Rotation

• Rotation is the movement of the Earth, on its axis.
• The axis of the Earth, which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66/2° with its orbital plane.
• The portion facing the Sun experiences day, while the other half away from the Sun experiences night.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• The Earth takes about 24 hrs to complete one rotation around its axis, it is known as earthday.

Revolution

• The movement of the Earth around the Sun in a fixed path or orbit is called revolution.
• Earth takes 365)4 days to revolve around the Sun.
• Every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is called a leap year.
• Earth is going around the Sun in an elliptical-orbit.
• Seasons change due to change in the position of the Earth around the Sun.
• Summer solstice is the position of the Earth when the Northern Hemisphere has the longest day and the shortest night. It
• occurs on 21st June.
• In the Southern Hemisphere, it is winter season at this time. The days are short and the nights are long.
• Winter Solstice is the position of the earth when Southern Hemisphere has long days and shorter nights. In the Northern
• Hemisphere, the days are short and the nights are long. It occurs on 22nd December.
• On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator and the whole earth experiences equal days
• and equal nights. This is called an equinox.

The earth has two types of motions—rotation and revolution.

Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. In revolution the earth moves around the sun in a fixed path or orbit.

The axis of the earth is an imaginary line.

The earth receives light from the sun. As the shape of the earth is spherical, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time. The other half remains dark. In this way day and night are caused.

The earth completes one rotation around its axis in about 24 hours. This rotation is the daily motion of the earth.

The earth takes 365 14 days or one year to complete one revolution around the sun.

There are four seasons in a year—summer, winter, spring and autumn. Seasons change due to the change in the position of the earth around the sun.

The rays of sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. Hence, these areas are hot.

• The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.

In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the summer solstice.

When there is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere enjoys winter season and vice-versa.

In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the winter solstice.

On 21st March and September 23rd the whole earth experiences equal’days and equal nights. This is phenomenon is known as equinox.

On 23rd September, it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Sourthern Hemisphere.

On 21st March, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Sourthern Hemisphere.

Days and nights occur due to rotation while changes in seasons occur due to revolution.

Rotation: The movement of the earth on its axis is known as rotation.

Revolution: The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is known as revolution.

Orbital plane: The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.

Circle of illumination: The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.

Leap year: The year in which February is of 29 days instead of 28 days is called a leap year.

Summer solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere, the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called summer solstice.

Winter solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called winter solstice.

Equinox: On 21st March and September 23rd the entire earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is known as the equinox.

Globe is a true model of the Earth.

A needle is fixed through the globe in a tilted manner, which is called its axis.

The imaginary line running on the globe divides it into equal parts. This line is known as the Equator.

All parallel circles from the Equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitude. Latitude is measured in degrees.

As we move away from the Equator, the size of the parallels of latitude decreases.

The four important parallels of latitude are :

• Tropic of Cancer (2312°N)
• Tropic of Capricorn (23122°S)
• Arctic of Circle (6612°N)
• Antarctic Circle (6612°S)

Heat Zones of the Earth

• Torrid zone receives the maximum heat.
• The temperate zone has a moderate temperature.
• The frigid zone has a cold climate as the sun rays are always slanting.

Longitudes

• The line of reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole is called Meridians of Longitude.
• The distance between them is measured in ‘degrees of longitude’.
• All meridians are of equal length.
• The meridian which passes through Greenwich, where the British Royal Observatory is located, is called the Prime Meridian.
• The value of Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and from it, we count 180° Eastward as well as 180° Westward.
• Prime Meridian divides the earth into two equal halves, the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere.
• 180° East and 180° West meridians are on the same line.
• We can locate any point on the globe if we know its latitude and longitude.

Longitude and Time

• As the earth rotates from West to East, those places East of Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich time and those to the West will be behind it.
• The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours.
• At any place, a watch can be adjusted to read at 12 o’clock when the Sun is at the highest point in the sky.

Standard Time

• The local time various places are different, so it is necessary to adopt the local time of some central meridian of a country as the Standard Time.
• 8212°E is treated as the Standard Meridian of India. The local time at this meridian is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
• India located East of Greenwich at 82° 30’E, is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
• Some countries have a great longitudinal extent and so they have adopted more than one standard time.

The Globe is a true model of the earth, in a small form. A needle, called the Axis is fixed through the globe in a tilted manner.

