes sociology and psychology interrelated. This has introduced the subject of social psychology, which studies the primary interest in the individual by observing his/her behaviour in social groups.

(vi) Anthropologists study simple societies whereas sociology studies complex societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology are of concern for sociologists. Anthropology is often regarded as the sister discipline of sociology.

Polity, economy and society are interrelated and get affected by each other. Therefore, these three subjects are necessary to be studied together. Hence, the different disciplines of social sciences such as anthropology, economics, political science, history and psychology are interrelated as they share common interests, concepts and methods.

Q4.Identify any personal problem that you or your friends or relatives are facing. Attempt a sociological understanding.

Answer:

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.

One sample answer has been provided to you:

My uncle and aunt are looking for a groom for my cousin. They are looking for a boy who is well-qualified, government officer, decent and has a good family background.

However, my cousin wants a well-natured husband who might not be a government officer. She is looking for someone who would provide her freedom to pursue her career and allow her to live the way she wants to. Her family wants a government officer who can make them feel socially and financially strong. They also want the boy to be of same community because of social pressure, but my cousin wants a loving husband irrespective of his community background.

In the above example, it is clear that personal choice is often affected by one’s individual needs and thoughts.

The girl holds a modern thinking and does not believe in the barrier of caste or community to find a soul mate. Her views are shaped with the changing environment of her work place and peer group. On the other hand, her parents are affected by their community and feel the pressure from the society to find a son-in-law who belongs to their own social group. The views/opinions of the parents mentioned above are formed by the pressure of society and the wish to have a government officer as their son-in-law arises from their own need. Therefore, we can say that our needs and opinions or views are formed by the various institutions of society, such as work places, peer groups, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions :

Q1.Describe the growth of Sociology in India.
Answer:
The history of origin and development of Sociology in India is more than 4000 years old. The fundamental source of social ideology was religion. During Indian Vedic era, a systematic development of different social institutions of society was prevalent. Sociology in India has been influenced by various internal processes particularly the colonial regime which tried to prove their cultural superiority in comparison of Indian culture.

First of all, Sociology courses were taught at Calcutta University in the Department of Economics, Political Science, Human Geography and Anthropology. This was pioneered by philosopher Brajendra Nath Seal, Benoy Sarkar, anthropologist K.P. Chattopadhyay and human geographer Nirmal Bose.

• In 1914, the Department of Sociology was started for PG students of economics.
  As Sociology is defined today have been first of all introduced in India in Bombay University under the guidance of Prof. Patriels in 1919.
• In 1923, Mysore University introduced Sociology in BA course as a separate subject. Presently Sociology is being taught in most of the Indian universities as a BA pass or BA honours course and PG courses.
• Presently the premier institutes of India like JNU, Delhi School of Economics, Tata Institute of Social Science have special professional courses in Sociology.
• Indian sociologists who contributed significantly to make their subject flourish are Dr. Radha Kamal Mukherjee, Prof. P.N. Prabhu, Prof. Wadia, Prof. Shrinivas, Dr. R.N. Saxena, Prof. R.R. Shastri, Prof. Kapadia, Prof. N. Prasad, Prof. T.K. Oomen, Prof. S.C. Dubey, Prof Andrea.

Q2.How Sociology and Political Science are related to each other?
Answer:
Political science studies political institution such as state governments and its branches like legislative, executive and judiciary.

• Sociology studies power in terms of social context e.g. during elections.
• Political Science is restricted to study of formal organisation and institutions whereas sociology is concerned with study of behaviour of the people in power.
• Sociology focuses on social stress on the interpersonal relationship between political institution.
• The main task of a political scientist is to study the political behaviour whereas main task of sociologist is to develop knowledge that would explain both social and political behaviour along with the consequences of this behaviour.
• There are several areas of social life that need both the approaches e.g. implementing a law and its effect on people.

