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In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 6 ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION

1.Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude.
Ans. Attitudes are state of the mind, set of views or thoughts or ideas regarding some topic which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral). These are relatively stable predispositions. .
Various components of an attitude are as follows:
(i)The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect of attitude.
(ii)The emotional component is known as the affective aspect.
(iii)The tendency to act is called the behavioural (conative) aspect.
These three aspects have been referred to as the A-B-C (affective-behavioural-cognitive)components of attitude. Attitudes are themselves not a tendency to behave or act in certain ways. They are part of cognition, along with an emotional component which cannot be observed from outside.

2.Are attitudes learnt? Explain how?
Ans. By enlarge attitudes are learnt. They are formed on the basis of learning.
Formation of Attitudes: The term ‘attitude formation’ refers to the movement we make from having no attitude toward an object to having a positive or negative attitude. There are some factors which contribute to the formation of attitudes:
1.Learning: The attitudes are acquired through learning. Many of our views are acquired in situations in which we interact with others or merely observe their behaviour.
-Classical Conditioning/Leaming by Association:
•A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus.
•Player often develop a strong liking for the bat by which they made good runs. Many students start liking a subject if they like the teacher.
-Instrumental Conditioning/Leaming Altitude by Reward and Punishment: A basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive outcomes or that permit avoidance of negative outcomes are strengthened.
•It applies to the situations when people learn attitudes which are systematically rewarded by significant others, such as parents, teachers or friends.
-Observational Learning: A basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behaviour or through observing others.
•Children are keen observers and learn a whole lot of things from their parents and other family members.
•They learn many attitudes about other ethnic groups, neighbours and idealize simply by observing the behaviours of adults.
2.Learning through Exposure to Information:
•Many attitudes are learnt in a social context without physical presence of others. Print media, electronic media, biographies of self-actualized people facilitate attitude formations.
3.Learning Attitudes through Group or Cultural Norms:
•Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour. Gradually these norms may become part of our social cognition, in the form of attitudes, e.g., offering money, sweets, fruits and flowers in a place of worship is a normative behaviour in various religions. People imitate such behaviour shown by others as socially approved and develop positive attitude towards it.

3.What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude?
Ans. The following factors provide the context for the learning of attitude through various processes:
(i) Family and School Environment: parents and other family-members play a significant role in attitude formation. Learning of attitudes within the family and school usually takes place by association, through rewards and punishment and through modelling.
(ii)Reference Groups: Attitudes towards political, religious and social groups, occupations, national and other issues are often developed through reference groups. Reference groups indicate to an individual the norms regarding acceptable behaviour and ways of thinking. Various institutions, religion, culture and communities are form of reference groups.
(iii) Personal Experiences: Many attitudes are formed, not in the family environment or through reference groups, but through direct personal experiences which bring about a drastic change in our attitude towards people and our own life.
(iv) Media Related Influences: Technological advances have made audio-visual media and internet as very powerful sources for attitude formation. School textbooks also influence attitude formation. The media can be used to create consumerist attitude. The media can exert both good and bad influences on attitudes.

4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example.
Ans. An individual’s attitude may not always be exhibited through behaviour. Likewise one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic. Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitude and behaviour when:
(i)The attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the attitude system.
(ii)The person is aware of his/her attitudes.
(iii)Person’s behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others.
(iv)Person thinks that the behaviour would have a positive consequences.
Richard La Piere, an American social psychologist, conducted the following study. He asked a Chinese couple to travel across the United States, and stay in different hotels. Only once during these occasions they were refused service by one of the hotels. La Piere sent out questionnaires to managers of hotels and tourist homes in the same areas where the Chinese couple had travelled asking them if they would give accommodation to Chinese guest. A very large percentage said that they would not do so. This response showed a negative attitude towards the Chinese, which was inconsistent with the positive behaviour that was actually shown towards the travelling Chinese couple. Attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one’s behaviour.

5.Highlight the importance of schemas in social cognition.
Ans.•Social schemas (schemata) are mental structure.
•They function as a framework to process social information. These schemas lead to emergence of prototypes.
•Prototypes are concepts which have most of the defining features of a concept, class or family.
•These are best representatives of the population.
•Various stereotypes emerge from these schemas. In other words stereotypes are category-based schemas.

6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype.
Ans. Prejudices are negative attitude.
•These are bias about others.
•Prejudices are baseless and false.
•It refers to biased attitude formed about an individual or a group of people.
•These are usually negative.
•It has three components, i.e., A-B-C-
(a) Affective (Emotional i.e dislike or hatred).
(b)Behavioural (i.e., discrimination).
(c)Cognitive (Believes, i.e., stereotypes).
Stereotypes are cognitive component of prejudice. It is strongly influenced by the processing of incoming social information.
•These are over-generalized beliefs, e.g., girls are talkative.
•Stereotypes are category based schemas.
•These may be positive or negative or neutral.
•Stereotype has no emotional blending.
•From stereotypes, prejudices may emerge very easily.
•Stereotypes are usually formed for the groups.
•Stereotypes are pre conceived notions.

7. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice-versa. Comment.
Ans. Prejudices can exist without being shown in the form of discrimination. Similarly,
discrimination can be shown without prejudice.
•Wherever prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts are very likely to arise between groups within the same society.
•We all witnessed many instances of discrimination, with and without prejudice, based on gender, religion, community, caste, physical handicap, and illnesses such as AIDS.
•Moreover, in many cases, discriminatory behaviour can be curbed by law. But, the cognitive and emotional components of prejudice are more difficult to change.

8. Describe the important factors that influence impression formation.
Ans. Impression formation is a process by which impression about others is converting into more or less induring cognitions or thoughts about them.In short, impression formation is a process through which we draw quick conclusion/ inferences regarding others.
Factors facilitating Impression Formation:
•Nature of the phenomena (familiar or unfamiliar).
•Personality traits of the perceiver.
•Social schemas stored in the mind of perceiver.
•Situational factors.
The process of impression formation consists of the following three sub-processes:
•Selection: We take into account only some bits of information about the target person.
•Organization: the selected information is combined in a systematic way.
•Inference: We draw a conclusion about what kind of person the target is.
Some specific qualities, that influence impression formation, are:
•The information presented first has a stronger effect than the information presented at the end. This is called the primacy effect.
•We have a tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive qualities must also be having other specific positives that are associated with first set. This is known as halo effect, e.g., if we think that a person is ‘tidy’ then we are likely to think that this person must also be hard/working.
•Whatever information comes at the end may have a stronger influence on impression formation. This is known as the recency effect.

9.Explain how the attribution made by an ‘actor’ would be different from that of an ‘observer’.
Ans. Actor observer phenomena refers to the tendency to attribute our own behaviour mainly to situational causes but the behaviour of others mainly to internal (dispositional) cause.
A distinction is found between the attribution that a person makes for actorrole and observer-role.
Person makes attribution for his/her own positive and negative experiences, it is actor role and the attribution made for another person’s positive and negative experience is observer-role.
For example, if we get good marks, we will attribute it to our own ability and hard work (actor-role, internal attribution for a positive experience). If we get bad marks, we will say we were unlucky or test was difficult (actor-role, external attribution for negative experience).
On the other hand, if our classmate gets good marks, we will attribute his/her success to good luck or easy test (observer-role, external attribution for positive experience). If same classmate gets bad marks, we are likely to feel that his/her failure was because of low ability or due to lack of effort (observer-role, internal attribution for a negative experience).
The reason for the difference between the actor and observer roles is that people want to have a nice image of themselves, as compared to others.

10.How does social facilitation take place?
Ans. • It is form of group influence.
•Social facilitation refers to a concept that performance on specific task is influenced by the mere presence of others.
•Norman Triplett observed that individuals show better performance in presence of others, than when they are performing the same task alone.
Better performance in presence of others is because the person experiences arousal, which makes the person react in a more intense manner.
The arousal is because the person feels he or she is being evaluated. Cottrell called this idea evaluation apprehension. The person will be praised if performance is good (reward); is criticised if performance is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid criticism.
As in case of complex task, the person may be afraid of making mistakes. And the fear of criticism or punishment is stronger.
If the others present are also performing same task, this is called a situation of co-action. When task is simple or a familiar one, performance is better under co-action than when the person is alone.
Task performing can be facilitated and improved or inhibited and worsened by the presence of others. If we are working together in a larger group, the less effort each member puts in. This phenomena is called social loafing, based on diffusion of responsibility. Diffusion of responsibility can also be frequently seen in situations where people are expected to help.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 1 INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE

1. How do psychologists characterize and define intelligence?
Ans. Psychological motion of intelligence is quite different from the common sensed motion of intelligence.
Generally people saw intelligence as mental alertness, ready art, quickness in learning and ability to understand relationships.
Oxford dictionary explained intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning understanding and knowing.
Accordingly Alfred Binet also used these attributes and defined intelligence as ability to judge well, understand well and reason well.Later Wechsler gave a comprehensive definition in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaptation to environment. He defined intelligence as “the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment.”
Present day psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg emphasized that “Intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but actively modifies or shapes it.”
Sternberg views intelligence as “ the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.”

2.What extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss.
Ans. (i) Whether intelligence is evolved or it is developed due to the environment, is a question of debate.
(ii)Lot of studies have been done to determine the role of nature and nurture.
(iii)Here we will discuss the controversy with the help of various twin studies, adoption studies and environmental studies.
On the basis of twin studies co-relation results are as follows:
(i)Identical twins reared together correlate 0.90
(ii)Identical twins reported early in childhood and reared in different environments correlate 0.72
(iii)Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60
(iv)Siblings reared together correlate 0.50
(v) Siblings reared apart correlate 0.25
•Adoption Studies before the Age of 6-7 Years
These studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological parents.
These studies provide evidence that intelligence is determined because of nature.
•Adoption Studies after the Age of 6-7 Years
According to these studies as children grew older tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents.
Environmental Studies
Evidence for the influence of environment (Nurture) on the basis of Twin studies.
(i) The intelligence score of twins reared apart as they grew older, tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents.
(ii)On the basis of differences in environment, children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher, socio-economic status exhibit an increase in their intelligence scores.
(iii)Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. Factors such as nutrition, good family background and quality schooling increase growth rate of intelligence.
(iv)There is general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture).
(v)Heredity provides the potentials and sets a range of growth whereas environment facilitates the development of intelligence.

3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
Ans. Gardner’s theory based on information processing approaches functions on three basic principles:
(i)Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences.
(ii)The intelligences are independent from each other.
(iii)Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of problem. Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all individuals do not possess them in equal proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the prominence of one type of intelligence over the others.
Following are the eight types of intelligence:
1.Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others.
2.Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific work.
3.Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension formation of images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers, sculptors and painters have highly developed spatial intelligence.
4.Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone required for singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music etc.
5.Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making etc.
6.Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours of other people.sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious readers have high degree of inter-personal intelligence.
7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one’s self and developing a sense of identity, e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders.
8.Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences etc.

4. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?
Ans. 1. Robert J. Sternberg proposes a theory of intelligence based on information
processing approach in 1985 known as the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
2. According to Sternberg, intelligence is an ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.
3. This theory attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in problem solving.
4. According to him there are three types of intelligences:
(i)Componential intelligence (Analytical): This dimension specifies the cognitive processes that underlie an intelligent behaviour.
This dimension serves three different functions:
(a)Knowledge acquisition components: These are the processes used in learning, encoding, combining and comparing information.
(b)Metacomponents: ‘Meta’ means higher. These are executive processes. They control monitor and evaluate cognitive processing.
(c)Performance components: These components execute strategies prepared by metacomponents to perform a task.For example, While studying students plan the lesson chapterwise, they make
schedules, categories the learning material and do integrate the information to comprehend well.
(ii)Experiential intelligence (Creative): This dimension specifies how experiences effect intelligence and how intelligence effects a person’s experiences.
(а)Experiential intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to make use of one’s past experiences to deal with novel situations creatively and effectively.
(b)This intelligence is mostly high among scientists and creative people.
(c) For example if a person is trapped in a room, he finds out a way of coming out of the room using rope or ladder etc. in a creative way. He had some knowledge of getting out from this situation by watching out a movie few years back.
(iii)Contextual intelligence (Practical): This dimension specifies the ability to deal with environmental demands on daily basis.
(a)It is individual’s ability to make use of his/her potential to deal with day-to-day life.
(b)It may be called street smartness or ‘business sense’.
(c)People high in this ability are successful in life.
•It deals with the ways people handle effectively their environmental demands and adapt to different contexts with available resources

5. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three ‘neurological systems’. Explain with reference to PASS model.
Ans. According to PASS model, theory based on information processing approach, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of the three neurological systems called the functional units of the brain.
These units are responsible for:
•the arousal and attention. • the simultaneous and successive processing.
•the planning.
Arousal and Attention
(i)State of arousal helps in attending to the stimuli.
(ii)Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
(iii)Optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a problem.
(iv)Too much or too little arousal interferes with attention and performance. Example: Arousal helps the individual to focus ones attention on reading, learning and revising the contents of the material to be learnt.
Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
Simultaneous Processing refers to perceiving relations amongst various concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension!
For e.g., in Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM Test) choosing appropriate pattern by comprehending relationship.
Successive Processing refers to recalling information serially so that one recall leads to another recall. For example, learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables.
Planning:
1.After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
2.Planning involves reaching to the target and evaluating their effectiveness. Planning allows us to think of possible courses of action and implementing them.
3.If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or the situation.
4.For example, to take a test scheduled by your teacher, you’d have to set goals, plan a time schedule of studies, get clarifications in case of problems or think of other ways to meet your goals.