The axis of the globe passes through two extreme points: known as the Poles (the North Pole and the South Pole). This axis is shown in the form of a needle on the globe. The real earth has no such axis.

The circle passing through the centre of the earth, and perpendicular to the axis, is called the Equator. It divides the earth into two Hemispheres, the Northern and the Southern. We can imagine a number of more circles parallel to the equator, having their centres on the axis and having different radii. These circles are called Parallels of Latitudes.

The parallels are identified with the help of degrees. The equator represents the zero degrees latitude. The latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere are designated as degrees north (°N), e.g. 10°N, 20°N, and so on till 90°N (which is the North Pole). Similarly the latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere are designated as degrees south (°S), and 90°S is the South Pole.

The circle passing through Greenwich in Britain, and perpendicular to the equator, and parallel to the axis, is called the Prime Meridian. It divides the earth into two Hemispheres, the Eastern and the Western. Together, the Equator and the Prime Meridian divide the earth into four equal parts. We can imagine a number of more circles parallel to the Prime Meridian, having their centre at the centre of the earth, and having equal radii. These circles are called Degrees of Longitudes.

The longitudes are identified with the help of degrees. The Prime Meridian represents
the zero degrees longitude. The longitudes in the Eastern Hemisphere are designated as degrees east (°E), e.g. 10°E, 20°E, and so on till 180°. Similar is the case with the Western Hemisphere.

Degrees are further divided into minutes and minutes into seconds. Note that the symbol
for a minute is an apostrophe (‘) and that for a second is a double apostrophe (“). 60′ (60 minutes) make up a degree and 60″ (60 seconds) make up a minute. So 30’ means half a degree and 40” means two-thirds of a minute.

Two points on earth can lie on the same latitude but still be far away from each other. Also, two distant points may lie on the same longitude. But only one point lief on a particular pair of latitude and longitude. So latitudes and longitudes are helpful in locating a point on earth.

The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle are studied as special latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. They are at 23 1/2° N and 6612° N respectively.

The Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle are studied as special latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. They are at 23 12° S and 66 12° S respectively.

The area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn receive maximum heat from the Sun and this region is called the Torrid Zone.

The area between the Artie Circle and the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere, and that between the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern, have moderate temperatures. These regions are the Temperate Zones.

The area north to the Arctic Circle and that south to the Antarctic Circle is close to the Poles and receive the sunlight of very low intensity. So it is very cold here. These regions are called the Frigid Zones.

The Frigid Zones, the Temperate Zones, and the Torrid Zone are called the Heat Zones.

The sun does not shine equally on all longitudes at a time. When it is 12 noon at a time, it means that the sun is not at all visible at the place on the other side of the earth. ‘So it must be midnight there. In fact, we can say that the time difference is 24 hours at 360 degrees longitudes apart. So every longitude brings a difference of 4 minutes. This gives us the concept of Time Zones. Two consecutive time zones differ by an hour. The time at a particular place is said to be the local time.

It may happen that a certain country extends over a long range of longitudes, thus giving a large amount of time difference. E.g. Russia extends over eleven time zones. India actually extends over a range of a 2-hour time difference. But this is not too much, so for convenience and for uniformity, we have a standard meridian set at Allahabad (82° 30’), which gives the time for all over India. This time is called the Indian Standard Time (IST).

Globe: The globe is a model of the earth, as it is, but in a very small and convenient form. It shows all continents, countries, and oceans, labeled.

Axis: The imaginary line about which the earth rotates once in 24 hours is called its axis.

Poles: The two extreme points of the axis are called the Poles. One of them is the North Pole and the other is the South Pole.

Equator: The circle passing through the center of the earth, and perpendicular to the axis, is called the equator.

Prime Meridian: The circle passing through Greenwich in Britain, and perpendicular to the equator, and parallel to the axis, is called the Prime Meridian.

Latitude: One of the imaginary circles parallel to the Equator is called latitude. The latitudes have their centers on one common line and they have different radii.

Longitude: One of the imaginary circles parallel to the Prime Meridian is called longitude. The longitudes have their centers at the center of the earth and have the same radius as the Earth.

Hemisphere: One of the two equal halves of the earth’s spherical shape is called a hemisphere. If the earth is halved along the equator, we get the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. If we halve it perpendicular to the equator, we get the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres.

Heat Zones: Heat zones are the different zones of the earth, where the sun’s rays fall differently, thus causing different climate patterns. These zones are called the Torrid Zone, the two Temperate Zones, and the two Frigid Zones.