Q3.How success of French Revolution and Industrial Revolution caused changes in social life of people universally?
Answer:
Success of French and American Revolution
Enlightenment values of intellectual and political freedom found expressions in the French Revolution in 1789.
These revolutions popularised the nation that individuals possess alienable rights, monarchy was overthrown and democracy was brought in. Ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity put an end to the age of feudalism. Birth based privileges were abolished.

Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
Began in Britain in late 18th and early 19th centuries it had two major aspects.

(a) Systematic application of science and technology to industrial production: Invention of new machines, and harnessing of new sources of power revolutionised the production process. There was now factory production of goods on a large scale.

(b) Industrial revolution was based upon new, dynamic forms of economic activity. Capitalism revolutionised ways of organising labour and markets. Entrepreneurs were now engaged in the sustained, systematic pursuit of profit. Large scale production was geared towards distant markets, raw materials too were procured from all over the world.

These changes in production system led to many dramatic changes in social life too.

1. Before industrialisation, agriculture and textiles were the chief occupations of the British.

2. Most people lived in villages. Like in our own Indian villages, there were peasants and landlords, the blacksmith and leather workers, the weavers and the potters, the shepherds and the brewers.

3. Society was small. It was hierarchical, that is the status and class positions of different people were clearly defined. Like all traditional societies it was also, characterised by close interaction. With industrialisation each of these features changed.

4. One of the most fundamental aspects of the new order was the degradation of labour, the wrenching of work from the protective context of guild, village, and family. Both the radical and conservative thinkers were appalled at the decline of the status of the common labourer, not the skilled craftsmen.

5. Urban centres expanded and grew. It was not that there were no cities earlier. But their character prior to industrialisation was different. The industrial cities gave birth to a completely new kind of urban world. It was marked by the soot and grime of factories, by overcrowded slums of the new industrial working class, bad sanitation and general squalor. It was also marked by new kinds of social interactions.

Consequently many early sociologists like Karl Marx and Durkheim were concerned with the scientific analysis of the developments in industrial society.
Sociology was therefore bom as “Science of the new modem industrial society”.

Q4.What do you understand by Sociology?
Answer:
Capitalism was the new economic system that emerged in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. This system became the driving force behind industrial growth. Karl Marx believed that capitalists were factory owners and entrepreneurs who were engaged in the systematic pursuit of profit and became rich at the expense of their workers who remained poor.

The key to capitalism as a social system was the complex relationship between factory owners, workers and the means of production i.e. factories, machinery and tools. Renaissance was a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries, which laid emphasis on reason, individualism and rational thought. The ideas of fraternity, equality and liberty became important and resulted in the French Revolution, which abolished the monarchy, ended feudalism and privileges based on birth. The central idea of Renaissance was that all men are born with certain rights that had to be respected.

Positivism was a theory developed by Auguste Comte, regarded as the “Father of Sociology.” Positivism is based on the theory that on the basis of verifiable facts it is possible to observe social life in a methodical way to establish reliable, valid knowledge which can be used to affect the course of social change and improve human conditions. Positivism has had little influence on contemporary sociology, however, because it is argued that it encourages a misleading emphasis on superficial facts without any attention to underlying mechanisms that cannot be observed.

Q5.In what ways did the Industrial Revolution lead to the birth of Sociology in Europe?

• The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It marked the beginning of the scientific age and led to changes in social lives of people.
• Before industrialization the rural sector was important. The chief occupation was farming and weaving. Society was hierarchical, status and class conscious. People worked according to their needs, factors like daylight and deadlines.
• Industrialisation meant there was a systematic application of science and technology. Huge factories were set up for large-scale production of goods like textiles and iron and steel. New forms of economic activity gave rise to capitalism as the pursuit of profit was geared to markets in distant colonies.
• There was a dramatic change in social life as a new working class emerged. Farmers migrated to industrial cities, which were characterised by overcrowded housing, poor sanitation and general squalor.
• An indicator of this new society was the emergence of “clock time”. The tempo of work was set by the clock and calendar. Factory production meant that work began punctually and people worked in shifts for set hours and were paid according to what they produced.
• Karl Marx and Durkheim were appalled at the degradation of factory workers and became concerned with the scientific analysis of developments in industrial society. Sociology was bom as a result of this as it was based on the understanding of “science of a new modem industrial world”.