6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
Ans. Yes, culture, which is a set of beliefs, customs, attitudes and achievements in art of literature, affects the process of intellectual development.
•According to Sternberg, intelligence is a product of culture.
•Vyotsky believes that while elementary7 mental operations are common, higher mental activities like problem-solving and thinking are culturally produced.
•Technological Intelligence
(i)Promotes an individualistic pattern of action.
(ii)Individuals in technologically educated western societies possess this kind of intelligence.
(iii)They are well versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis, speed, moves abstraction, generalisation, creativity, Minimum moves etc.
•Integral Intelligence
(i)Intelligence in the Indian tradition is integral intelligence.
(ii)It views intelligence from a holistic perspective.
(iii)It gives equal attention to cognitive and non-cognitive processes, as well as their integration.
(iv)‘Buddhi’ is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience, will and desire.
(v)It has effective, motivational as well as cognitive components. .
It includes:
(i)Cognitive competence (discrimination, problem-solving).
(ii)Social competence (respect for elders, concern for others, respecting opinions of others).
(iii)Emotional competence (self regulation, self monitoring). ‘
(iv)Entrepreneurial competence commitment, persistence, patience).

7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the bases of their IQ scores?
Ans.(i)IQ is an index of brightness.
(ii)It is the ratio of mental age to chronological age.
(iii)The concept of IQ was given by William. Stern w7ho gave the formula to calculate IQ i.e.,

•IQ is relatively stable.
•It is a good predictor of potential.
•IQ scores are distributed in a population in such a way that most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution.
•This can be shown in the form of following table.

8.Discuss various types of intelligence tests.
Or
How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?

Ans. Types of Intelligence Tests:
Individual or group tests based on contact: .
Individual Test:
(i)Administered to one individual at a time.
(ii)Requires the administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to his/her feelings, mood and expressions during the testing sessions which provides understanding of other aspects of subjects personality.
(iii)Allows people to answer orally or in written form or manipulate the objects as per the tester’s instructions.
• Example: Stanford Binet intelligence scale, WAIS, WISSC, Alexander Pass along test.
Group Test:
(i)Administered to several individuals at a time simultaneously.
(ii)Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings.
(iii)Seek answers in a Multiple-choice format.
(iv)It is relatively economical and less time consuming.
(v)Example: Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta, Group Test on Intelligence by S. Jalota.
Verbal, Non-verbal and Performance Tests based on Mode of Administration: Verbal Tests:
(i)Requires subject to give verbal responses either orally or in written form.
(ii)Can be administered to literates only. ,
(iii)Example: CIE, Verbal Group Test, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale.
Non-verbal Test:
• Has pictures or illustrations as test items.
•Example: Ravens progressive matrices. In this test the subject examines an incomplete pattern and chooses a figure from the alternatives that will complete the pattern.
•Reduces culture biases.
•Example: SRPM, CIE Non-verbal group test of Intelligence.
Performance Test:
•Requires the subject to manipulate objects to perform the test.
•Written language is not necessary for answering the items.
•Example: Kohs’s Block designs test. Here the subject is asked to arrange the blocks in a specified period to produce a given design, Bhatia’s Battery performance test.
•Can be administered to persons from different cultures and reduce culture biases.
•Example: Draw a Man Test by Pramila Pathak, Kohs Block designs test.
Culture Biased or Culture Fair Tests based on Nature of Items used:
•Psychological tests that show a bias toward the culture in which they are developed are Culture Biased Tests.
•Tests developed-in-America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural ethos. (Middle class white subjects perform well on these tests). The items do not consider favourably to Asians and Africans.
•Culture Fair Tests: One does not discriminate against as individuals belong to different cultures.
•Non-verbal and Performance Tests reduce cultural influences.
To overcome the limitation of Culture biased tests, Culture fair tests were developed, e.g. non-verbal and performance tests are called so because people of any culture could take them. For e.g. Standard progressive Matrices and Bhatia’s Battery Performance Test.

9. Discuss how interplay of Nature and Nurture influences intelligence.
Or
All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain.
Ans. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. They vary in their intellectual ability. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Some possess high IQ range while others have average or below average.
All the scores gradually and symmetrically decline towards both the sides but never touch the X-axis.
(i) The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.
(ii) On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2 percent people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior, their IQ score is more than 130.
(iii) People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence.
(iv) Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’. Mental retardation refers to sub-average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and manifest in four forms i.e., mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation.
The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which are known as gifted i.e., they enjoy exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional creativity.

10.Which of the two lQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and Why?
Ans. (i) IQ is a good predictor of potential.
(ii) EQ is a good predictor of success.
-Researchers had proved that—EQ helps in dealing with students who are stressed and face challenges of the outside world.
-It improves the academic performance.
-It is very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the classroom.
-They are less anti-social and more co-operative.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 5 SELF AND PERSONALITY NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON SELF AND PERSONALITY

1.What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?
Ans. Self is an organized cognitive structure. It can be understood in terms of subject and object or I and Me. It refers to the totality of one’s conscious thoughts, and feelings which pertain to one’s own self. .
Indian Concept of Self
•Self is characterized by the shifting nature of the boundaries.
•The Indian view does not make rigid dichotomies.
•It is based on collectivistic Indian society.
Western Concept of Self
•The boundaries between self and the group are rigid.
•It holds clear dichotomies between self and group.
•It is based on individualistic society of the West.

2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development?
Ans. (i) Learning to delay or defer from gratification of needs is called self-control. It emerges from self-regulation.
(ii)Self-regulation is behavioural component of self.
(iii)It refers to an ability to organize and monitor ones own behaviour. People who can change their behaviour according to the demands of the external environment are high on self-monitoring.
(iv)Self-regulation leads to self-control.
(v)It plays a key role in fulfilment of long-term goals.
(vi)Indian culture provides us effective mechanisms like fasting (vrata or roza) and non-attachment with worldly things to develop self-control.
(vii)It is ones ability to say ‘No’.
Psychological techniques to develop self-control are:
(a)Observation of Own Behaviour: it provides us with necessary information that may be used to change, modify, or strengthen certain concepts of self. ‘
(b)Self-instruction: We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want.
(c)Self-reinforcement: It involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes (like going to see a-movie with friends if we do well in exams).
— Self-control is important for the development of mature personality. This is the reason that all cultures emphasise the self-control. It helps in the fulfilment of long-term goals. Indian cultural tradition provide us with certain effective mechanisms, e.g., fasting in varta or roja and know attachment with worldly things for developing self-control.
— Self-control is also important for effective functioning of social network.

3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?
Ans. The word ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, which means a mask or false face which Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. According to Gordon Allport “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems thqt determine his unique adjustments to his environment.”
One of the major approaches to understanding personality was to develop theories on what it was. There are many broad personality theories, which can be grouped into four categories: –
(i)Dynamic approaches, which emphasize on-going interaction among motives, impulses and psychological processes.
(ii)Type and train approaches, which focus on people’s characteristics, stubbornness, shyness and so forth and how these characteristics are organized into systems.
(iii)Humanistic approaches, which emphasize the self and the importance of the individual’s subjective view of the world.
(iv) Learning and behavioural approaches, which emphasize the way habits are acquired through basic learning process.

4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?
Ans. Trait approach psychologists explain personality on the basis of specific psychological characteristics.
Type approach psychologists believe that personality can be classified into broad categories.
Traits are relatively stable, persistent and characteristic patterns of behaviour which makes the individual different from others.
(i)These are overlapping, i.e., inclusive in nature.
(ii)Traits are specific psychological characteristics, e.g., shy or timid.
Types are cluster of similar traits.
(i)These are broad categories. .
(ii)These do not overlap, i.e., exclusive in nature, e.g., extrovert or introvert.

5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality?
Ans. The Id:
(i) The Id is the original source of personality, present in the newborn infant, from which the ego and super ego later develop.
(ii) It consists of everything that is inherited, including the instinctual drives—sex and
aggression.
(iii) It is closely linked to the biological processes and provides the energy source—the libido for the operation of all three systems.
(iv) It is totally unconscious and works on pleasure principles regardless of any,external potential costs of seeking the gratification of impulses.
The Ego:
(i) The ego develops out of Id because of the necessity for dealing with the real world. The ego’s task is to hold the Id in check until conditions allows for satisfaction of its impulses.
(ii) It operates on reality principles. For example, a hungry man would want to have food at any cost due to id impulses, but it is the ego which delays tl’ i hunger impulse until the appropriate conditions are found.
(iii)The ego is essentially the executive of the personality. It keeps a person working for a living, getting along with people and generally adjusting to the realities of life.
(iv) Ego mediates between the demands of id, the realities of the world and the demands of the super ego.
The Super Ego:
(i)It is related to the values and morals of the society as taught to us by our parents and others. It works according to social norms.
(ii)It is concerned with morality—whether various ways that could satisfy id impulses are right or wrong.
The main functions of the super ego are:
(i) To inhibit the unacceptable impulses of Id such as sex and aggression.
(ii)Freud assumed that Id is energised by two instinctual forces, called life instinct and death instinct. Life instinct is individuals, tendency to construct whereas death instinct is for the destruction. According to Freud, life instinct is more dominant among human beings.
According to Freud, the instinctual life force that energises the Id is called Libido.
It works on the pleasure principle, and seeks immediate gratification. It is source of energy.

6. How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?
Ans. While Karen Horney focuses more on interpersonal relationships during childhood, Alfred gives greater importance to personal goals of an individual.
There are, in my opinion, Horney would attribute the cause of depression to parental relations with children which are characterized by excessive interference or indifference. Deep anxiety would result from the behaviour rewards the child which, if is erratic, indifferent and discouraging feelings of isolation and helplessness will also emerge. Alfred Adler would, on the other hand, attribute depression to the feeling of inadequacy and guilt arising within the individual, due to the inability to achieve his/her personal goals. These goals provide an individual with security and are important in overcoming feelings of inadequacy. If individual is not able to attain the goals and could not overcome inferiority appropriately then it leads to depression.

7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualization?
Ans. Humanistic theories emphasise personal responsibility and innovate tendencies toward personal growth. They focus on the importance of people’s subjective attitudes, feelings and beliefs especially with regard to the self.
•According to humanistic approach, we human beings are most creative, growing, fully functioning and self-actualizing people.
•Fully functioning persons, according to Rogers theory, psychologically healthy persons who live life to the fullest.
•They live in the here and now and trust their own feelings. They are sensitive to the needs of others but they do not allow society’s standards to shape their feelings or actions to an excessive degree.
•Rogers suggests that each individual has a concept of ideal self. If there is discrepancy between real self and ideal self then individual develops maladjustment.
•Rogers proposed two basic assumptions:
(a)Human behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile.
(b)People always choose adaptive and self-actualizing behaviour.
•Rogers believed that many individuals fail to become fully functioning persons because they grow up in an atmosphere of conditional positive regard and develop distorted self-concept# which interferes with personal growth. Such people fail to self-actualise.
•All human beings desire unconditional positive regard, freedom of choice and feeling of fulfilment for attainment of self-actualization.
•Humanistic theories don’t deny the importance of past experience but they generally focus on the present.
Maslow’s Contribution to Humanistic Approach
Maslow’s Self-Actualization
•It is a state which people have reached their own fullest potential.
•He had an optimistic view of man who has potentialities for love, joy and creative work.
•According to him, human beings are free to shape their lives and to self-actualise.

8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods?
Ans. • Observational method is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behaviour.
•A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many respects,
(i)Selection: Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation.
(ii)Recording: While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc.
(iii)After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it.
(iv)Observation is a skill. A good observation is a skill. A good observer knows what he/she is looking for, w’hom he/she wants to observe, when and where the observation needs to be made.
•Observation can be of the following types :
(a) Non-Participant vs. Participant Observation:
1.Non-participant observation
(i)To observe the person or event from a distance.
(ii)The observer may become part of the group being observed.
(iii)In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that he/she is
being observed. For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class. .
(iv) Install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation.
2. Participant observation
(i)In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed.
(ii)the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting him/her as one of the group members.
(iii)the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study.
The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. However, the observation method is labour-intensive, time-consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event.