Greenwich: Greenwich is a place in the United Kingdom, near London, whose time is used as a standard all over the world. The Prime Meridian passes through this place, and so it is the place which divides the earth into the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres.

Standard Time:  Standard time of a country or region is the time regarded as a standard for that place, despite the fact that there exists time difference geographically across that region. It is used only for convenience.

Solar System
The sun, nine planets, satellites, asteroids and meteoroids form the solar system.

The Sun

• The sun is in the center of the solar system.
• It is made up of extremely hot gases.
• The sun is about 150 million km away from the earth.

Planets

• There are nine planets in our solar system.
• The nine planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
• Planets move around the sun in a fixed orbit.
• Mercury is the nearest planet.
• Pluto is the farthest planet.
• A new planet 2003 UB313 has been discovered. It is bigger than Pluto and is farthest from the sun.

Earth

• It is the third nearest planet to the sun and fifth largest planet of our solar system.
• The earth is a unique planet because it supports life.
• It is also called the blue planet.
• Its shape is Geoid.

The Moon

• It is the only satellite of the earth.
• Its diameter is one-quarter of the earth. ‘
• It is about 3.84,400 km away from us.
• It moves around the earth in about 27 days.
• Only one side of the moon is visible to us on the earth.
• No life exists on moon as it has neither water nor air.

Asteroids

• They are numerous tiny bodies which move around the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
• The largest asteroid is the Ceres.

Meteoroids

• The small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called meteoroids.
• Our solar system is a part of the Milky Way galaxy.
• Milky Way galaxy was named Akash Ganga.
• There are millions of galaxies that make the Universe.

The Stars and the MOON are celestial bodies which are visible only at night in the sky. During daytime, the power of the sun’s light renders them invisible.

The moon appears differently on different nights—like the Full Moon only once a month, on the poornima night whereas on the fifteenth night after that, there is no moon in the sky (amavasya).

Some celestial bodies are big and hot since they are made of gases. They are called Stars. The sun is also a star. We do not feel the heat and light of the stars other than the sun since they are very far away from us.

Groups of stars that are visible in definite patterns are called Constellations. Ursa Major (the Big Bear), The Small Bear (Saptarishi), etc are some well-known constellations.

The Pole Star is known to retain the same position every night in the sky. It is also called the North Star since it helps in knowing the North direction.

There are celestial bodies that do not have their own heat and light. They reflect the light they get from stars. Such bodies are the Planets. We live on the earth, a planet. Most planets have Satellites, which are celestial bodies that revolve around a particular planet. The moon is the only satellite of the earth.

The earth and moon are part of a bigger system (or family) of celestial-bodies, called the Solar System. The sun is the “head” of this system and is present at its centre. The planets revolve around the sun, while the satellite revolves around the placets. The planets, in addition to revolving around the sun, also rotate about their own axis.

The sun is made of extremely hot gases, and it provides heat and light to the rest of the solar system. It is about 150 million kilometres away from the earth.

All the planets of the solar system are listed below: (in the order of their distance from sun)

• Mercury (planet nearest to the Sun)
• Venus
• Earth
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn
• Uranus
• Neptune

Mnemonic:
to memorise the names of the eight planets in the order of their distance from the sun
My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts
where the beginning of each word is the same as the first letter of the planet existing at that position in the order (check the list above)

Till August 2006, Pluto was also a planet. But it is now recognised as a “dwarf planet”.

The shape of the earth is called a Geoid. This means it is not perfectly spherical, since it is flattened at the poles. The earth is probably the only planet that can support life. This is because its temperature, resources like water and oxygen, etc are present in the proportions appropriate for life. The earth, with its 2/3 rd of surface covered with water, appears blue from space and is called Blue Planet.

The Moon’s diameter is 1/4 th of that of the earth. It is 3,84,400 km away from earth. It completes a revolution around the earth in about 27 days. Incidentally, it also takes around the same time for a rotation about its own axis. It does not support life.

There are several other tiny bodies in space (the Asteroids) that move around the sun. There is a “belt” of such objects, called the Asteroid Belt, between Mars and Jupiter.

There exist small pieces of rocks (Meteroids) which also move around the sun.
The Milky Way is the galaxy (a huge system of billions of stars) we live in. The Milky Way is further a part of a bigger collection of galaxies, called the Universe, (refer Flow¬Learning)

Celestial Body: An object in the universe (but not on the earth) is said to be a celestial body. Examples are sun, earth, moon, stars, etc.

