Question 1.
Describe in brief the three challenges faced by democracy. (2014 D)
Answer:

1. Foundational challenge. It relates to making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government. It involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional State.
2. Challenge of expansion. It involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions. It pertains to ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc. Most established democracies, e.g., India and US, face the challenge of expansion.
3. Challenge of deepening of democracy. This challenge involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy. It means strengthening those institutions that help people’s participation and control in the government. It aims at bringing down the control and influence of rich and powerful people in making governmental decisions.

Question 2.
What do you mean by foundational challenge in democracy? What values can help to overcome this challenge? (2014 OD)
Answer:
Transition to democratic institutions from non-democratic regimes, separation of military from governing authority, establishing a sovereign and a functional state can be some of the foundational challenges in democracies.
The values that may help overcome them are:

• honesty
• equality
• freedom

Question 3.
Describe in brief the three challenges faced by democracy.
Answer:

1. Foundational challenge. It relates to making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government. It involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional State.
2. Challenge of expansion. It involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions. It pertains to ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc. Most established democracies, e.g., India and US, face the challenge of expansion.
3. Challenge of deepening of democracy. This challenge involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy. It means strengthening those institutions that help people’s participation and control in the government. It aims at bringing down the control and influence of rich and powerful people in making governmental decisions.

Question 4.
Explain with examples why some laws that seek to ban something are not very successful in politics. (2011 D)
Answer:
Law has an important role to play in political reform. Carefully devised changes in law can help to discourage wrong political practices and encourage good ones. But legal constitutional changes by themselves are not effective, until carried out by political activists, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens. Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Sometimes it can be counter-productive.

For example, many states have banned people who have more than two children from contesting panchayat elections. This has resulted in denial of democratic opportunity to many poor men and women.

The best laws are those which empower the people to carry out democratic reforms. The Right to Information Act is a good example that supplements the existing laws. “Any law for political reforms is a good solution but who will implement it and how”—is the question. It is not necessary that the legislators will pass legislations that go against the interests of the political parties and MPs.

Question 5.
“Legal constitutional changes by themselves cannot overcome challenges to democracy.” Explain with example. (2015 D, 2013 D, 2011 D)
Or
How are the challenges to democracy linked to the possibility of political reforms? Explain.
Or
Suggest any five political reforms to strengthen democracy. (2014 D)
Answer:
As legal constitutional changes by themselves cannot overcome challenges to democracy, democratic reforms need to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens.
(i) Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Generally, laws that seek a ban on something are rather counter-productive;
For example, many states have debarred people who have more than two children from contesting Panchayat elections. This has resulted in denial of democratic opportunity to many poor women, which was not intended. The best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic reforms; for example, the Right to Information Act which acts as a watchdog of democracy by controlling corruption.

(ii) Democratic reforms are to be brought about principally through political parties. The most important concern should be to increase and improve the quality of political participation by ordinary citizens.

(iii) Any proposal for political reforms should think not only about what is a good solution, but also about who will implement it and how. Measures that rely on democratic movements, citizens’ organizations and media are likely to succeed.

Question 6.
Explain the ‘foundational challenge’ of democracy by stating three points. (2011 D)
Answer:

1. Foundational challenge relates to making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government. It involves establishing a sovereign and functional state.
2. It involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a civilian control over all governmental institutions by holding elections.
3. It involves the recognition of people’s choice and opportunity to change rulers, recognise people’s will. In countries like Myanmar political leader Suu Kyi has been kept under house arrest for more than 20 years. Thus, in this case, foundational challenge recognizes the need to release political leaders and recall them from exile and holding of multiparty elections.

Question 7.
Explain ‘the challenge of deepening of democracy’ by stating three points. (2012 D, 2014 OD)
Answer:
The challenge of deepening of democracy:

1. This challenge involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy. It means strengthening those institutions that help people’s participation and control in the government.
   The challenge lies in realising the expectations of the people in a democracy. It is possible that some significant decisions may take place through consensus but challenging moments in democracy usually involve conflict between those groups who have power and those who aspire for a share in power. In Bolivia, the water struggle was a challenge of deepening of democracy.
2. The challenge of deepening of democracy is faced by every nation in one form or another. It aims at bringing down the control and influence of the rich and powerful people in making governmental decisions. The need is for individual freedom and dignity to have legal and moral force.