9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests?
Ans. Structured personality tests are self-report measures that have the following features:
•Questions are direct and structured.
•They are called self-report because the examinee has to respond objectively to the items of the measure and his/her response are accepted as they are.
•They are objective in nature and they deal with the present state of mind.
— Self-report measures use inventories and questionnaires to assess conscious part of personality.
— Goal of the test may be revealed.
— These tests assess only conscious part of personality
•Their results depend on motivation and emotional state of the examinee; they are
non-projective and direct inferences are made. _
Some of the self-report measures are:
1.Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): This test was developed by Eysenck to assess two basic dimensions of personality namely introverted—extroversion and emotionally stable—emotionally unstable (Neuroticism).
2.MMPI: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. This test was developed by Hathaway and Mckinely.
•It has been found very effective in detecting psycho-pathology like hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria etc.
•The test is divided into 10 sub scales. This test helps in clinical diagnosis of various mental disorders like hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, etc.
•It has two sets’MMPI-I and MMPI-II. Now-a-days, MMPI-II is being used.
•It has 567 items in the form of affirmative statements. The subject judges each item ‘statements’ as true or false.
•MMPI is one of the very good tests for clinical purposes (diagnosis).
•Indian version of MMPI is also available named as Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) by Malik and Joshi.
16-PF Questionnaire
•It is developed by Cattell.
•It identifies large set of personality descriptions—subjected to factor analysis to identify basic personality structure.
•Subject responds to situation by choosing from alternatives.
•This test is being used with high school level students in India for career guidance
and counselling. ‘
Problems Faced by self-report Measures
•Social Desirability: It is a tendency on part of the respondent to endorse items in a socially desirable manner.
•Acquiescence: It is a tendency of the subject to agree with items/questions irrespective of contents.
•Testing and understanding personality require great skill and training.
•People become self-aware and conscious, hesitate to share thoughts and feelings and motivation. If they do it, it is done in a socially desirable manner. So, the real personality characteristics are not manifested.

10. State in common features of projective techniques. Describe anyone projective technique.
Or
Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists?
Ans. •Projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists.
•Projective techniques are most indirect method to assess personality.
•Psycho analytic theory proposed that behaviour is also determined by unconscious forces.
•The projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings.
— The stimulus material is relative or fully unstructured and poorly defined.
— The person being assessed is usually not told the purpose and the method of scoring and interpretation before the administration of test. — The person is informed that there are no right or wrong responses.
— Each response is considered to reveal a true and significant aspect of personality.
— The scoring and interpretation in projective assessment are lengthy and subjective.
Projective Techniques
— Developed to assess unconscious motives, feelings and conflicts.
— A less structured or unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project his/her feelings, desires and needs on to that situation,
— Projections are interpreted by experts.
— Cannot be scored objectively, require qualitative analysis for which a rigorous training is needed.
1.The Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach)
•Consists of 10 inkblots—5 black and white, 2 with red ink, 3 in pastel colours.
•Blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form, made by dropping ink on a piece of paper and then folding the paper in half (hence called inkblot test).
•The cards are administered individually in two phases:
—Performance proper: The subjects are shown the cards and are asked to tell what they see in each of them.
—Inquiry: A detailed report of the response is prepared by asking the subject to tell where, how, and on what basis was a particular response made.
•Fine judgment is necessary to place the subject’s responses in a meaningful context. Use and interpretation of this test requires extensive training
2. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Morgan and Murray
•This test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card—each picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations.
• Some cards are used specifically with adult males or females, boys or girls—have been modified for the children and the aged.
•The cards are presented one at a time and the subject is asked to tell a story describing the situation presented in the picture—what led up to the situation, what is happening at the moment, what will happen in the future, what the characters are feeling and thinking?
•Uma Chaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT is also available.
3.Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study)
• This study assesses how people express aggression in the face of a frustrating situation.
•Presents with the help of cartoon-like pictures a series of situations in which one person frustrates another, or calls attention to a frustrating condition.
•The subject is asked to tell what the other (frustrated) person will say or do.
•The analysis of responses is based on the type and direction of aggression—examine whether the focus is on the frustrating object (environment), or on protection of the frustrated person (oneself), or on constructive solution of the problem.
•Pareek has adapted this test for the Indian population
4. Sentence Completion Test
•This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences—the starting part of the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence.
•The type of endings used by the subjects reflect their attitudes, motivation and conflicts.
•The test provides subjects with several opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious motivations.
5. Draw-a-Person Test
•In this test, the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper and then a figure of an opposite sex person.
•Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if he/she was a character in a novel or play.
•Some examples of interpretations are as follows:
— Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly conflict-ridden interpersonal relationships.
— Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests lack of control over impulses.
— Disproportionately large head suggests organic brain disease and pre-occupation with headaches. ..
Limitations
•Interpretation of the responses requires sophisticated skills and specialized training.
•There are problems associated with the reliability of scoring and validity of interpretations.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 3 HUMAN STRENGTHS AND MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON HUMAN STRENGTHS AND MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES

1. Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life.

Answer

Stress is derived from Latin word ‘strictus’ which means tight or narrow. Stress can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. All the challenges, problems, and difficult circumstances put us to stress. It gives energy, increases human arousal and affects performance. High stress too can produce unpleasant effects and cause our performance to deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress may cause one to feel somewhat listless and low on motivation which may lead us to perform slowly and less efficiently. It is important to remember that not all stress is inherently bad or destructive.
Examples from daily life:
Attending parties may be stressful for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home.
If a person gets low marks than his/her expectations, then it may be stressful and a sign of frustration for them.
When someone is forced to choose the job due to family pressure then it may stressful for him afterwards.

2. State the symptoms and sources of stress.

Answer

Symptoms of stress:
Some of us know our pattern of stress response and can gauge the depth of the problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behaviour. These symptoms of stress can  be physical,  emotional  and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved,  might  have  serious implications.

Sources of stress:
A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress. Among the most important of these are major stressful life events, such as death of a loved one or personal injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that affect our lives.

3. Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of an example.

Answer

Selye studied the body when stress is prolonged by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time. He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.

(i) Alarm reaction stage: The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight or flight.
(ii) Resistance stage: If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The para-sympathetic nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through confrontation.
(iii) Exhaustion stage: Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely.

Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress. Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress. How people respond to stress is substantially influenced  by  their perceptions, personalities and biological constitutions

4. Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress.

Answer

To manage stress we often need to reassess the way we think and learn coping strategies. Different ways of coping with stress are:
(i) Task-oriented Strategy: This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome. It also involves deciding priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation. For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I have solved similar problems.
(ii) Emotion-oriented Strategy: This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions. It can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to change things. For example, tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am going to do.
(iii) Avoidance-oriented Strategy: This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation. It also involves conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self-protective thoughts. Examples of this are watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to be with other people.

5. Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning.

Answer

The effect of stress on psychological functioning:
(i) Emotional Effects: Those who suffer from stress are far more likely to experience mood swings, and show erratic behaviour that may alienate them from family and friends. In some cases this can start a vicious circle of decreasing confidence, leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological tension and mood swings.
(ii) Physiological Effects: When the human body is placed under physical or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity. Although, this physical reaction will help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to the body in the long-term effects. Examples of physiological effects are release of epinephrine and nor-epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive system, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate and constriction of blood vessels.
(iii) Cognitive Effects: If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from mental overload. This suffering from high level of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability to make sound decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, in career, or at workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or even loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration, and reduced short-term memory capacity.
(iv) Behavioural Effects: Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing intake of stimulants such as caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquillisers etc. Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of concentration, poor coordination, and dizziness. Some of the typical behavioural effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and reduced work performance.

6. Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges.

Answer

Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands and keep equilibrium in our lives. These life skills can be learned and even improved upon. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care and overcoming unhelpful habits such as perfectionism,
procrastination, etc. are some life skills that will help to meet the challenges of life

7. Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being.

Answer

Various factors have been identified which facilitate the development of positive health. Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health comprises the following constructs: “a healthy body, high quality of personal relationships, a sense of purpose in life self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks and resilience to stress, trauma, and change”. Specifically, factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health are diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive thinking, and social support.

8. How does stress affect the immune system?

Answer

Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the
links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system. How does the immune system work? The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the production of antibodies. There are several kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase immunological activity. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses
and tumours.
Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the defence against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in people who are highly stressed, including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons, and those who are severely depressed. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support. Also, changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune systems are already weakened.

9. Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.

Answer

Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment we are born. We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful, because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval. If several of these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prone to the symptoms of stress.
Unexpected accident or trauma or death of a close family member are examples of life events which are very stressful for the members, relatives of the family and friends.
The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as age at which the event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event and social support are the reasons which is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.

10. Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to your friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives.

Answer

Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress.
I would suggest my friends to adopt problem-focused strategies and emotion focused strategies. Both are coping strategies which can be used to handle stressful situations.
Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments. They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They can act to reduce the threat value of the event. For example “I made a plan of action and followed it”. Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself. For example “I did some things to let it out of my system”. While both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are necessary when facing stressful situations, research suggests that people generally tend to use the former more often than the latter.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

1. Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania.
Ans. Depression and Mania are mood disorders. These are characterized by disturbances in mood or prolonged maladaptive emotional state.
The main types of mood disorders include:
1. Major Depression disorders 2. Mania 3. Biopolar Disorders
Depression may get manifested as a symptom of a disorder or a major disorder in itself. 1. Major depressive disorders, are defined as a period of depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in most activities, together with other symptoms which may include.
Symptoms of Depression:
•Loss of energy, great fatigue.
•Change in body weight,
•Constant sleep problems.
•Tiredness.
•Inability to think clearly.
•Agitation
•Greatly slowed behaviour.
•Thoughts of death and suicide.
•Breakup in relationship.
•Negative self-concept.
•No interest in pleasurable activities.
•Other symptoms include excessive quilt or feelings of worthlessness.
Factors Predisposing towards Depression:
•Genetic make-up
Heredity is an Important risk factor for major depression and bipolar disorders.
•Age is also a risk factor. For instance, women are particularly at risk during young adulthood, while for men the risk is highest in early middle age.
•Gender also plays a great role in this differential risk addition. For example, women in comparison to men are more likely to report a depressive disorder.
•Situational factors like negative life event, lack of social support and not able to live up to expectations etc. are few examples.
2. Mania:
Symptoms of mania.
•Increase in activity level.
•Euphoric.
•Excessively talkative
•Easily distracted.
•Impulsive.
•Less than usual amount of sleep.
•Inflated self esteem.
•Excessive involvement in pleasurable activities.
3.Biopolar Disorders:
Mood disorder, in which both mania and depression are alternately present, is sometimes interrupted by periods of normal mood. This is known as bipolar mood disorder. (Bipolar mood disorders were earlier referred to as manicdepressive disorders.)
•It is cyclic in nature.
•In bipolar disorders, depression alternates with periods of mania, and shows behaviour that is quite opposite to depression.
•In the manic state, the individual turns megalomaniac. Person develops grandiose cognitions and doesn’t consider the negative consequences before acting on these grandiose plans.
•Speech is often rapid, as if she has to say as many words as possible in the time allotted.
•The risk of a suicide attempt is highest in ease of bipolar mood disorders.

2. Describe the characteristics of hyperactive children.
Ans. Achenbach has identified two factors in behavioural disorders:
•Externalizing Factors
•Internalizing Factors
These disorders must manifest before the age of 18.
On the basis of these two factors he classified children’s disorders in two categories:
•The externalizing disorders or undercontrolled emotions: Behaviours that are disruptive and often aggressive and aversive to others in the child’s environment.
•The Internalizing disorders or over-controlled emotions: Those conditions where the child experiences depression, anxiety, and discomfort that may not be evident to others.
1.Externalizing Disorders:
(a)Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
(b) Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD).
(c)Conduct Disorder.
(а)Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):
The two main features of ADHD are:
(i) Inattention (ii) Hyperactivity-impulsivity.
Inattention:
•Children who are inattentive find it difficult to sustain mental effort during work or play.
•They have a hard time keeping their minds on any one thing or in following instructions.
Common complaints are that
•The child does not listen, cannot concentrate, does not follow instructions, is disorganized, easily distracted forgetful, does not finish assignments, and is quick to lose interest in boring activities.
•Children who are impulsive, unable to control their immediate reactions or to think before they act.
•They find it difficult to wait or take turns, have difficulty resisting immediate temptations or delaying gratification.
• Minor mishaps such as knocking things are common whereas more serious accidents and injuries can also occur.
•Hyperactivity also takes many forms. Children with ADHD are in constant notion. Sitting still for some time through a lesson is impossible for them.The child may fidget, squirm, climb and run around the room aimlessly.
•Parents and teachers describe them as ‘driven by a motor’, always on the go, and talk a lot.
•Boys are four times more prone for this diagnosis than girls.
(b)Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD):
• Age-inappropriate amounts of stubbornness,
•Irritable, • Defiant, disobedient, and
•Behave in a hostile manner.
Unlike ADHD, the rates of ODD in boys and girls are not very different.
(c) Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Behaviour refer to age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectation, societal norms, and the personal or property rights of other.
The behaviours typical of conduct disorder include:
•Aggressive actions that cause or threaten harm to people or animals,
•Non-aggressive conduct that causes property damage,
•Major dishonesty,
•Theft and
•Serious rule violations.
Children show many different types of aggressive behaviour, as—1
•Verbal aggression (i.e., name-calling, swearing),
•Physical aggression (i.e., hitting, fighting),
•Hostile aggression (i.e., directed at inflicting injury to others),
•Proactive aggression (i.e., dominating and bullying others without provocation).
2. Internalizing disorders
(a)Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) (b) Depression
(a) Separation anxiety disorder is an internalizing disorder unique to children. Its most prominent symptom is—
•Excessive anxiety or even panic experienced by children at being separated from their parents.
•Have difficulty being in a room by themselves, going to school alone, are fearful of entering new situations, and cling to and shadow their parents’ every move.
•To avoid separation, children with SAD may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums, or make suicidal gestures.
(b)Depression:
•An infant may show sadness by being passive and unresponsive; a preschooler may appear withdrawn and inhibited; a school-age child may be argumentative and combative; and a teenager may express feelings of guilt and hopelessness