Star: A celestial body that is characterized by being very hot and big, and made of gases is a star. A star typically has its own heat and light.

Full Moon Night: A night when the moon is visible from the earth as a full sphere is called the Full Moon night, and it occurs once a month.

New Moon Night: The fifteenth night after the Full Moon night, when the moon is not visible at all in the sky, is called the New Moon night.

Constellation: A group of several stars which can usually be recognized by a definite pattern is called a constellation. An example is Ursa Major.

Planets: A celestial body which revolves around a particular star in an orbit, and gets all its light from that star, is called a planet. Earth is a planet.

Satellites: A celestial body which revolves around a planet in a particular orbit is called a satellite. The moon is a satellite of the Earth.

Orbit: The particular and definite elliptical path in which a planet (or satellite) always remains, is called the orbit of that planet (or satellite).

Sun: The Sun is a star that acts as the “head” of the solar system and around which all planets revolve: Note that the sun is not at the center of the orbit, instead it is like in the figure above.

Inner Planets: The Inner Planets are the planets that orbit around the sun between the sun and the asteroid belt, that is, are close to the sun. These are: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

Outer Planets: The Outer Planets are the planets that orbit the sun beyond the asteroid belt, that is, are very far away from the sun. These are: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Geoid: The shape of the earth is called a geoid. A geoid is spherical except for the flattening at two places diametrically opposite to each other.

Poles: The two places diametrically opposite to each other and which lie on the axis about which a spherical body rotates are called poles.

Asteroids: A large number of tiny celestial bodies which move around the sun, and are mainly present in a belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, are called Asteroids.

Meteoroid: Small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called meteoroids.

Galaxy: A galaxy is a collection of innumerable stars. Most stars have their own families like the solar system. The Milky Way is the galaxy in which we live.

Universe: The Universe is the largest unit in which we live. It is a collection of galaxies. There is only one Universe and everything that exists in this Universe itself.

Vendors and Government Measures: There are some shops on the pavement. Vendors sell things prepared at home like snacks or food. Street vending is an obstruction to traffic. The government has introduced measures to reduce the number of vendors. Hawking zones have been suggested for towns and cities.

Market: Markets in the cities are crowded during the festivals. There are different shops selling sweets, toys, clothes, footwear, utensils, electronic goods, etc.

Business Persons: In cities, there are people who own shoes in various markets. Harpreet, a businesswoman, opened readymade showrooms. She buys the materials from different cities of India like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, etc. and some items even from foreign countries.

Showrooms: Businesspersons are not employed by anyone but they employ a number of workers as supervisors and helpers. They get a licence from the Municipal Corporations to open showrooms.

Shops in Market Place: Medical clinics are also set up in the market place. The dental clinic helps people to solve tooth problems. Next to the dental clinic is a cloth showroom with three floors.

Factory area: A factory area consists of small workshops. In one of the factories, people work on sewing machines and stitch clothes. In another section, the stitched clothes are stacked. Many women work as tailors in the export garment unit.

Factory Workshop Area: Some groups of people stand in a place called “labour chowk”. They are the daily wage labourers who work as helpers to masons. They also work at construction sites and lift loads or unload trucks in the market.

Salespersons: Sales-persons work is to get orders from shopkeepers and collect payments from them. Each sales-person is responsible for a particular region.

Marketing Manager: A Marketing Manager’s task is to manage the marketing resources of a product or business. He can be an in-charge of a single product or brand or can be a General Manager responsible for a broad array of products and services.

Urban life is different from rural life.

People of urban areas are engaged in different activities. Some are rickshaw pullers, some are vendors, some are business persons, some are shopkeepers, etc.

These people work on their own. They are not employed by anyone.

There are almost one crore street vendors in the country working in urban areas.

In the urban market one can find a variety of shops—shops selling sweets, toys, clothes, footwear, utensils, etc. There are garment showrooms too.

There are several business persons in the market who manage their own shops or business. They are not employed by anyone. But they do employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers.

The urban market has small offices and shops that provide services, such as banks, courier services and others.

A number of daily wage labourers can be found in the city. They work as helpers to mansons.

Several urban people are engaged in factories, such as garment factories.

In garment factories most workers are usually employed on as casual basis. They are required to come as and when the employer needs them.