Q6.Discuss the revolutionary changes in 19th century Europe that led to the emergence of Sociology.
Answer:
1. Sociology was born in 19th century Europe as a result of the revolutionary changes brought about by Enlightenment, the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution.

2. Medieval Europe was a feudal society. The church dominated all spheres of society including matters of state and the king was regarded to be divinely ordained to rule over his people as he deemed fit. Gradually people began to question every aspect of life including the authority of the church and the monarchy.

3. This led to the Age of Enlightenment, which laid great emphasis on reason and
rationality. There was a growing conviction that the methods of natural sciences could be extended to study affairs of human society. Eg. Poverty began to be seen not as a natural phenomenon but as a social problem caused by exploitation and human ignorance. Hence poverty could be redressed and resolved.

4. Enlightenment values of intellectual and political freedom found expression in the French Revolution of 1789. This revolution popularised the notion that all individuals possessed the right to liberty, equality and fraternity. The revolution ended monarchy and ushered in democracy. The age of feudalism ended and birth based privileges were abolished.

5. The Industrial Revolution began with the advancement of science and technology. It brought in capitalism as industry became economically very important. Farmers left their holdings to work in factories in the industrial cities of Britain. The features of society changed and the working class became important. Once again society was transformed as a new social order emerged.

6. People like Comte, Marx and Durkheim tried to make sense of these revolutionary changes and restore order to chaos. Their efforts helped the emergence of Sociology, as they believed that the scientific study of Sociology would help in the reconstruction and reorganization of a strong and healthy society.

Q7.Discuss relationship between Sociology and History.
Answer:
Sociology and the other social sciences have much in common. Recently there has been a gradual coming together of various social sciences. Pioneers of Indian sociology like DP Mukerji have stressed on an inter-disciplinary approach within the field of Sociology.
While there are many similarities between other social sciences. They are different in focus, orientation and emphasis.

Differences between Sociology and History:
History is concerned with the description of the past of the society while Sociology is primarily concerned with the present of society and to some extent its future too. Historians try to narrate historical events in their chronological order. Primary interest of sociology is to discover the general laws of society and to establish causal relationships between social phenomenon.

Conventional history has been more about the history of kings and war. The history of less glamorous events such as gender relations within the family have traditionally been less studied by historians but formed a core area of the sociologist’s interest.

Convergence of History and Sociology:

However, recently history and sociology are beginning to converge. This is because the present of society cannot be understood without looking at its past. Sociologists therefore, very often use historical records and refer to the works of historians for their own research.

Even history is often studied now from a sociological point of view. To quote G.E Howard, “History is past sociology and sociology is present history”. Historians today are using sociological methods and concepts in their analysis.
The coming of history and sociology together has led to the emergence of the specialization of historical sociology. It deals with social patterns, gender relations, customs other than the acts of rulers and wars.

Q8.Discuss relationship between Sociology and Economics.
Answer:
Differences between Sociology and Economics:

• Economics is concerned with the study of production and distribution of goods and services in society. On the other hand, sociology is the systematic study of social relations and interactions.
• The classical approach in economics dealt almost exclusively with the interrelations of pure economic variables such as price, demand, supply, money flow etc. Focus of traditional economics has been on a narrow understanding of economic activities.

Convergence of Sociology and Economics:

• Despite the difference irTfocus economics and sociology share a two way relationship because the economic activities of human beings do not exist in a vacuum.
• Production, consumption and distribution of goods and services in a society are influenced by non-economic, socio-cultural considerations like traditions, social norms, consumer nationalities etc.
• The large investment in the advertising industry is directly linked to the need to reshape life styles and consumption pattern of consumers. In fact, a number of MNC’s often refine or change their products to suit local taste and culture.