3. What do you understand by substance abuse and dependence?
Ans. Disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours resulting from regular and consistent use of the substance involved are called substance abuse disorders.
These disorders include problems associated with using and abusing such drugs as alcohol, cocaine and which alter the way people think, feel and behave.There are two sub-groups of substance-use disorders:
(a)Substance Dependence refers to intense craving for the substance to which the person is addicted.
The person shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and compulsive drug taking. Tolerance means that the person has to use more and more of a substance to get the same effect.
Withdrawal refers to physical symptoms that occur when a person stops or cuts down on the use of a psychoactive substance, i.e., a substance that has the ability to change an individual’s consciousness, mood and thinking processes.
(b)Substance Abuse refers to recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the use of substances.
People, who regularly consume drugs, damage their family and social relationships, perform poorly at work, and create physical hazards.
Substance abuse disorders are a joint result of physiological dependence and psychological dependence. Physiological dependence refers to withdrawal symptoms, i.e., the excessive dependence of the body on drugs. Psychological dependence, on the other hand, refers to the strong craving for a drug because of its pleasurable effects.
The three most common forms of substance abuse:
•Alcohol abuse and dependence • Heroin abuse and dependence
•Cocaine abuse and dependence
Alcohol Abuse and Dependence:
•People, who abuse alcohol, drink large amounts regularly and rely on it to help them face difficult situations.
•Eventually, the drinking interferes with their social behaviour and ability to think and work.
•For many people the pattern of alcohol abuse extends to dependence. That is . their bodies build up a tolerance for alcohol and they need to drink even greater amounts to feel its effects.
•They also experience withdrawal responses when they stop drinking. Alcoholism destroys millions of families and careers.
•Intoxicated drivers are responsible for many road accidents.
•It also has serious effects in the children of persons with this disorder.
•These children have higher rates of psychological problems. Particularly anxiety.
•Depression phobias afid substance-related disorders.
•Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical health. Some of the ill effects of alcohol can be been on health and psychological functioning.
Heroin Abuse and Dependence:
•Heroin intake significantly interferes with social and occupational functioning.
•Most abusers further develop a dependence on heroin, revolving their lives around the substance, building up a tolerance for it, and experiencing a withdrawal reaction when they stop taking it.
•The most direct danger of heroin abuse is an overdose, which slows down the respiratory centres in the brain, almost paralyzing breathing, arid in many cases causing death.
•Regular use of cocaine may lead to a pattern of abuse in which the person may be intoxicated throughout the day and function poorly in social relationships and at work.
•It may also cause problem in short-term memory and attention.
•Dependence may develop, so that cocaine dominates the person’s life, more of the drug is needed to get the desired effects and stopping it results in feeling of depression, fatigue, sleep problems, irritability and anxiety.
•Cocaine poses serious dangerous effects on psychological functioning and physical well-being.

4. Can distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it.
Ans. Term ‘eating disorder’ refers to serious disruption of the eating habit or the appetite manifested as distorted body image. The main types are:
•Anorexia nervosa
•Bulimia nervosa
•Binge eating
In anorexia nervosa, the individual has:
•A distorted body image that leads him/her to see himself/herself as overweight.
•Often refusing to eat, exercising compulsively and developing unusual habits such as refusing to eat in front of others.
•Anorexic may loose large amounts of weight and even starve himself/herself to death.
In bulimia nervosa,
•The individual may eat excessive amounts of food, then purge his/her body of food by using medicines.such as laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting.
•The person often feels disgusted and ashamed when She/he binges and is relieved of tension and negative emotions after purging.
In binge eating, there are frequent episodes of out-of-control eating.

5. “Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms.” How are psychological disorders diagnosed?
Ans. Psychological disorders are diagnosed on the basis of two classifications, i.e., DSM or IV and ICD-X.
•Classification of psychological disorders consists of a list of categories of specific psychological disorders grouped into various classes on the basis of some shared characteristics.
•International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) is classification of behavioural and mental disorders.
•ICD-10 refers to international classification of diseases and its 10th revision is being used.
•It is developed by WHO under one broad heading ‘Mental Disorders’ which is based on symptoms.
(The classification scheme is officially used in India)
•The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has published an official manual of psychological disorders:
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, IVth Edition (DSM-IV).
•It Evaluates the patient on five axes or dimensions rather than just one broad aspect of ‘mental disorder’.
•These dimensions relate to biological, psychological, social and other aspects.
Uses of Classification:
•Classifications are useful because they enable psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers to communicate with each other about the disorders.
•Helps in understanding the causes of psychological disorders and the processes involved in their development.
•It helps in Clinical diagnosis.

6. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions.
Ans. • Sometimes anxiety and tension are associated with obsessions—persistent unwanted thoughts, impulses or ideas or compulsions—seemingly irrational behaviours repeatedly carried out in a fixed, repetitive way.
•People with obsessive-compulsive disorders find their obsessions or compulsions distressing and debilitating but feel unable.to stop them,
•The compulsive actions are usually carried on to alleviate the anxiety caused by obsessions.
A person provoked with anxious thoughts may try to block them out by compulsively counting steps while walking. Another person obsessed with the idea that he is guilty or dirty, may wash his hands every few minutes, sometimes till the bleed
•The symptoms of OCD include a contamination – an obsession of contamination followed by washing or compulsive avoidance of the object. Shame and disgust and the feeling of being easily contaminated are common. Patients usually believe that the contamination is spread from object to object or person to person by the slightest contact.
(a)Pathological Doubt—Obsession of doubt followed by the compulsion of checking. Patients have an obsessional self-doubt and are always feeling guilty about having forgotten something. The checking may involve multiple trips back – to the house to check the stove.
(b)Intrusive Thoughts—repetitive thoughts of a sexual or aggressive act that is reprehensible to the patient. This is usually not followed by compulsions. .
(c)Symmetry—he need for symmetry and precision, which can lead to a compulsion of slowness. Patients can literally take an hour to shave their faces or eat a meal.
(d)Other symptom patterns may include religions obsessions and compulsive hoardings as well as trichotillomania (compulsive half pulling) and nail-biting.

7. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate.
Ans. • Abnormal behaviour is a relative term. It is a matter of degree. It is qualitative
difference. There is no quantitative difference between normal and abnormal.
•The word ‘Abnormal’ literally means away from the normal. It implies deviation from some clearly defined norms or standards.
•Various Views to explain Abnormality:
1.Abnormality as Deviation from Social Norms:
•Each society has social norms, which are stated or unstated rules for proper conduct. Behaviours, thoughts and emotions that break societal norms are called abnormal.
•Behaviour violates social norms or threatens or makes anxious those observing it. Violation of norms makes abnormality a relative concept; various forms of unusual behavioural can be tolerated depending on the prevailing cultural norms. Yet this component is also at once too broad and too narrow.
•A society’s values may change over time. Serious questions have been raised about this definition.
•It is based on the assumption that socially accepted behaviour is not abnormal, and that normality is nothing more than conformity to social norms.
•This approach has major shortcomings and there are serious questions against this approach.
2. Abnormality in terms of Maladaptive Behaviour:
•Recent approach views abnormal behaviour as maladaptive. Many psychologists believe that the best criterion for determining the normality of behaviour is not whether society accepts it but whether it facilitates the well-being of the individual and eventually of the group to which he/she belongs.
•Well-being is not simply maintenance and survival but also includes growth and fulfilment. Maladaptive behaviour refers to—Behaviour that causes problems in life.
— It is inadequate reaction to the stressful situation.
— It ranges from relatively minor but troubling fears to severe distortions of reality.
3. Concept of four D’s: Now-a-days many psychologists believe that if an individual’s behaviour manifests significant deviance, distress, danger and dysfunction in his/ her behavioural pattern, then it should be treated as abnormal.

8. While speaking in public, the patient changes topics frequently. Is this a positive or a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms and sub-types of schizophrenia.
Ans. While speaking in public, the patient changes topics frequently. This is a symptom of derailment. This is one of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia; is the descriptive term to a group of psychotic disorders in which personal, social and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of disturbed thought processes, strong perceptions, unusual emotional states, and motor abnormalities. .
The social and psychological causes of schizophrenia are tremendous, both to patients as well as to their families and society.
Symptoms of schizophrenia:
•Positive Symptoms—comprise excesses and provide reduction of distress in the patient. It comprises excesses of thought, emotion, and behaviour.
•Negative Symptoms—deficits of thought, emotion and behaviour.
• Psychomotor Symptoms.
Positive Symptoms of’Pathological Excesses :
1.Disorganized Thinking and Speech:
•People with schizophrenia may not be able to think logically, and may speak in peculiar ways.
•Formal thought disorders can make communication extremely difficult.
•It refers to problems in the organization of ideas and in speaking so that a listener can understand.
•These include derailment, i.e., rapidly shifting from one topic to another so that the normal structure of thinking becomes illogical (loosening of association, derailed).
•Inventing new words, phrases, i.e., neologism and persistent and inappropriate repetition of the same thoughts.
2.Delusion: It is a false belief that is firmly held on inadequate grounds. It is not affected by emotional argument, and has no basis in reality.
•Delusion of Persecution: belief that they are being plotted against, spied on, slandered, threatened, attacked or deliberately victimized.
•Delusions of Reference: in which they attach special and personal meaning to the actions of others or to objects and event. They believe that they can read others mind.
•Delusions of Grandeur: people believe themselves to be specially empowered with supernatural powers.
•Delusions of Control: they believe that their feelings, thoughts and actions are controlled by others.
3. Hallucinations: Perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli.
•Auditory hallucinations are most common in schizophrenia. Patients hear sounds or voices that speak words, phrases and sentences directly to the patients (second person hallucination) or talk to one another referring to the patient as he/she (third person hallucination).
•Tactile hallucinations (i.e., forms of tingling, burning).
•Somatic hallucinations (i.e., something happening inside the body such as a snake crawling inside one’s stomach)
•Visual hallucinations (i.e., vague perceptions of colour or distinct visions of people or objects).
•Gustatory hallucinations (i.e., food or drink taste strange).
•Olfactory hallucinations (i.e., smell of smoke).
4. Inappropriate Effect, i.e., emotions that are unsuited to the situation.
Negative symptoms are ‘pathological deficits’
•Alogia—poverty of speech, i.e., a reduction in speech and speech content.
•Blunted effect—reduced expression of emotions.
•Flat effect—no expression of emotions.
•Avolition—social withdrawal.
Psychomotor Symptoms:
•Schizophrenics move less spontaneously or make odd gestures. These symptoms may take extreme forms known as catatonia.
•Catatonic stupor: motionless and silent for long stretches of time.
•Catatonic rigidity: maintaining a rigid, upright posture for hours.
•Catatonic posturing: assuming awkward, bizarre positions for long periods.

9. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms.
Ans. • According to Freud, the anxiety and conflicts were believed to be converted into physical symptoms.
•Dissociation can be viewed as severance of the connections between ideas and emotions.
•Dissociation involves amnesia, feelings of unreality, estrangement, depersonalization and sometimes a loss or shift of identity.
•Sudden temporary alterations of consciousness that blot out painful experiences are a defining characteristic of dissociative disorders.
Four conditions are included in this group—Dissociative amnesia, Dissociative
fugue, disseminative identity disorder and depersonalization.
1. Dissociative Amnesia: is characterized by extensive but selective memory loss that has no organic cause (e.g., head injury). Some people cannot remember anything about their past. Others can no longer recall specific events, people, places, or objects, while their memory for other events remains intact.
• This disorder is often associated with an over-whelming stress.
2. Dissociative Fugue:
Symptoms:
•Unexpected travel away from home or workplace.
•The assumption of a new identity.
•Inability to recall the previous identity.
•The fugue usually ends when the person suddenly ‘wakes up’ with no memory of the events that occurred during the fugue.
3. Dissociative identity disorder, often referred to as multiple personality, is the most dramatic of the dissociative disorders.
•It is often associated with traumatic experiences in childhood.
•The person assumes alternate personalities that may or may not be aware of each other.
4. Depersonalization involves a dreamlike state in which the person has a sense of being separated both from self and from reality.
•In depersonalization, there is a change of self-perception.
•The person’s sense of reality is temporarily lost or changed.
•The patient experiences change in his body parts.

10. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia be a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed.
Ans. An intense, persistent irrational fear of something that produces conscious avoidance of the feared subject, activity or situation is called a phobia.
•Phobias can vary in degree and how much they interfere with healthy adaptation to the environment. Some otherwise normal and well-adjusted persons also have phobias.
Phobias are mainly of three types :
1. Specific phobias are those directed towards specific objects and situations and can be varied, e.g., acrophobia (fear of heights), pyrophobia (fear of fire), and hydrophobia (fear of water).
2. Social phobia is a fear of social situations, and people with this phobia may avoid a wide range of situations in which they fear they will be exposed to, scrutinized and possibly humiliated by other people.
3.Agoraphobia: is the term used when people developed a fear of entering unfamiliar situations.
Social learning theories work on the principle that our experience be it positive or negative such as phobia of lizards/cockroaches are the result of learning process which start early in life. Small children can play with snakes; they are not aware of the danger involved. For them it is just another play object, as they grow up the fear of these things are instilled by their parents and society which is reinforced and accounts for reactions like phobia.
A psychoanalytical account for the same could involve attribution to some unconscious > or/and repressed experiences. For example, suppose in your childhood you watched a group of roudy boys brutally torturing a cockroach/snake, which eventually died, although you going about the incidence after some days, but it might remain in back of your mind forever, which might explain your phobia to cockroaches which might remind you of the incidence and disturbs you emotionally.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 5 THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES AND COUNSELLING NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 PSYCHOLOGY which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES AND COUNSELLING

1. Describe the nature and scope of psychotherapy. Highlight the importance of therapeutic relationship in psychotherapy.

Answer

Nature and scope of psychotherapy: Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the one seeking treatment or the client and the one who treats or the therapist.
The purpose of the relationship is to help the client to solve the psychological problems being faced by her or him. The relationship is conducive for building the trust of the client so that problems may be freely discussed. Psychotherapies aim at changing the maladaptive behaviours, decreasing the sense of personal distress, and helping the client to adapt better to her/his environment.  Inadequate  marital, occupational and social adjustment also requires that major changes be made in an individual’s personal environment.All psychotherapies aim at a few or all of the following goals :
(i) Reinforcing client’s resolve for betterment.
(ii) Lessening emotional pressure.
(iii) Unfolding the potential for positive growth.
(iv) Modifying habits.
(v) Changing thinking patterns.
(vi) Increasing self-awareness.
(vii) Improving interpersonal relations and communication.
(viii)Facilitating decision-making.
(ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in life.
(x) Relating to one’s social environment in a more creative and self-aware manner.

The special relationship between the client and the therapist is known as the therapeutic relationship or alliance. There are two major components of a therapeutic alliance
The first component is the contractual nature of the relationship in which two willing individuals, the client and the therapist, enter into a partnership which aims at helping the client overcome her/his problems.
The second component of therapeutic alliance is the limited duration of the therapy. This alliance lasts until the client becomes able to deal with her/his problems and take control of her/his life.
This relationship has several unique properties. It is a trusting and confiding relationship. The high level of trust enables the client to unburden herself/himself to the therapist and confide her/his psychological and personal problems to the latter. The therapist encourages this by being accepting,
empathic, genuine and warm to the client. The therapist conveys by her/his words and behaviours that s/he is not judging the client and will continue to show the same positive feelings towards the client even if the client is rude or confides all the wrong things that s/he may have done or thought about
The therapeutic alliance also requires that the therapist must keep strict confidentiality of the experiences, events, feelings or thoughts disclosed by the client. The therapist must not exploit the trust and the confidence of the client in anyway.

2. What are the different types of psychotherapy? On what basis are they classified?

Answer

Different types of psychotherapy are:
(i) Psychodynamic therapy
(ii) Behaviour therapy
(iii) Humanistic-existential therapy
(iv) Biomedical therapy
Also, there are are many alternative therapies such as yoga, meditation, acupuncture, herbal remedies etc.
Basis of classification of psychotherapy:
(i) On the cause which has led to the problem: Psychodynamic therapy is of the view that intrapsychic conflicts, i.e. the conflicts that are present within the psyche of the person, are the source of psychological problems.
(ii)  On how did the cause come into existence: The psychodynamic therapy, unfulfilled desires of childhood and unresolved childhood fears lead to intrapsychic conflicts
(iii)  What is the chief method of treatment?: Psychodynamic therapy uses the methods of free association and reporting of dreams to elicit the thoughts and feelings of the client.
(iv) What is the nature of the therapeutic relationship between the client and the therapist?: Psychodynamic therapy assumes that the therapist understands the client’s intrapsychic conflicts better than the client and hence it is the therapist who interprets the thoughts and feelings of the client to her/him so that s/he gains an understanding of the same.
(v) What is the chief benefit to the client?: Psychodynamic therapy values emotional insight as the important benefit that the client derives from the treatment. Emotional insight is present when the client understands her/his conflicts intellectually; is able to accept the same emotionally; and is able to change her/his emotions towards the conflicts.
(vi) On the duration of treatment: The duration of classical psycho- analysis may continue for several years. However, several recent versions of psychodynamic therapies are completed in 10–15 sessions.

3. A therapist asks the client to reveal all her/his thoughts including early childhood experiences. Describe the technique and type of therapy being used.

Answer

In this case psychodynamic therapy is used in the treatment of the client. Since the psychoanalytic approach views intrapsychic conflicts to be the cause of psychological disorder. The first step in the treatment is to elicit this intrapsychic conflict.
Psychoanalysis has invented free association and dream interpretation as two important methods for eliciting the intrapsychic conflicts. The free association method is the main method for understanding the client’s problems. Once a therapeutic relationship is established, and the client feels comfortable, the therapist makes her/him lie down on the couch, close her/his eyes and asks her/him to speak whatever comes to mind without censoring it in anyway. The client is encouraged to freely associate one thought with another, and this method is called the method of free association. The censoring superego and the watchful ego are kept in abeyance as the client speaks whatever comes to mind in an atmosphere that is relaxed and trusting. As the therapist does not interrupt, the free flow of ideas, desires and conflicts of the unconscious, which had been suppressed by the ego, emerge into the conscious mind. This free uncensored verbal narrative of the client is a window into the client’s unconscious to which the therapist gains access. Along with this technique, the client is asked to write down her/his dreams upon waking up. Psychoanalysts look upon dreams as symbols of the unfulfilled desires present in the unconscious. The images of the dreams are symbols which signify intrapsychic forces. Dreams use symbols because they are indirect expressions and hence would not alert the ego. If the unfulfilled desires are expressed directly, the ever-vigilant egowould suppress them and that would lead to anxiety. These symbols are interpreted according to an accepted convention of translation as the indicators of unfulfilled desires and conflicts.

4. Discuss the various techniques used in behaviour therapy.

Answer

Various techniques used in behaviour therapy:
A range of techniques is available for changing behaviour. The principles of these techniques are to reduce the arousal level of the client, alter behaviour through classical  conditioning  or  operant
conditioning with different contingencies of reinforcements, as well as to use vicarious learning procedures, if necessary.
Negative reinforcement and aversive conditioning are the two major techniques of behaviour modification.
(i) Negative reinforcement refers to following an undesired response with an outcome that painful or not liked. For example, one learns to put on woollen clothes, burn firewood or use electric heaters to avoid the unpleasant cold weather. One learns to move away from dangerous stimuli because they provide negative reinforcement.
(ii) Aversive conditioning refers to repeated association of undesired response with an aversive consequence. For example, an alcoholic is given a mild electric shock and asked to smell the alcohol. With repeated pairings the smell of alcohol is aversive as the pain of the shock is associated with it and the person will give up alcohol.
(iii) Positive reinforcement is given to increase the deficit if an adaptive behaviour occurs rarely. For example, if a child does not do homework regularly, positive reinforcement may be used by the child’s mother by preparing the child’s favourite dish whenever s/he does homework at the appointed time. The positive reinforcement of food will increase the behaviour of doing homework at the appointed time.
(iv) Token economy in which persons with behavioural problems can be given a token as a reward every time a wanted behaviour occurs. The tokens are collected and exchanged for a reward such as an outing for the patient or a treat for the child.
(v) Unwanted behaviour can be reduced and wanted behaviour can be increased simultaneously through differential reinforcement. Positive reinforcement for the wanted behaviour and negativehttps://e939a63e244a79ff8e9b8146a515597b.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-38/html/container.htmlreinforcement for the unwanted behaviour attempted together may be one such method. The other method is to positively reinforce the wanted behaviour and ignore the unwanted behaviour. The latter method is less painful and equally effective. For example, let us consider the case of a girl who sulks and cries when she is not taken to the cinema when she asks. The parent is instructed to take her to the cinema if she does not cry and sulk but not to take her if she does. Further, the parent is instructed to ignore the girl when she cries and sulks. The wanted behaviour of politely asking to be taken to the cinema increases and the unwanted behaviour of crying and sulking decreases.

5. Explain with the help of an example how cognitive distortions take place.

Answer

Cognitive distortions are ways of thinking which are general in nature but which distort the reality in a negative manner. These patterns of thought are called dysfunctional cognitive structures. They lead to errors of cognition about the social reality.
Aaron Beck’s theory of psychological distress states that childhood experiences provided by the family and society develop core schemas or systems, which include beliefs and action patterns in the individual. Thus, a client, who was neglected by the parents as a child, develops the core schema of “I am not wanted”. During the course of life, a critical incident occurs in her/his life. S/he is publicly ridiculed by the teacher in school. This critical incident triggers the core schema of “I am not wanted” leading to the development of negative automatic thoughts. Negative thoughts are persistent irrational thoughts such as “nobody loves me”, “I am ugly”, “I am stupid”, “I will not succeed”, etc. Such negative automatic thoughts are characterised by cognitive distortions. Repeated occurrence of these thoughts leads to the development of feelings of anxiety and depression. The therapist uses questioning, which is gentle, non-threatening disputation of the client’s beliefs and thoughts. Examples of such question would be, “Why should everyone love you?”, “What does it mean to you to succeed?” etc.

6. Which therapy encourages the client to seek personal growth and actualise their potential? Write about the therapies which are based on this principle.

Answer

Humanistic-existential therapy encourages the client to seek personal growth and actualise their potential. It states that psychological distress arises from feelings of loneliness, alienation, and an inability to find meaning and genuine fulfilment in life.
The therapies which are based on this principle are:
(i) Existential therapy: There is a spiritual unconscious, which is the storehouse of love, aesthetic awareness, and values of life. Neurotic anxieties arise when the problems of life are attached to the physical, psychological or spiritual aspects of one’s existence. Frankl emphasised the role of spiritual anxieties in leading to meaninglessness and hence it may be called an existential anxiety, i.e. neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin.
(ii) Client-centred therapy: Client-centred therapy was given by Carl Rogers. He combined scientific rigour with the individualised practice of client-centred psychotherapy. Rogers brought into psychotherapy the concept of self, with freedom and choice as the core of one’s being. The therapy provides a warm relationship in which the client can reconnect with her/his disintegrated feelings. The therapist shows empathy, i.e. understanding the client’s experience as if it were her/his own, is warm and has unconditional positive regard, i.e. total acceptance of the client as s/he is. Empathy sets up an emotional resonance between the therapist and the client.
(iii) Gestalt therapy: The German word gestalt means ‘whole’. This therapy was given by Freiderick (Fritz) Perls together with his wife Laura Perls. The goal of gestalt therapy is to increase an individual’s self-awareness and self- acceptance. The client is taught to recognise the bodily processes and the emotions that are being blocked out from awareness. The therapist does this by encouraging the client to act out fantasies about feelings and conflicts. This therapy can also be used in group settings.

7. What are the factors that contribute to healing in psychotherapy? Enumerate some of the alternative therapies.

Answer

Factors Contributing to Healing in Psychotherapy are:
(i)  A major factor in the healing is the techniques adopted by the therapist and the implementation of the same with the patient/client. If the behavioural system and the CBT school are adopted to heal an anxious client, the relaxation procedures and the cognitive  restructuring  largely contribute to the healing.
(ii)  The therapeutic alliance, which is formed between the therapist and the patient/client, has healing properties, because of the regular availability of the therapist, and the warmth and empathy provided by the therapist.
(iii) At the outset of therapy while the patient/client is being interviewed in the initial sessions to understand the nature of the problem, s/he unburdens the emotional problems being faced. This process of emotional unburdening is known as catharsis, and it has healing properties.
(iv) There are several non-specific factors associated with psychotherapy. Some of these factors are attributed to the patient/client and some to the therapist. These factors are called non-specific because they occur across different systems of psychotherapy and across different clients/patients and different therapists. Non-specific factors attributable to the client/patient are motivation for change, expectation of improvement due to the treatment, etc. These are called patient variables. Non-specific factors attributable to the therapist are positive nature, absence of unresolved emotional conflicts, presence of good mental health, etc. These are called therapist variables.
Some of the alternative therapies are Yoga, meditations, acupuncture, herbal remedies etc.

8. What are the techniques used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill?

Answer

The treatment of psychological disorders has two components, i.e. reduction of symptoms, and improving the level of functioning or quality of life. In the case of milder disorders such as generalised anxiety, reactive depression or phobia, reduction of symptoms is associated with an improvement in the quality of life. However, in the case of severe mental disorders such as schizophrenia, reduction of symptoms may not be associated with an improvement in the quality of life. Many patients suffer from negative symptoms such as disinterest and lack of motivation to do work or to interact with people.
The aim of rehabilitation is to empower the patient to become a productive member of society to the extent possible. In rehabilitation, the patients are given occupational therapy, social skills training, and vocational therapy. In occupational therapy, the patients are taught skills such as candle making, paper bag making and weaving to help them to form a work discipline. Social skills training helps the patients to develop interpersonal skills through role play, imitation and instruction. The objective is to teach the patient to function in a social group. Cognitive retraining is given to improve the basic cognitive functions of attention, memory and executive functions. After the patient improves sufficiently, vocational training is given wherein the patient is helped to gain skills necessary to undertake productive employment.