Jobs on a casual basis are not permanent. There is no job security. Workers are expected to work very long hours. They do not get any facility.

There are many workers in the city who work in offices, factories and government departments where they are employed as regular and permanent workers.

Permanent and regular workers avail several benefits such as saving for old age, holidays, medical facilities etc.

In big cities, working in call centres has become a new form of employment.

Call centres are generally set up as large rooms with work stations that include a computer, a telephone set and supervisor’s stations.

India has become a major centre not only for Indian companies but also foreign companies.

Vendor: One who sells things of daily use by going door to door.

Urban areas: Towns and cities.

Business person: One who earns his livelihood by engaging himself in some business.

Employer: One who gives the job to someone.

Casual worker: One who is engaged in temporary work.

Labour chowk: A place where daily wage labourers gather together with their tools and wait for people to come and hire them for work.

Call centre: It gives a new form of employment to the people of big cities. It is a centralised office that deals with problems and questions that consumers/customers have regarding goods purchased and services like banking, ticket booking, etc.

Hawker: One who sells things by going from place to place asking people to buy them.

Different Occupations: People in this village are involved in different professions such as blacksmiths, teachers, washermen, weavers, barbers, mechanics, shopkeepers and traders.

Shops: Kalpattu village has a variety of small shops such as tea-shops, grocery stores, barber shops, cloth shops, tailor shops, fertilizers and seed shops.

Life of a Woman Farmer: The woman, Thulasi works in farmland of Ramalingam and does various work like transplanting paddy, weeding and harvesting. She earns 40 rupees daily. She also does household tasks like cooking, cleaning and washing clothes.

Being in Debt: Farmers borrow money to fulfil the basic needs of the farming land. Sometimes, they are unable to return the loan due to the failure of monsoon, which results in debt and finally the major cause of distress.

Farmers: In Kalpattu village, there are labourers and farmers. All of them depend on farming. Big farmers cultivate their land and sell their products in the market. Some people in the village depend upon a forest, animal husbandry, dairy produce, fishing, etc.

Sources of Livelihood: Farming and collection of mahua, tendu leaves, honey, etc. from the forest are the important sources of livelihood.

Rural Livelihood: People in rural areas earn their living in various ways. They undertake in farming or non¬farming activities. However, some people do not find work to keep them employed throughout the year.

Pudupet: People earn their living by fishing in the sea in this area. Catamarans (fishing boats) are used for fishing. They return to the coast with their catch to sell in the market. Fishermen usually take loans from banks to purchase catamarans, nets and engines.

There are different ways in which people earn their living in villages.

Vill&ge people are engaged in both farm activities and non-farm works, such as making utensils, baskets etc.

There are agricultural labourers as well as big farmers.

Working on farms involves operations such as preparing the land, sowing, weeding and harvesting of crops.

In India, nearly two out of every five rural families are agricultural labourer families.

The members of these families usually work on other people’s fields to earn a living.

In India, 80 per cent of farmers belongs to this group. Only 20 per cent of India’s farmers are well-off.

Many people in rural areas depend upon collection from the forest, animal husbandry, dairy produce, fishing etc.

Rural livelihoods: Different ways of earning living in rural areas.

Pesticide: A chemical used for killing pests, especially insects.

Migration: The movement of a large number of people from one place to another to find jobs.

Harvest: The act of cutting and gathering crops.

Terrace Farming: This is a type of farming in which the land on a hill slope is made into flat plots and carved out in steps. The sides of each plot are raised in order to retain water. This allows water to stand in the field, which is suitable for rice cultivation.

Ward Councillor:

• The Ward Councillors are responsible for the construction of hospitals.
• They are elected by the people living in that ward/area.
• Groups of Councillors make decisions on policy-making.
• Committees of Ward Councillors look after water, garbage collection and street lighting.

Duties of the Ward Councillors:

• Ward Councillors make the budget.
• They look into the demands of their respective Wards.
• They assign the task of implementation to the administrative staff.

Administrative Staff:

• Ward people can approach Ward Councillors regarding their problems, within a Ward. Members of the Councillor Committees decide on various issues.
• Commissioner and the administrative staff implement the issues.
• Commissioner and administrative staff are appointed people.
• Ward Councillors are elected.

Municipal Council:

• It is an Administrative Department in the cities.
• It supervises the Division of work in different departments.
• It includes the Departments of water, garbage collection, construction of roads, sanitation, etc.