Question 8.
How are some countries of the world facing the ‘challenge of expansion of democracy’? Explain with examples. (2012 D, 2012 OD)
“Most of the established democracies are facing the challenge of expansion.” Support the statement with examples. (2016 D)
Answer:
Most of the established democracies face the challenge of expansion. This involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions. Ensuring greater power to local government, extension of federal principle to all the units of federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc. falls under this challenge. This means less and less decisions should remain outside the arena of democratic control. Most of the countries including India and the US face this challenge.

Question 9.
Explain with examples how do some countries face foundational challenge of democracy. (2013 OD)
Answer:

1. Foundational challenge relates to making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government. It involves establishing a sovereign and functional state.
2. It involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a civilian control over all governmental institutions by holding elections. Eg: Nepal, Egypt, Pakistan.
3. In countries like Pakistan, democracy comes for and/ or remains for a short time and gets replaced by dictatorial rule.
4. It involves the recognition of people’s choice and opportunity to change rulers, recognize people’s will. In countries like Myanmar political leader Suu Kyi was kept under house arrest for more than 20 years. Thus, in this case, foundational challenge recognizes the need to release political leaders and recall them from exile and holding of multiparty elections.

Question 10.
Analyse three major challenges before countries which do not have democratic form of governments. (2013 OD)
Answer:
Challenges faced by countries which do not have a democratic form of government:

1. These countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government.
2. They also face the challenge of bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, and keeping the military away from controlling the government.
3. Such countries have to make great efforts to establish a sovereign and functional State

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Question 1.
Analyse any three values that make democracy better. (2017 D)
Answer:
We feel that democracy is a better form of government than any other form of government because:

1. Democracy promotes equality among citizens.
2. It enhances dignity of individual. It promotes dignity of women and strengthens the claims of the disadvantaged.
3. It improves the quality of decision making. There is transparency in a democracy.
4. It provides methods to resolve conflicts.
5. Democracy allows room to correct mistakes.

Question 2.
On the basis of which values will it be a fair expectation that democracy should produce a harmonious social life? Explain. (2017 OD)
Answer:
No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. But we can certainly learn to respect these differences and evolve a mechanism to negotiate the differences. Belgium is an example of how successfully differences were negotiated among ethnic groups. Therefore, democracy is best suited to accommodate various social divisions as it usually develops a procedure to conduct their competition. But the example of Sri Lanka shows how distrust between two communities turned into widespread conflict. Thus, a democracy must fulfil the following conditions and be based on these values in order to achieve a harmonious social life—

1. Majority and minority opinions are not permanent. Democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion. The majority needs to work with minority so that government may function to represent the general view.
2. Rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic groups, etc.
3. Democracy remains democracy so long as every citizen has a chance of being in majority at some point of time. No individual should be debarred from participating in a democracy on the basis of religion, caste, community, creed and other such factors.

Question 3.
Why do we feel that democracy is a better form of government than any other form? Explain. 2015OD Answer: Democracy is a better form of government than any other form because:

1. It is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation. Thus the necessary delay in implementation.
2. Decisions are acceptable to people and are more effective.
3. A citizen has the right and the means to examine the process of decision-making. There is transparency in a democracy.
4. Democratic government is a legitimate government, people’s own government.
5. Ability to handle differences, decisions and conflicts is a positive point of democratic regimes.
6. Democracy has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and equal opportunity.

Question 4.
Why do we feel that democracy is a better form of government than any other form of government? Explain. (2012 OD)
Or
How do you feel that democracy is better than any other form of government? Explain. (2013 OD)
Or
“Democracy is more effective than its other alternatives.” Justify the statement. (2015 D)
Answer:
We feel that democracy is a better form of government than any other form of government because:

1. Democracy promotes equality among citizens.
2. It enhances dignity of individual. It promotes dignity of women and strengthens the claims of the disadvantaged.
3. It improves the quality of decision making. There is transparency in a democracy.
4. It provides methods to resolve conflicts.
5. Democracy allows room to correct mistakes.

Question 5.
How do democracies accommodate social diversity? Explain with examples. (2011 OD, 2014 OD)
Or
Explain the conditions in which democracies are able to accommodate social diversities. (2012 D)
Or
“Democracies lead to peaceful and harmonious life among citizens”. Support the statement with suitable examples. (2013 OD)
Answer:
No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. But we can certainly learn to respect these differences and evolve a mechanism to negotiate the differences. Belgium is an example of how successfully differences were negotiated among ethnic groups. Therefore, democracy is best suited to accommodate various social divisions as it usually develops a procedure to conduct their competition. But the example of Sri Lanka shows how distrust between two communities turned into widespread conflict, and thus a democracy must fulfil the following two conditions in order to achieve a harmonious social life:

1. Majority and minority opinions are not permanent. Democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion. The majority needs to work with minority so that government may function to represent the general view.
2. Rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic groups, etc.
3. Democracy remains democracy so long as every citizen has a chance of being in majority at some point of time. No individual should be debarred from participating in a democracy on the basis of religion, caste, community, creed and other such factors.