9. How would a social learning theorist account for a phobic fear of lizards/cockroaches? How would a psychoanalyst account for the same phobia?

Answer

Systematic desensitisation is a technique introduced by Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational fears. The client is interviewed to elicit fear-provoking situations and together with the client, the therapist prepares a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking stimuli with the least anxiety-provoking stimuli at the bottom of the hierarchy. The therapist relaxes the client and asks the client to think about the least anxiety-provoking situation. The client is asked to stop thinking of the fearful situation if the
slightest tension is felt. Over sessions, the client is able to imagine more severe fear-provoking situations while maintaining the relaxation. The client gets systematically desensitised to the fear.

10. Should Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) be used in the treatment of mental disorders?

Answer

Yes, Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) can be used in the treatment of mental disorders.
Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) is another form of biomedical therapy. Mild electric shock is given via electrodes to the brain of the patient to induce convulsions. The shock is given by the psychiatrist only when it is necessary for the improvement of the patient. ECT is not a routine treatment and is given only when drugs are not effective in controlling the symptoms of the patient.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 6 GLOBALISATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART B which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON GLOBALISATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Question 1.
Why is the number of cellphones continually increasing in India?
Answer:
Cellphones in India were started in 1995. At that time, mobile service was quite costly and it was not possible for everyone to buy this service. But gradually, this service became cheap. Later on, new mobile service providers came into the market and as a result, the competition started between them. The Telecom department has made a regulatory authority called TRAI which has kept control over these companies. First of all, incoming calls became free and later on, outgoing calls became quite cheap. Now the customer is required to pay only 1 paisa per second on outgoing calls. The monthly rental has reduced a lot. Mobile companies are giving new interesting schemes so that the customers are satisfied. That is why now everyone has a mobile. Even rickshaw puller have mobiles. This is the reason because of which cellphones are continuously increasing in India.

Question 2.
Differentiate between Fordism and Post-Fordism.
Answer:
Fordism-It is a system of production, made popular by the American industrialist in the early part of the 20th century. He popularized the assembly line method of mass production of cars. This age also led to the payment of better wages to workers and social welfare policies were being executed by both the state and industrialists.

Post-Fordism-It refers to the method of flexible production adopted by multinational companies who either off-shore their production units or outsource the whole process of production and distribution it to the third world countries because of availability of cheap labour. This period is also known as the growth of the financial sector and the growth of the culture.

Question 3.
Discuss the changes that have emerged in Indian industries after globalization and liberalization. (C.B.S.E. 2015)
Answer:
Globalization and liberalization have brought many changes in Indian industries such as:

1. Private companies especially foreign firms are encouraged to invest in sectors earlier reserved for government.
2. Now there is no need for licenses to open industries.
3. Government is selling out public sectors or government companies.
4. Now Indian companies are becoming multinational companies and are selling their products all over the world.

Question 4.
“Globalisation affects different people differently.” Explain.
Answer:
Globalisation affects different people differently:

1. Products from outside countries flooded the markets which affected the people.
2. Industries, farmers, small manufacturers, traders etc. face tough competition from foreign agencies/countries.
3. The gap between rich and poor increasing.
4. Impact on fishermen, weavers, traditional craftsmen etc.
5. Cheaper foreign products replace the indigenous product e.g. gum from Sudan replaces gum from Gujarat etc.
6. Entertainment explosion replaced traditional entertainers and techniques

Question 5.
What is Globalisation? Explain in brief.
Answer:
The process of Globalisation is a wide economic process which has spread in all the societies and countries. Different countries have free trade and economic relations in this process. Every country is inter-dependent on other countries to fulfil their basic needs. It is because of this mutual dependence, mutual relations developed between different countries and one idea come into being to increase relations of free trade in each other’s country. This idea of increasing economic relations and free trade is given the name of Globalisation. The concept of Globalisation is the concept of liberalisation in which different countries are opening their doors for other countries to have duty free trade relations among them.

This concept of Globalisation is not very old. It is 10-15 years old which has taken the whole world in its fold. That’s why the world is shrinking these days. We can get foreign-made goods while living in our small town or city. We can look at any part of the country. For example, many foreign cars like Mercedes, General Motors, Rolls Royce, Ferrari, Honda, Mitsubishi, Hyundai, Skoda, Toyota, etc. came to India, which were not available in the decade of 1980s.

It is happening because of Globalisation and liberalisation because of which market of our country has been opened up for foreign companies. In this way, a lot of foreign-made goods and Indian goods are present in our country. It is due to Globalisation that different countries are opening their doors for foreign companies and are encouraging free trade. These days, the world is shrinking and now it is just like a small village or town. Government is increasing Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in every sector. This is called Globalisation.

Question 6.
What are the basic principles of Globalisation?
Answer:
1. World Trade: The first and necessary condition of Globalisation is world trade. It is the main base of business of the world. It unites the people of different sectors living in different countries and gives them business. For example, India has a surplus of tea. That’s why different countries of the world are importing tea from India. In the same way, almost all the countries of the world depend upon Arabian countries for crude oil. In this way, with the exchange of goods and because of trade, they are coming closer to each other. People of India depend upon Arabian people and they depend upon us. That’s why world trade and Globalisation has increased.

2. Economic Globalisation: Globalisation has established a new economy in the world. Now the economy of one country depends upon the economy of another country. That’s why the concept of world economy came into being. Different countries unite with each other because of the economy and the exchange of cultural traits starts to take place between them. Investment, exchange of division of labour, specialisation, production, consumption, etc. have an important role in this trade. Economic Globalisation has encouraged capitalism. Now people are thinking about the international economy and structure.

3. Globalisation of Market: Globalisation has increased the market to a great extent. Now Globalisation of the market is not being done only on the basis of production but also on the basis of consumption. Now companies are producing things while keeping in mind the market of other countries or the international market. Even some countries depend on others for consumption. In this way, production and consumption depend upon the foreign market. With this, the business with other country increases and foreign exchange enters the country. In this, the way the market depends upon foreign countries. We can find a number of foreign goods in our market. Even eatable things are available in a can In this way, the market is has expanded with globalisation.

4. Division of Labour: Globalisation has encouraged the division of labour. Now people are trying to be placed in foreign countries. For example, people are doing a number of computer courses so that they can earn money in foreign countries. We see many types of advertisements in newspapers that specialists in different countries are required. Division of labour is encouraged because specialists are in great demand in different countries. It is the feature of globalisation that it has encouraged the division of labour.

5. Migration of Labourers to Another country: Another feature of globalisation is the migration of workers from one country to another country in search of work. Generally, people, specialists in different sectors from South Asian countries are going to western countries for work because they think that they can earn more in western countries. Workers from different countries are working in different countries and are earning money. In this way, because of globalisation people from different countries are able to migrate to other countries.

6. World Economy: Another feature of globalisation is the encouragement of world economy. Now the economy of one country is not restricted only to that country because its economy is affected by the economies of other countries. With the increase in business, economies depend upon each other. In this way, because of interdependence, the world economy and world trade have increased.

Question 7.
What was the impact of Globalisation on the Indian Economy?
Answer:
1. Increase of Indian Share in world export: With the process of globalisation, the Indian share in world export has increased. Indian goods and services in India for the decade 1990-2000 has increased by 125%. In 1990, the Indian share in the world’s export of goods and services was 0.55% which increased up to 0.75% in 1999.

2. Foreign investment in India: Foreign direct investment is an important feature of globalisation because foreign investment increases the capacity of production of any economy. Foreign investment in India is continuously increasing. From 1995-96 up to 2000-01, it has increased by 53% and during this time, 500 crores annually have been invested in India.

3. Foreign Exchange Reserves: Foreign exchange is necessary for import. In June 1991, foreign exchange reserves in India was 1 Billion Dollars which was enough to fulfil the needs of the country for only two weeks. After this, India adopted new economic policies, Globalisation and liberalisation were encouraged because of which foreign exchange reserve increased very quickly. Now our foreign exchange reserve in near to 350 Billion Dollars.

4. Growth of Gross Domestic Product: Because of globalisation, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country has increased. In 1980, it was 5.63% which increased to 5.80% in 1990. At present, it is around 7%.

5. Increase in unemployment: Because of globalisation, unemployment in India has increased. During the decade of 1990-2000, the economic problem came in Mexico, South Korea, Thailand, Singapur, Indonesia, Malaysia and it come because of globalisation. That’s why millions of people lost their jobs and they had to live below the poverty line. At the start of 1990s, the rate of unemployment was 6% which increased up to 7% in 2000.

6. Impact on Agriculture: The share of agriculture and its related activities in the Gross Domestic Product of the country is 29%. But it is 2% in the U.S.A., 55% in Japan and France. If we look at the labour force then India’s 69% labour force is related to agricultural functions but the labour force in the agricultural sector in the U.S.A. and the U.K. is only 2.6%. In the near future, it is necessary for India to open its market for world companies in the agricultural sector which is in agreement with W.T.O. This time will be challenging for India.

7. Educational and technical development: Globalisation and Liberalisation have put a great effect on the education and technology sector which has seen a revolution. The world has shrunk due to the means of transport and communication. Internet and computer have brought a revolution in this sector.

Question 8.
What are the impacts of globalisation on our local culture?
Answer:
Local culture is that culture which is restricted only to one country, society or geographical area. Yet many cultural groups exist in one country and they live with each other peacefully like in India. It has been said that India is a museum of many races, meaning many cultures live here. Unity and diversity can be seen here. So the traditional culture of a country or society is its local culture. It can also be called as the sub-culture.

Globalisation affects all those traditional cultures of societies or countries which come in contact with modern culture due to commercial relations. Because modern or western culture is developed in developed countries, that’s why English is the language of this culture. Globalisation exerts its impact on local culture and these impacts are given below:

Adopting Some Aspects of External Culture:
It has been said that wherever globalised culture has reached, the culture of that country has adopted some features of western culture according to their needs. For example, the general usage of the English language has increased in our country. Our ways of living, eating habits has also changed due to western culture. Even rural areas came under the impact of globalisation.

But one thing should be kept in mind, that although people have adopted the Western culture they still have maintained their own culture, customs, traditional ways of living, etc. So we can say that a globalised culture and local culture both are maintained side by side. We can give four steps to this:
1.People of the local culture are associated with their people on a community basis and they have emotional relations with the people of their regional community. That’s why people of local culture hardly adopt each and everything of external culture.

2. The main feature of local culture is that it is flexible and permanent. Local people are generally deeply associated with their own values, beliefs, traditions, languages, etc. That’s why people of the local culture are unable to adopt the external culture.

3. Humans are the result of different sub-cultures. That’s why a person is unable to mix himself with the globalised culture because people believe that they might become a slave of globalised culture. That’s why complete uniformity with the globalised culture cannot be established.

4. Many people give respect to cultural diversity for themselves. They like new ideas, new ways of living, etc. because they want some change in life and change is the law of nature. That’s why people of the local culture are unable to leave their old culture.

Question 9.
How communication system has been affected by globalisation?
Answer:
Revolutionary changes come in global communication due to advances in technology and the world’s telecommunication infrastructure. In house and offices, we have multiple links to the outside world which include telephones, mobiles, fax machines, digital and cable T.V., internet and e-mail. In the world, there are a number of places which were unknown to us before the advent of communication systems. This is indicative of a digital divide. Despite this digital divide, these forms of technology do facilitate the compression of time documents to each other with the help of satellite technology.

These days, mobile phones are a part integral of the middle-class youth of urban areas as cellular telephony has grown enormously. There has been tremendous growth in the usage of mobile phones and a marked change in how its use is seen.

Question 10.
What type of change has emerged in the political scenario due to globalisation?
Answer:
U.S.S.R. disintegrated in 1990 which was one of the largest change in itself. This event hastened the process of globalisation. It gave a specific economic and political approach to economic policies which encourage globalisation. These changes are also known as neo-liberalisation economic measures. Some concrete steps were taken in

India under the policy of liberalisation. Broadly speaking, these policies reflect a political vision of free enterprise which believes that a free reign to market forces will be both fair and efficient. That’s why it criticises both state subsidies and state regulations. In this sense, the existing process of globalisation doesn’t have a political vision as much as economic vision. However, the possibilities of different globalisation do exist. We thus have the concept of inclusive globalisation which includes all sections of the society.

One of the other major political development which accompanies globalisation is the growth of international and regional mechanisms for political collaboration. The European Union (EU), The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and South Asian Federation of Trade Association (SAFTA) are some of the examples which showed the increasing role of regional associations.

Another political dimension which came in front due to globalisation is the rise of International Governmental Organisations (IGO’s) and International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGO’s). An inter-governmental organisation is a body which is founded by participating member governments and is given the responsibility of regulating a specific domain of activity whose scope is transnational. W.T.O. is one of its examples which rules and governs the trade practices across the globe.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 7 MASS MEDIA AND COMMUNICATIONS NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART B which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON MASS MEDIA AND COMMUNICATIONS

Question 1.
What are the functions of mass media?
Answer:

1. Media provides all the information to the people about events which occur in the world.
2. Information related to administration reaches the people through media.
3. Media provides all the information of functions done by the Parliament and legislative assemblies.
4. Television spreads ways of living, eating habits and ways of behaviour of people of different cultures.
5. Media also teaches the people about their rights and duties.