Municipal Corporation:

• Takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, etc.
• Creates awareness about epidemics such as malaria, dengue, etc.
• Teaches people about preventive measures to avoid diseases.
• Runs schools, hospitals and dispensaries.

Community Protest:

• Ward Community can submit its petition to the Ward Councillor.
• Collective action taken is by the Ward Engineer and Ward Council.
• Petitions are forwarded to the Municipal Corporation Office.
• Municipal Corporation solves the issues.

Municipality: A place with own local government: a city, town or another area.

In the city, there is the Municipal Corporation that takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, keeping the streets and the markets clean.

The Municipal Corporation is also responsible for ensuring that diseases do not break out in the city.

In smaller towns, these works are done by a little bit smaller organisation known as a
Municipal Council.

The city is divided into different wards and ward councillors get elected.

The complicated decisions that affect the entire city are taken by groups of Councillors who form committees to decide and debate issues.

When the problems are within a ward then the people who live in the ward can contact their Councillors.

After the decisions taken by Councillor’s Committees and the Councillors, the Commissioner and the administrative staff implement them.

The Commissioner and the administrative staff are appointed while the Councillors are elected.

As the city is so large, the work here is divided into different departments, such as the water department, the garbage collection departments, sanitation department, etc.

Municipal Council: The organisation that looks after the welfare of small towns is known as Municipal Council.

Municipal Corporation: The organisation that takes care of big cities is known as Municipal Corporation.

Councillor: The elected representative of the ward.

Quarrel in the Village: Mohan noticed that Raghu had shifted the bund but Raghu refused to accept and instead he beats Mohan. Mohan’s neighbours helped him and he was provided first aid.

Gram Sabha: The Panchayati Raj, through the Gram Sabha, can solve land dispute problems, instead of taking the issues to the police station.

Work at the Police Station: In the police station, Mohan met the Station House Officer and said that he wanted to give the complaint in writing. At first, the S.H.O. refused, but later, he agreed that he would register the case. The S.H.O promised that he would send a constable to investigate the incidence.

Patwari’s Duties: They include conducting land surveys, field supervision and reporting the crime to the police. The role of the Patwari is important in an investigation. The record of the Patwari helps the police to find out which person has extended his bund from the original boundary.

Revenue Department: Keeping track of all these is the work of the revenue department. Senior people in this department supervise the Patwari’s work.

Local Administration: All the States of India are divided into districts. For managing matters relating to land, these districts are further sub-divided. These sub-divisions of a district are known by different names such as Tehsil, Taluka, etc.

At the head is the District Collector and under him are the Revenue Officers, also known as the Tehsildars. Tehsildars have to hear disputes and supervise the work of the Patwari and ensure that records are properly kept and land revenue is collected. They make sure that farmers get a copy of their land records. Students can obtain their caste certificates, etc from them as well.

A New Law: The Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005) came into force from September 2005. The Government of India has issued a notification to this effect.

Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005): This Act has been passed to remove gender discriminatory provisions in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 and gives the following rights to daughters under Section 6:
The daughter of coparcener (joint heir) by birth becomes a coparcener by right in the same manner as the son. The daughter has the same rights in the coparcener property as she would have had if she had been a son. In the new law, sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share of the land.

Tehsildar: Tehsildar is a revenue administrative officer in charge of obtaining taxation from a Tehsil. A Tehsildar is also called Patwari.

Every police station has an area that comes under its control. All persons in that area can report cases or inform the police about any occurrence like theft, accident, fight, etc.

The police of that area then inquire, investigate and take action. Thus, the police maintain law and order in the area.

Land disputes are common features of the villages. Hence, it is essential to maintain records so that conflicts may be avoided. Here, comes the role of the Patwari.

Patwari is the person whose main task is to measure land and keep land records. He also updates these records.

Each Patwari is responsible for a group of villages.

The Patwari is also responsible for organising the collection of land revenue from the farmers and providing information to the government about the crops grown in this area.

The revenue department of the government plays a major role in this direction. Senior people in this department supervise the Patwari’s work.

For managing matters relating to land, districts are sub-divided, known as sub-divisions.

These sub-divisions of a district are known by different names such as tehsil, taluka, etc.

The District Collector is at the head. The revenue officers known as Tehsildars work under him.

Hindu Succession Amendment Act was passed in 2005. According to this Act sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share in the land.