Q9.Discuss relationship between Sociology and Political Science.
Answer:
Differences between Sociology and Political Science:

• Sociology studies all aspects of society whereas conventional Political Science focused on the study of power embodied in formal institutions such as the state, government, political parties etc.
• Sociology stresses on the interrelationship between different social institutions like religion, education, politics etc whereas political science has tended to focus on the processes within the government.

Convergence of Sociology and Political Science:

• Despite these differences there are similar interests of researchers as well as increased interaction of methods and approaches between sociology and political science.
• The interface of political science and sociology is termed as political sociology. It acts as a bridge between the two subjects. For example, political sociology studies how religious and caste identities are used as vote banks.

Q10.How Sociology is related with Social Anthropology?
Answer:
Relationship between Sociology and Social Anthropology:

1. Types of Society: Sociology emerged as the study of modem, industrial complex societies while Social Anthropology emerged as the study of primitive, simple and small scale societies.
The anthropologists of the past documented the details of simple societies apparently in a neutral scientific fashion. In practice, however, they were constantly comparing those societies with the model of the western modern societies as a benchmark.

2. Scale of study: Social anthropology tended to study society (simple societies) in all their aspects, as a whole. In so far, as they specialised, it was on the basis of area. For example, the Andaman Islands. Sociologists study complex societies and
would therefore often focus on parts of society like the bureaucracy or religion or caste or a process such as social mobility.

3. Methods of Study: Social Anthropology has been associated with the ethnographic methods of participant observation. It is characterised by long field work tradition, living in and with the community being studied for a long time and learning their language.
Sociologists have often relied on survey methods and quantitative data using statistics and the questionnaire mode.

Convergence of Sociology and Social Anthropology:

• Today the distinction between a simple society and a complex one itself needs major rethinking. India itself is a complex mix of tradition and modernity, of the village and the city, of caste and tribe, of class and community.
• Consequently, there is a coming together of sociology and social anthropology in India. There have been fruitful interchanges between the two disciplines and today often methods and techniques are drawn from both.
• On the other hand, Sociology too has been using quantitative and qualitative techniques, macro and micro approaches for studying the complexities of modem societies.

Q11.Discuss relationship between Sociology and Psychology.
Answer:
Relationship between Sociology and Psychology:

Psychology is often defined as the science of behaviour. It involves itself primarily with the individual. It is interested in her/his intelligence and learning, motivations and memory, nervous system and reaction time, hopes and fears.
Sociology attempts to understand behaviour as it is organized in society, that is the way in which personality is shaped by different aspects of society. For instance, economic and political system, their family and kinship structure, their culture, norms and values.

It is interesting to recall that Durkheim who sought to establish a clear scope and method for sociology in his well-known study of suicide left out individual intentions of those who commit or try to commit suicide in favour of statistics concerning various social characteristics of these individuals.

Social psychology, which serves as a bridge between psychology and sociology, maintains a primary interest in the individual but concerns itself with the way in which the individual behaves in social groups, collectively with other individuals.

TEXTBOOK QUESTION AND ANSWER:

Q1. Explain the concept of motivation.
Answer: The term motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ referring to movement of activity. Thus it pushes an individual (organism) into activity.

• It can be used to explain drives, needs, goals and incentives… Any behaviour is goal driven, demand persistent and often preferred or is in favour of one goal over the other.
• It is individuals internal force which energises and directs the behaviour.

Q2. What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs?
Answer: Hunger:

• The stimuli of hunger include stomach contractions, which signify that the stomach is empty.
• A low concentration of glucose in the blood
• A low level of protein and the amount of fats stored in the body.
• The liver also responds to the lack of bodily fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain.
• The aroma, taste or appearance of food may also result in a desire to eat.
• They all in combination act with external factors (such as taste, colour by observing other’s eating, and the smell of food, etc.) to the help one understands that she/he is hungry.