Question 2.
What are the wrong impacts of mass media over the general masses?
Answer:

1. Companies are using vulgar scenes of females through means of mass communication to sell their products.
2. Sometimes, mass communication doesn’t show the actual picture of any event to the people.
3. Means of mass communication takes the young people in a world of dreams and takes them away from reality.

Question 3.
What is the contribution of means of mass media in the field of education?
Answer:
There is a great contribution to mass communication in the field of education. U.G.C. always runs its programmes on Delhi Doordarshan through which children and young ones are given an education. Except this, educational programmes for children are always being produced. U.G.C. always arranges programmes of higher education so that young people could be given information.

All these programmes are being telecast on Doordarshan. Except for Doordarshan, many other educational channels are running their programmes like the Discovery Channel, National Geographic Channel, History Channel, Animal Planet channel, etc. The History channel always telecasts programmes related to the history of different parts of the world and these are very useful for children. Newspapers and magazines are helpful in increasing the knowledge of children. In this way, there is a great contribution to the means of mass communication in the field of education.

Question 4.
What strategies have been used to make the Indian language newspapers popular?
Answer:
Strategies for making Indian language newspapers popular – Indian language newspapers have adopted advanced use of printing technologies.

1. Provide supplements, pull- out and literary booklets
2. Consumer contact programmes e.g. by Dainik Bhaskar group
3. Door to door surveys and research
4. Glossy magazine supplements
5. National dailies publish regional editions in regional language

Question 5.
Discuss the means of Electronic Mass Media.
Answer:
The meaning of Electronic is anything which runs with electricity. The meaning of electronic mass media are those means of mass media which run with the help of electricity; There are two most important means of electronic mass media and these are Radio and television. Their brief description is given below:-
1. Radio (AIR): First radio programme was transmitted in India in 1924 by ‘Radio Club of Bomba/. In 1927, private transmitters also started their broadcast. The government took all these private transmitters in its hands and started to run them under the name of ‘Indian Broadcasting Service’ in 1936. It was given the name of All India Radio in 1957. Right now AIR broadcasts its programmes in 24 Indian languages.

The main objective of AIR is to entertain the people. Right now 208 Radio stations are working in India. Many FM stations also have been established in India in recent years. 98% of Indian population listens to the programmes broadcasted by AIR. In 1966, the Green Revolution took place in India. That’s why AIR started to broadcast rural programmes through its various stations. It also broadcast women and children-oriented programmes. It has been expected from Radio to bring changes in rural areas and the process of change is underway.

2. Doordarshan (Television): First television in India was started in ‘Aakashvani Bhavan’ in 1959 as an experiment. Service of Doordarshan, which is being provided by the Indian government, is one of the largest services of mass media in the world. In its earlier phase, it was being broadcasted thrice a week. But later on, it started to broadcast its programmes daily. The first satellite experiment in India was carried out in 1975-76. It was the first step to give social education with the help of technology.

The second television centre, in the country, opened in 1972. Many other centres started in 1973 in the country. In 1976, Doordarshan was separated from AIR and made as a new department. Colour television started in 1982 during the Asian Games at Delhi. D.D. Metro was combined with Delhi Doordarshan in 1984. Initially, D.D. Metro was broadcasting in Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras but later on, the telecast spread to the whole country. D.D. sports, a sports channel was started in 1999 to telecast different sporting events on television.

Now television is available to more than 10 crore people in the country. 87% population is within the reach of it and television covers 78% area of the country. Doordarshan has production studios in 49 cities of the country. Doordarshan telecast many educational, and entertainment programmes. Doordarshan rims many educational programmes with the help of U.G.C. and IGNOU.

Except these, hundreds of private channels broadcast their programmes to entertain the masses. Sony, Zee, Starplus, Max, ESPN, Star Sports, Ten Sports and many news channels telecast their programmes round the clock and are entertaining the people.

So we can say that electronic mass media has been improved to a great deal in the country. Not only Doordarshan but hundreds of private channels are there with which people are being entertained to a great deal.

Question 6.
Explain different agencies of printed mass media.
Answer:
Printed mass media is one of the important means of mass media. Printed mass media is also known as the Press. Different newspapers and magazines come under it. According to the Annual report of Press Registrar of2001, 51960 newspapers and magazines are published in the country. Out of these, 5638 are daily, 348 are published twice or thrice a week, 1858 are weekly, 6881 are bi-monthly, 14634 are monthly, 3634 are quarterly, 469 are annual and 1774 are others which are being published in the country.

Most numbers of newspapers and magazines are published in Hindi. Newspapers are published in all the major Indian languages except Kashmiri. Uttar Pradesh publishes around 8400 newspapers. Uttar Pradesh is also number one from the point of view of daily newspapers. Oldest newspaper is ‘Bombay Samachar’ in the Gujarati language which is being published since 1882.

Many news agencies played an important role in encouraging printed mass media in the countries and these are:
1. Press Trust of India (PTI): It is the largest news agency of India which provides news to different newspapers with the help of Teleprinter. It was established in 1947 but it started to work from February 1949. It provides its services in both Hindi and English. Now it has its own satellite system, with which it provides news to different newspapers.

2. The Registrar of Newspapers in India (RNI): Newspapers are allotted paper to print their news and this allotment is being done through this agency. It was established in 1956. It is necessary for all the newspapers and magazines to register themselves with RNI so that they could be allotted the paper from the government quota. In this way, this agency plays a very important role.

3. United News of India (UNI): United News of India was established in 1961. This agency has its stations all over the world. It has 76 news Bureaus because of which it is one of the largest news agency in Asia. It started its news agency in Hindi in 1981. It also started its Urdu service for Urdu newspapers in 1991 with the help o a Teleprinter.

4. Press Information Bureau (PIB): It is one of the important agencies which provides information on the government’s policies, achievements, programmes, etc. It has 9 centres including the headquarters. Delhi is its main centre and rest of the centres are situated at Mumbai, Chennai, Chandigarh, Lucknow, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bhopal and Hyderabad. Every type of facility of mass media is available in all of these centres.

5. Press Council of India (PCI): Press Council was established for the security of freedom of newspapers, to maintain some quality of news and to bring some improvement in them. It received 1250 complaints in 2000-01 out of which 1175 were solved.

Question 7.
How is our culture affected by means of Mass Media?
Answer:
Indian culture is based upon ancient traditions, customs and some of its other aspects. We can find shadows of ancient culture over our modem culture. But the different means of mass media have brought a revolutionary change in our culture. We can say that today’s culture is influenced by means of mass media. We can see the impact of mass media on different aspects of our culture. Our culture, values, traditions, etc. are changing rapidly. Changes are taking place in both the aspects of our culture i.e., material and non-material culture. Very quick cultural changes are occurring with the help of mass media.

Mass media is one of the features of social change of the modern world. Press collects every type of information and passes it to the general masses. Today, newspapers are a very important part of our life. Newspapers are not only popular in cities but are popular in villages as well. These are printed everywhere in the world. They can also be called as the guard of democracy. People express their opinion with the help of mass media. Newspapers play a very important role in forming public opinion.

Press and television not only raise their voice against corruption but they perform constructive work for the society as well. They perform welfare works at the time of any natural calamity. Mass Media informs the people about the equal status of both males and females. Newspapers and magazines also entertain people. We generally read new stories, jokes, news, etc., in them. We can enjoy serials, films, news, games, etc. on television.

Modern means of mass media gave rise to new cultural challenges. They help in bringing cultural changes. The middle class has emerged in the country due to mass media. Now backward classes are conscious about their rights. Now scheduled castes are raising their voice against the exploitation by higher classes. Means of mass media help in exchange of culture of different groups. We can observe and adopt other culture only because of the means of mass media. So we can say that our culture has been greatly affected by the mass media.

Question 8.
What are the evil consequences of Television in our society?
Answer:
Our life is influenced by means of mass media. Television not only entertains us, but it also influences the thinking and living style of the people. Their ways of living and eating habits are affected by television. This process of influencing is more in cities as compared to villages. In this age of globalisation, the evil consequences of television are emerging in front of us. Television not only changes our culture but it affects our culture as well, television spreads wrong messages of western culture, with which our cultural values are deteriorating day by day. Television exerts a wrong impact on our children although this is one of the important means of mass media.

When television came to India, then it was seen just to spend some time but now children spend a lot of time watching television. They hardly care about their study. Children tend to become violent if they watch any violent scenes on television. Young people start to imitate their ideal heroes and like to five their fives according to their characters of the film. Young people adopt the wrong path of success only because of mass media.

Mass media plays a very important role in the maintenance and continuation of the culture. Culture fives itself only because of cultural continuation. Increasing globalisation has greatly affected cultural globalisation instead of economic and political globalisation. Now people like to adopt the culture of other countries. Indian classical music has lost its importance because of hip-hop and pop songs. People hardly like our traditional dances. Different companies are using obscene scenes of women to sell their products. In this way, television has exerted a wrong impact on our life and culture.

Question 9.
What is meant by Mass Communication? What are its positive and negative impacts on society?
Answer:
Science and technology were developed right from the beginning of the 19th century. From that time onwards, means of mass media also increased. With this, the political and economic position of the Indian Society has also changed. Diversities in the Indian Society has decreased in modern times through means of mass communication and mass media.

Meaning of Mass Media: The word mass in ‘mass media’ is used for any community, group or general people of the country. On the basis of this, we can say that mass communication is different from other types of communication because it is related to the whole population. The meaning of mass communication is to provide information to the public through a number of means. In simple language, the meaning of mass communication is the means of printed and electronic media like newspapers, magazines, radio, Doordarshan, films, etc., with which information is provided to the people.

Indian Society and Mass Media: Mass communication has played many important roles as a means of collecting information in Indian society. These functions of communication have brought many changes in many sectors of society. Functions of communication can be divided into positive and negative classes.

Positive Impacts: Positive impacts of functions of communication are:
1. Entertainment Functions: Entertainment is the most important function of communication. People not only enjoy films but they also get knowledge from information provided by the mass media. Mass communication also helps people in giving information on different subjects like sports, crime, health, etc. Most people entertain themselves by watching television shows, programmes, serials, news, matches, etc.

2. Helpful in the process of Socialisation: Socialisation is a process of learning. Communication, in modem times, also plays a very important role in the socialisation of the children. Family, neighbourhood, peer groups, schools, etc. play their own role in the socialisation of the child. But mass communication also affects the behaviour of the child to a great deal.

3. Helpful in Cultural Continuity: Mass communication is the base of Indian culture. It is that means on the basis of which our culture is living in the modern age. Our traditional cultural elements are losing their importance due to the changed circumstances and due to western culture. These traditional elements are being shown to people through different programmes like many programmes of classical music and religious epics are being telecast through radio and television. Many programmes on the basis of Ramayana, Mahabharta Vishnu Purana are being telecasted. It is a different effort to establish continuity between tradition and modernity. In this way, mass communication helps in cultural continuity.

4. Helpful in providing Information of day to day events: People come to know about the day to day events through means of mass communication. They come to know about local, national and international events. With this, they also come to know about climate, political events, natural calamities corrupt and violent activities. People of cities and metro’s are influenced by events through means of mass media and get information about them.

Negative function or Dysfunction: Mass communication is a mean to provide information to the people. But many scholars have expressed that mass communication has many dysfunctions and they have criticised the means of mass communication.

1. Mass Communication is a means to provide information to the people but many times, wrong information is being given to the people which are far from reality. It means that means of mass communication portrays the wrong picture of reality which has a negative impact on the people.
2. People forget about his likings and dislikings in mass communication. He forgets about his personal interests and moves towards cultural unity.
3. Mass Communication also encourages people to migrate to other areas.
4. Producing hatred ness among people is also considered as one of the negative impacts of mass communication.
5. Females are used in a vulgar way by companies to sell their products.

Question 10.
How has mass media helped in cultural change?
Answer:
The modern age is the age of change. Change in any society and country depends upon social development and changes in means of information technology. Development and change in any country depend upon the change in ideas and point of views. Information is considered as necessary for bringing about change in society. According to a survey conducted by U.N.O., 70% population of the world is unable to get complete information, i.e., they are deprived of their right to vote. One ideology is developing in modern times that increases in production require knowledge, technology, intelligence and changes in ideas.

Means of mass communication like newspapers, magazines, etc. have greatly affected our social and cultural sectors. Social, cultural, political and economic consciousness has been aroused in rural areas just because of these means. Newspapers not only provide information to the people but is a very popular means of conveying people’s grievances to the leaders and government. Not only print media but electronic media as well, like radio and television has also influenced the Indian civilisation and culture. Information is provided to both rural and urban areas through television and radio. Farmers in villages can get information about new agriculture technology, new seeds and fertilizers. People listen to information about the forecast and programmes of public welfare. They also watch other programmes on television.

Cinema has greatly influenced Indian Culture. These days, films are made on the issues of social problems. A number of Indian films are based on social problems like caste system, exploitation of lower classes, child marriages, exploitation of women, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, terrorism, etc. They clearly give the message that these problems should be rooted out of society. In this way, Indian cinema has greatly affected both rural and urban areas.

Yet, mass media is an important means of providing information but people are still unable to take complete advantage out of these. Only a very few educated people take advantage of these means. Most of the newspapers are of national or international level and local people are hardly interested in them. Films shown are from reality. Advertisements attract only higher or upper-middle classes in society.