Police Station: It is a place where people register their complaints. Every police station has an area that comes under its control. All persons in that area can report cases or inform the police about any theft, accident, fight, injury or illegal occurrence etc.

S.H.O: Station House Officer who is the person-in-charge of the police station.

Patwari: One whose job is to measure land and keep land records.

Tehsildar: He is the revenue officer working under the District Collector.

Gram Sabha: It is a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls at the village level within the area, of the Panchayat. The presiding officer of the Panchayat is known as the Sarpanch, and the Pradhan a Mukhiya.

Recommendations of the Gram Sabha are binding on the Gram Panchayat.

The key roles entrusted to the Gram Sabha are micro planning, the social audit of Panchayat functioning, ratification of Panchayat accounts, balance sheets, identification and approval of beneficiaries, and supervisory and regulatory functions.

The institution of the Gram Sabha is very important as it gives an opportunity to each and every voter of the Gram Panchayat at the local level to take part in the decision-making process of the decentralised governance as well as in planning and development.

Gram Panchayat: It is the executive wing of the Gram Sabha.

Panchayat Samiti: It is an executive body. The work of the Gram Panchayat has to be approved by the Gram Sabha. The Gram Panchayat is answerable to the Gram Sabha.

The Gram Sabha is a meeting where people directly participate and seek answers from their elected representatives.

Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas.

Each ward elects a representative who is known as the ward Member or Panch.

The Gram Sabha members elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat President.

The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanch together form the Gram Panchayat.

The term of Gram Panchayat is five years.

The Gram Panchayat and the Gram Sabha have one common secretary. The secretary is appointed by the government.

It is the secretary who calls the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat.

One of the main functions of the Gram Sabha is to prevent the Gram Panchayat from doing wrong things.

The Gram Panchayat is responsible for the implementation of the developmental programmes for the villages that come under its jurisdiction.

The Panchayati Raj System is a process through which people participate in their own government.

The Panchayati Raj System is the first tier or level of democratic government. It extends to two other levels— Block level (Janpad Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti), District Panchayat (Zila Parishad).

Gram Panchayat: It is the primary unit of governance in the Panchayati Raj System. It
consists of a Panchayat President and its members elected by the people through a general election. .

Gram Sabha: Gram Sabha is a meeting where people directly participate and seek answers from their elected representatives.

Sarpanch: He is the Panchayat President.

Panchayati Raj System: It is a process through which people participate in their own government.

Role of the People: The people play an important role in the proper functioning of a democratic government, which includes elections as well as the working and decision-making responsibility of the government.

Election: In a democracy, people cast their vote to elect their representatives, who take decisions on behalf of the people. The government is elected for a period of five years in India.

Social Movements: People express their views in many ways like dhammas, strikes, rallies and signature campaigns, e.g., Activists of the Bhartiya Kisan Union staged a demonstration at the Mini Secretariat to protest against the power shortage during the paddy transplantation season.

Recognition to Minority: The democratic character of the government of a country would be stronger if the minority people (Dalits, Adivasis, Women) participate in the process of the government. The minority communities and Adivasis participated in the working of the government by demanding the inclusion of Santhali language in the Constitution of India.

Role of the Government: Suppose, if a religious procession and celebrations lead to conflicts, the government, particularly the police play an important role in getting the representatives of the concerned community to meet and try to arrive at a solution.

Equality and Justice: The key idea of a democratic government is its commitment to equality and justice. The minority communities were denied of many facilities. Dr Ambedkar realised that such practices must not continue and justice can be achieved only if people are treated equally.

In South Africa, we can find people of several races — black native people, whites and Indians.

The country was governed by apartheid laws. Apartheid means separation on the basis of race.

South African people were divided into white, black, Indian and coloured races and apartheid laws prevented them from getting mixed with each other.

Non-white had to face several distinctions. They were not allowed to vote. Neither they availed other basic privileges.

Hence, the African National Congress started a struggle against the apartheid system under the leadership of Nelson Mandela.

Nelson Mandela fought for several years. Finally, South Africa became a democratic country in 1994. Now, there is no apartheid there and people of all races are considered equal.

There are fixed periods for the governments that are elected. In India, once the government is elected, it can stay in power for five years. Thus, people participate in the process of government by using their voting rights.

People also participate by taking an interest in the working of the government and by criticising it when required.

People express their views against the government’s wrong decisions by holding dharnas, rallies, strikes, signature campaigns, etc.