Thirst: When we are deprived of water for a period of several hours, the mouth and throat become dry, which leads to dehydration of body tissues.

• Drinking water is necessary to wet a dry mouth.
• The processes within the body itself control thirst and drinking of water.
• Water must get into the tissues sufficiently to remove the dryness of mouth and throat.
• Motivation to drink water is mainly triggered by the conditions of the body.
• Loss of water from cells and reduction of blood volume.
• When Water is lost by bodily fluids, water leaves the interior of the cells. The anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve impulses in case of cell dehydration. These nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst and drinking.

Ist View:

• The mechanism which explains the intake of water is responsible for stopping the
  intake of water.

IInd View:

• The role of stimuli resulting from the intake of water in the stomach have something to do with stopping of drinking water.
• The precise physiological mechanisms underlying the thirst drive are yet to be understood.

Q3.  How do the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power influence the behaviour of adolescents ? Explain with examples.
Answer:  Needs for achievement:

• It energies and directs behaviour as well as influences the perception of situations.
• During the formative years of social development, children acquire achievement motivation. They learn it from their parents, other role models, and socio-cultural influences.

We are social being. We maintain some form of relationship with others. Nobody likes to remain alone all the time. Formation of group is an important feature of human life. It involves motivation for social contact.

• Need for affiliation seeking other human beings and wanting to be close to them both physically and psychologically is called affiliation. It involves motivation for social contact.
• It is aroused when individuals feel threatened or helpless and also when they are happy. People high on this need are motivated to seek the company of others and to maintain friendly relationships with other people.

Need for power is an ability of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour and emotions of another person. The various goals of power motivation are to influence, control, persuade, lead and charm others.

Q4.What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain with suitable examples.
Answer: Abraham Maslow, a humanist psychologist proposed a hierarchy of needs in which human needs are arranged in a sequence from primitive to human. They are interrelated in the sense that when one need is fulfilled, the next one takes on the mind. At the lowest level are the physiological needs followed by the other higher level needs as given below:

1. Physiological needs:These are needs which are basic for survival.They include such as hunger, thirst.
2. Safety needs: The need to be free from any possible threat-both real and imaginary. It is of both physical and psychological nature.
3. Belongingness: Needs to belong, to affiliate, to love and to be loved by others. One can’t live alone and needs other’s company.
4.  Esteem needs: Individual strives for the need for self-esteem to develop a sense of self worth once his belongingness needs are fulfilled.
5. Self-actualisation: It means to attain the fullest developments of one’s potential.
   Such people are self-aware, socially responsible, creative, spontaneous, open to novelty and change, has a sense of humour and capacity for deep interpersonal relationships.

Q5. Does physiological arousal precede or follow an emotional experience? Explain.
Answer:

• William James and Carl Lange argued that the perception about bodily changes, like rapid breathing, a pounding heart and running legs following an event, – brings forth emotional arousal.
• This theory of emotion holds that body’s reaction to a stimulus produces emotional reaction.
• The theory suggests that environmental stimuli elicit physiological responses from viscera (the internal organs like heart and lungs), which in turn, are associated with muscle movement.
• James-Lange theory argues that your perception about your bodily changes, like rapid breathing, a pounding heart, and running legs, following an event, brings forth emotional arousal.
• The theory can be expressed in the following hierarchy:
  

Canon and Bard contradicted to the James-Lange theory.

• According to this theory, felt emotion and the bodily reaction in emotion are independent of each other; both get triggered simultaneously.
• This theory of emotion holds that bodily changes and the experience of emotion occurs simultaneously.
• Theory claims that the entire process of emotion is governed by thalamus.
• Thalamus conveys the information simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and to the skeletal muscles and sympathetic nervous system.
• The cerebral cortex then determines the nature of the perceived stimulus. By referring to the past experiences. This determines the subjective experience of emotion. Simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system and the muscles provide physiological arousal and prepare the individual to take action.
• Following diagram shows the CANNON-BARD theory of emotion:
  
• As proposed by the theory we first perceive potential emotion-producing situation which leads to activity in the lower brain region such as the hypothalamus which in turn sends output in two directions:
  (a)To internal body organs, external muscles to produce bodily expressions
  (b)To cerebral cortex where the pattern of discharge from the lower brain areas is perceived as felt emotion.