Cultural values are also influenced by mass media. Mass media has given speed to the process of social change. Now people are receiving information about new subjects and places and that’s why new cultural elements are developing in their cultures. Daily ways of living, behaving, etc. are changing day by day. Now we are adopting western culture only because of the influence of mass media. It gave birth to many cultural challenges. Many people are associating themselves with their old traditions and the problem of imbalance has occurred between the new and old traditions. The association of old and new traditions has been made possible by mass media. So mass media helped a great deal in the cultural change of the country.

In This Post we are  providing  CHAPTER 8 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS for Class 12 SOCIOLOGY PART B which will be beneficial for students. These solutions are updated according to 2021-22 syllabus. These MCQS  can be really helpful in the preparation of Board exams and will provide you with a brief knowledge of the chapter

NCERT MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Question 1.
What are the features of Reformist movements?
Answer:

1. The reformist movement wanted to bring reforms to the old social system.
2. The speed of the reformist movement is always slow.
3. Peaceful methods are used in reformist movements and they are initiated for peaceful changes in society.
4. They generally exist in democratic countries.

Question 2.
Distinguish between New social movement and the Old social movement.
Or
In what way the new social movements are different from the old social movements.
Answer:

1. The old social movements functioned within the frame of political parties but the new social movements were not aimed at changing the distribution of power in the society as they were about the quality of life issues like having a clean environment.
2. Old social movements wanted to remove evils from society and wanted to remove exploitation, but new social movements were started with an aspiration of better living standards.
3. In the old social movements, the role of political parties was central but modem movements are left away by the formal political systems and they put pressure on the state from the outside.

Question 3.
Explain something about the Chipko Movement.
Answer:
Chipko movement started in the hilly areas of Uttrakhand (U.P. at that time) in 1070. Forests in those areas were the means of livelihood for people living there. People used to collect things from forests to live their lives. The Government gave these forests to private contractors to earn revenue. When the people went to the forests to collect wood and other things they were stopped by contractors as they also wanted to earn money from these forests. People of many villages stood against this and collectively started to struggle against this. When the contractors came to cut down the trees, villagers stepped forward to hug the trees to prevent them from being felled. Women and children actively participated in it. Prominent Environmentalist Sundra Lai Bahuguna also joined the struggle. As people used to hug the trees, this movement came to be known as the Chipko movement. In the end, the movement was successful and the government banned the cutting of forests of the Himalayan region for 15 years.

Question 4.
What were the issues against which the leaders of the Jharkhand movement were agitating?
Or
Mention the issues which agitated the Jharkhand leaders.
Answer:
The issues against which the leaders of the Jharkhand movement agitating were:

1. Acquisition of land for large irrigation projects and firing ranges,
2. Survey and settlement operations, which were held up, camps closed down, etc.,
3. Collection of loans, rent, and cooperative dues, which were resisted,
4. Nationalization of forest produce which they boycotted.

Question 5.
Bring out the differences between social change and social movement.
Answer:
Difference between social change and social movements-

1. Social change is continuous and ongoing.
2. Sum total of countless individual and collective actions gathered across time and space.
3. Social movements are directed towards some specific goals.
4. Involves long and continuous social effort and action by people.

Question 6.
State the features of new farmer’s movements.
Answer:
Features of New farmer’s movements

1. Movements were regionally organized
2. Involved farmer rather than peasants
3. Not involved with any party
4. The basic ideology of the movements was strongly “anti-state and anti-urban”
5. Demands were “price and related ‘issues”
6. Novel methods of agitation were used e.g., road and railway blocks, refusing entry of politicians/bureaucrats, etc.

Question 7.
What is meant by Social Movement? Explain its different types.
Answer:
When people of any society are dissatisfied with the prevailing social circumstances of society and they want to bring about change in it, then social movement comes into being. Social movement always starts with an ideology. Sometimes social movement develops to oppose any change. Earlier, sociologists used to think that social change is an effort to bring change but modern sociologists think that movement either brings social change or stops any change. Different thinkers gave their views about social movement and these are given below:

According to Merril and Eldridge, “Social movement is more or less a conscious effort for change in the society.” According to Hurston and Hunt, “Social movement is the collective effort for bringing change or opposing in the society or in its members.”

According to Herbert Blunder, “Social movement can be called as the collective effort to establish a new system of life.”

So on the basis of these views of different scholars, we can say that social movement is the collective behavior of the members of society, whose aim is to either change the prevailing culture and social structure or to oppose that change. So social movement can be understood in the form of the effort of social action and collective effort.

Types of Social Movements: Hurton and Hunt were of the view that the classification of social movement is not easy work. It is seen because of the different nature of different movements. Different scholars gave different classifications and the main types of social movements are given ahead:
1. Special Social Movements: Objectives of special social movements are pre¬determined and are pre-organized. These movements are controlled by experienced leaders. Revolutionary and Reformist movement come under this category.

2. General Social Movements: General Social movements are related to the prevailing cultural values of the society. This type of movement develops due to those slow changes which are included in cultural values. It is also because the changed values, ideas, and beliefs are not clear when they are in their earliest stage. Feminist movements and scheduled caste movements come under this category.

3. Expressive Movements: The main objective of expressive social movement is to express collective disagreement on any subject. Herbert Blumer had divided these types of movements into two parts and these are religious movements and linguistic movements. ‘

4. Resistance Movements: Resistance movements are exactly opposite to revolutionary movements. The main objective of the resistance movement is to stop or remove change but the main aim of the revolutionary movement is to bring change. Many types of resistance movements took place in India during the 20th century.

5. Utopian Movements: Those movements come under utopian movements that were started by great scholars or thinkers to make an imaginative and ideal society. The Socialist movement of Karl Marx and the Bhoodaan movement of Vinoba Bhave come under this category.

6. Migratory Movements: Migratory movements occur due to war, flood, famine, or any disease. People migrate from one place to another under this type of movement. When people of one area or country collectively decide to live in another country then this type of movement takes place.

7. Revolutionary Movements: The main objective of the revolutionary movement is to overthrow the existing system out of power and to establish a new system. These are of two types-violent and non-violent. These movements start due to dissatisfaction, which prevails in society. The main feature of revolutionary movements is their pace and violence. But many times non-violence is also present.

8. Reformative Movements: The main objective of reformative movements is to bring reforms in the society by removing evils from the existing social system. Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Prarthna Samaj come under this category. They can develop only in a democratic set up because the government, in democracy, itself is interested in bringing reforms in the society.

Question 8.
What were the conducive conditions in India to start Social reform movements?
Answer:
1. Western Education: When the Britishers started to rule over India, then they started to spread western education. When Indians came in contact with western education, they came to know about science and reasoning. They came to know that the prevailing customs of Indian society were useless and baseless. That’s why enlightened Indians started social movements.

2. Development of means of transport: Britishers developed means of transport for their own convenience but Indians took maximum advantage of these means. With the advent of means of transport, Indians came in contact with each other. Enlightened and educated Indians reached different parts of the country and explained to the people that the prevailing customs are useless for them. People . were already fed up with these customs. They gave a good response to these requests and conditions became conducive with the development of means of transport.

3. Advent of Indian Press: Press started in India after the advent of the British organizers of movements started to publish small newspapers and magazines so that Indians could read them and should understand that these evils are very harmful to the society. It is necessary for them to overthrow these evils from society. In this way, Indians came to know that it is necessary for them to remove these social evils.

4. Increasing impact of Missionaries: When the Britishers came to India Christian missionaries also came with them. They were given help by the Britishers. The function of these missionaries was to propagate Christianity but their way of propagating was somewhat different. First of all, they worked for social welfare. They solved the problems of the people and then used them to propagate their religion. Gradually, people started to adopt Christianity. When Indian social reformers came to know about this thing, they also started reform movements in India. In this way, these movements were started due to the impact of Christian missionaries.

5. Evils of Indian Society: Most of the social reform movements were started to remove the social evils of the society. Sati Pratha, child marriage, restriction on widow remarriage, dowry system, untouchability, etc. are examples of some of the social evils of Indian society. People were fed up with social evils. When these movements started the movement was welcomed with open hands. That’s why these movements got what conducive environment and social reform movements became successful.

Question 9.
What changes in Indian society due to social movements? Explain them.
Answer:
1. End of Sati Pratha Place: Sati System prevailed in Indian society from the very beginning. Widows had to die with the death of her husband. She had to sit alive on the funeral pyre of her husband. This inhuman custom was started by higher castes. Due to social movements, the British government started to oppose this system and it passed a law called ‘Sati Prohibition Act’ in 1829. This law declared Sati Pratha as illegal. In this way, the custom of ancient times came to an end. All this happened due to social movements.

2. End of Child Marriage: Child marriages were prevailing in Indian society. Due to child marriage, parents used to marry their children at the age of 4-5 years. It hardly mattered to them whether the child even knew the meaning of marriage or not. The British government fixed the minimum age of child marriage due to social movements. British Government made a law in 1860 and fixed a minimum age of 10 years for marriage.

3. Widow Remarriage: Widows in our society were not allowed to remarry and this custom was going on from the very beginning. They were not allowed to take part in family functions. They had no right to live a happy life. Due to the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, the British Government passed an act in 1856 called the ‘Widow Remarriage Act, 1856’ with which widows got permission to remarry. In this way, they got the legal right to remarry and to live a happy life.

4. End of Purdah System: Purdah system prevailed among Muslims. Females always had to live behind purdahs. They were not allowed anywhere. Gradually, this system spread all over the country. Social reformers raised their voice against the purdah system. Even Sir Syed Ahmed Khan also raised his voice against this system. In this way, this system started to decrease and with the passage of time, it came to an end.

5. Change in Customs of Dowry System: Dowry is that which is given by the father of the bride at the time of her marriage according to his wish. But many problems also cropped up along with it. Parents of the bridegrooms started to demand dowry because of which parents of the girls had to face a number of problems. Many movements were started against this. That’s why the British government and later on in 1961, the Indian Government declared it illegal.

6. End of Untouchability: The custom of untouchability was prevalent in Indian society from the ages. In this, lower castes were not allowed to touch the people of higher castes. So the voice was raised in social movements against untouchability. That’s why an atmosphere was created for declaring it illegal. After independence, the Indian government passed an act with which it was declared illegal.

7. Intercaste marriages: Intercaste marriages were not allowed in Indian society. But inter-caste marriages were encouraged by these social movements and they also received legal permission after independence.

8. Caste System: The caste system was one of the important bases of Indian society. But the caste system was weakened by these movements. Almost all the movements raised their voices against the caste system. Gradually, the caste system lost its importance and it is now on the verge of its end.

9. Women Education: Almost all the social movements agreed on one thing and that was women’s education. The status of women was very low in our society. They had no rights. All the social movements worked for women’s education with which women’s education got encouragement. That’s why now she is standing side by side with her husband.

So we can say that social movements were started in the 19th century in India and many changes came in the Indian society due to these movements.

Question 10.
Explain the peasant movements that started in India.
Answer:
Peasant movements are associated with the relations between farmers and agricultural activities. When there is a lack of coordination between agricultural workers and landowners, then workers take the path of movement and peasant movement starts to take place. Actually, these movements start because of the exploitation of farmers. Its main base is class struggle and it is different from worker’s movement. The important base of these movements is the agricultural system. A different type of structure has been developed among the agricultural classes due to agriculture relations and the diversity of land systems. This structure is different in different areas. Agricultural classes of India can be divided into three parts-

1. Owner
2. Farmer
3. Laborer.

The owner is also known as a landowner. This class is the owner of the whole land on which agricultural work takes place. Farmers come after landowners. Small marginal farmers are the owners of small pieces of land. They used to till their land themselves. The third class is of laborers who earned money by working in the agricultural field. They are generally landless and very poor.

Peasant movements started because of different causes. As the earning of agricultural laborers is affected by industrialization, they opposed it with a movement. Except this, there are certainly other reasons for initiating peasant movements, like the demand for more value of their produces, their exploitation by the officials, bonded laborers, opposition of reducing farming subsidies, etc.

Beginning of Peasant Movement: These movements started in the 19th century when the British government associated itself with the agricultural system. The Santhal revolt took place in the 19th century against the British. In 1875, riots of money lenders, Awadh revolt, and farmer’s opposition of money lenders in Punjab took the form of the peasant movement. Gandhiji adopted the way of nonviolence for farmers and workers in 1917-18. Farmer’s organization and peasant labor unions were formed in 1923.

Farmer’s association was developed in Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, and Punjab. The struggle between farmers and laborers started in Gujarat during 1928-29 and 1930-31. The first struggle was started under Sardar Patel and the government was forced to accept their demands. Many movements started from 1937 till 1946 against zamindars, landlords, and landowners. Peasant movements of Mysore and Travnkor were started against kings and local landlords. In the same way, the movements of Odisha, Udaipur, Gwalior, and Jaipur were important in the history of the Indian Peasant Movement.

Even after independence, there was no reduction in the problems of peasants and agricultural laborers and that’s why the number of farmer movements increased all over the country. The main objective of all these movements was the protection of the interests of farmers. These movements also aimed at removing farmer’s exploitation and providing socio-economic justice to the farmers.