People also participate by organising themselves into social movements and seek to challenge the government and its functioning.

The government plays a major role in resolving the conflicts if they occur among people of different cultures, religions, regions, etc.

Religious processions and celebrations can sometimes lead to conflicts. Rivers can also become a source of conflict between states.

Equality and justice are key elements of democracy.

The practice of untouchability is now banned by law in order to bring equality and justice in society.

The government also takes steps to bring girl child on an equal level with a boy child.

Apartheid: It refers to the system under which separation is practised on the basis of race.

Race: One of the main groups that humans can be divided according to their physical differences, for example, the colour of their skin.

Representative: The person elected through people’s voting right to take part in the system of governance.

Participation: People’s involvement in the process of government.

Conflict: Differences between people of various castes, cultures or creed. The conflict may arise in the name of region, religion, language, etc.

Resolution: Solution of the conflict.

Chapter 3 What is Government Class 6 Notes Social Science Civics 

Government: Government is “the organisation, that is the governing authority of a political unit”, “the ruling power in political society” and the apparatus through which a governing body functions and exercises authority”.

Levels of Government: India is a representative democracy where people are eligible ‘to vote, elect representatives and participate in the decisions making the process. The government works at different levels: national, state and local level.

National Level: It refers to the area of the government which is concerned with national issues such as taxation, defence, international relations and trade.

State Level: Each of the State Governments has its own police force, education system and road laws.

Local Level: The local governments are known as Panchayats in rural areas and Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Nagar Panchayats in urban areas.

Laws and the Government: A rule of conduct established and enforced by the authority, legislation or custom of a given community, state or nation is called law. It is both the responsibility of the government and citizens to uphold the integrity of laws.

Types of Government: Governments can be classified into several types. Some of the most common types of governments are a democracy, monarchy, etc.

Democracy: It is a form of government run by elected representatives who hold the decision making power. The word ‘democracy’ originates from the Greek words ‘demos’ and ‘krotos’, meaning “rule of the people.” It can be classified into direct and indirect democracy.

Monarchy: A monarchy refers to the rule by a king or queen. Sometimes, a king is called an “emperor”. It is a government with a hereditary head of the state. It can be classified into two types, i.e., absolute and constitutional monarchy.

Representative Democracy: The type of democracy in which the citizens delegate authority to their elected representatives.

Women’s Suffrage: A Movement started in the early 20th century vigorously for many years, demanding equality with men and the right to vote.

Franchise: A privilege or right officially granted to a person or a group by a government, especially the constitutional or statutory right to vote.

Each country needs a government to make important decisions and function well. The decisions may be economic, educational or social.

The government also takes care of international boundaries and relations with other countries. It is responsible for the transport facilities and health facilities for citizens.

The government works at different levels—like, local level, state level, national level.

The government makes laws and every citizen is supposed to follow them. Laws need to be enforced for proper function of the government.

Citizens can also take the help of law if they are dissatisfied with something.

There are some types of government, like the democratic, monarch, etc. In a democracy (like India), the people elect the government themselves by voting in the election. In a monarchy, the king/queen has the power to make decisions and no one from the citizens can* object to them.

The basic idea of democracy is that people rule themselves by taking part in the law-making.

Nowadays, democratic governments are better known as ‘representative democracies’. People do not participate directly. They choose their representatives during elections and these representatives come together for the decision-making process. All adults in the country are eligible to vote according to the universal adult franchise.

There are instances in history when governments did not allow women, the poor people and the uneducated to vote. But when India got independence, the universal adult franchise was enforced.

Government: The system or machinery present in each country in order to make decisions for the proper running of the country is called government.

Laws: The rules laid down by the government for the proper functioning of the country are called laws.

Democracy: A system of government in which the people (citizens) of the country choose their leaders to rule is called democracy. The elected government is answerable to its people for its decisions.

Monarchy: A system of government which is run by a king/queen on a hereditary basis and where people do not get their say in decision-making is called a monarchy. The king/queen is said to be the monarch.

Elections: The process in which citizens of a democratic country cast their votes for the leaders of their choice is called the election. The elected leaders form a government later.

Representative Democracy: A form of democracy in which people do not elect the government directly but only choose their representative, who collectively form a government is called representative democracy. Most democracies are representative in nature.

Universal Adult Franchise: The rule that allows all adults in the country, irrespective of caste, creed, gender, literacy, occupation, etc., to vote and take part in the elections, is the universal adult franchise.