Q6. Is it important to consciously interpret and label emotions in order to explain them? Discuss giving Suitable examples.
Answer:  Schacter-Singer theory: In 1970, the American psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, while adopting an eclectic approach to both the earlier theories of emotion, introduced a new theory named Cognitive theory of emotion.

• They suggested that our physical arousal together with our perception and judgement of situation (cognition) jointly determine which emotions we feel.
• In other words, our emotional arousal depends on both physiological changes and the cognitive or mental on both physiological changes and the cognitive or mental interpretation of those changes. One cannot work without the other.
• The necessary detection and explanation for an emotional state always rests with the interpretation of situation. Since this interpretation is purely a subject of cognitive functioning, the cognitive factors are said to be the potent determiners of our emotional states.

The views expressed by Schachter and Singer was also supported by Magda Arnold by stating that cognitive processes control how we interpret our feelings and how we act on them. She used the term Cognitive Appraisal for the identification and interpretation of emotion provoking stimuli.

• A third element, in understanding the relationship between physical reactions and emotional experience aroused on account of the perception of an emotion provoking stimulus.
• Cognitive theory helped us to learn that the emotional experience and physiological changes through which we pass are determined by the way we interpret a situation through the cognitive element of our behaviour in the form of our previous knowledge and our interpretation of the present situation directly affect our emotional experience.

Q7. How does culture influence the expression of emotions?
Answer:  Emotional expression involves posture, facial expression, actions, words and even silence.

• Cultural similarities in the facial expression of emotions such as anger, fear, disgust, sadness, happiness etc. have been observed. It must however, be noted that facial expression can, in some cases, be also misleading.
• The display rules that regulate emotional expression and emotional vocabulary do vary across cultures.
• It has been found that children would cry when distressed, shake their heads when defiant and smile when happy.
• Despite similarities in expressions of certain basic emotions, cultures do vary in why and how they express emotions.

Q8. Why is it important to manage negative emotion? Suggest ways to manage negative emotions.
Answer:

• It is important to control negative emotions in order to ensure an effective social functioning. Positive emotions should be enhanced. We can reduce/manage negative emotions in the following manner.
• Negative emotions like fear, anxiety, disgust are such emotions if allowed to prevail for a long time, they are likely to have adverse effects on our well¬being. Anxious individuals find it difficult to concentrate. They are not able to take decisions. Depression impairs individuals ability to think rationally, feel realistically and work effectively.
• Following tips prove useful to manage negative emotion effectively The following tips prove useful for achieving the desire balance of emotion:

1. Enhance self-awareness: Try to get insight into your own emotions and this makes you understand them in a better way. Knowing about your capabilities and limitation helps.
2. Appraise the situation objectively: An evaluation of situation and gaining insight into it determines the level and direction of emotion.
3. Self monitoring: A periodic evaluation of past accomplishments, emotional and physical states and other positive experiences enhance faith in yourself and leads to contentment.
4. Self-modeling: Analyzing past performances and the positive aspects attached to it provides with inspiration and motivation to perform better next time.
5. Perceptual reorganization and cognitive rest-ructuring: Changing old patterns and following new positive ones. Restructure your thoughts to enhance positively and eliminate negative thoughts.
6. Be creative: Take up some hobby or develop and interest in something creative and innovative. Create fun for yourself by pursuing such activity of interest.
7. Develop and nurture good relationship: One who shares good interpersonal relationship with others never feel alone and disheartened.
8. Empathy: Looking at other’s situation as it was your own. Understanding others well help you in understanding your own self in a better way. It adds meaning to your life.
9. Participation in community services: this can prove to be very effective in creating a balance of emotion in your life.