Question 6.
Explain the ways in which democracy has succeeded in maintaining dignity and freedom of citizens. (2012 D)
Or, “Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual.” Support the statement with suitable examples. 20130D
Answer:
The passion of respect and freedom are the basis of democracy:

1. Economic disparity in society has been minimized to a great extent.
2. In many democracies women were deprived of their right to vote for a long period of time. After long struggle they achieved their right, respect and equal treatment.
3. Democracy in India has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal states and opportunities, for example, SCs and STs.
4. In democracy all adult citizens have the right to vote.
5. Democracy evolves a mechanism that takes into account the differences and intrinsic attributes of various ethnic groups. In a democracy majority always needs to work taking into account the interest of the minority so that the minority do not feel alienated.

Question 7.
How is democracy a better form of government in comparison with other forms of governments? Explain. (2016 D, 2014 D)
Or, “There is an overwhelming support for the idea of democracy all over the world.” Support the statement. (2015 OD)
Answer:
Over a hundred countries of the world today claim and practice some kind of democratic politics.

• They have formal constitutions, hold elections, have parties and they guarantee rights of citizens.
  Thus, in most countries, the democracy produces a government that is accountable to the citizens and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens.
• No society can fully and permanently resolve conflict among different groups. But we can learn to respect these differences and evolve mechanisms to negotiate them. Democracy is best suited as it develops a procedure to conduct competitions. Belgium is a successful example of negotiating difference among ethnic population.
• Passion for respect and freedom is the basis of democracy and has been achieved in various degrees in various democracies.
• The support for democracy is overwhelming all over the world and is evident from South Asia, where the support exists in countries with democratic as well as undemocratic regimes.
• People wish to be ruled by representatives elected by them as a democratic government is people’s own government and makes them believe that it is suitable for their country as it is a legitimate government.

Question 8.
“Most destructive feature of democracy is that its examination never gets over.” Support the statement with appropriate arguments. (2011 D)
Answer:
Suitable arguments:

1. As people get some benefits of democracy, they ask for more.
2. People always come up with more expectations from the democratic set up.
3. They also have complaints against democracy.
4. More and more suggestions and complaints by the people is also a testimony to the success of democracy.
5. A public expression of dissatisfaction with democracy shows the success of the democratic project.

Question 9.
“Democracy is seen to be good in principle but felt to be not so good in practice.” Justify the statement. (2013 D)
Answer:
If we look at some of the democratic policies being implemented in more than one hundred countries of the world, democracy seems to be good. For example, having a formal Constitution, holding regular elections, guaranteeing the citizens certain rights, working for the welfare of the people etc. make us advocate that democracy is good.

But if we look in terms of social situations, their economic achievements and varied cultures, we find a very big difference in most of the democracies. The vast economic disparities, social injustice based on discrimination, standard of life, sex discrimination, etc. create many doubts about the merits of democracy. Whenever some of our expectations are not met, we start blaming the idea of democracy. Since democracy is a form of government, it can only create conditions for achieving our goals if they are reasonable.

Question 10.
“Democracy stands much superior in promoting dignity and freedom of the citizens”. Justify the statement. (2016 OD)
Answer:
Examples to illustrate that dignity and freedom of citizens are best guaranteed in a democracy:

(i) Dignity of women. Democracy recognizes dignity of women as a necessary ingredient of society. The one way to ensure that women related problems get adequate attention is to have more women as elected representatives. To achieve this, it is legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies. Panchayati Raj in India has reserved one-third seats in local government bodies for women. In March 2010, the Women’s Reservation Bill was passed in the Rajya Sabha ensuring 33% reservation for women in Parliament and State legislative bodies.

(ii) Democracy has strengthened the claims of disadvantaged and discriminated castes. When governments are formed, political parties usually take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in it. Some political parties are known to favour some castes. Democracy provides for equal status and opportunities for all castes.

(iii) Democracy transforms people from the status of a subject into that of a citizen. A democracy is concerned with ensuring that people will have the right to choose their rulers and people will have control over the rulers. Whenever possible and necessary, citizens should be able to participate in decision-making that affects them all.

(iv) A citizen has the right and the means to examine the process of decision-making. There is transparency in a democracy like India. In October 2005, the Right to Information (RTI) law was passed which ensures all its citizens the right to get all the information about the functions of the government departments. In a democracy, people also have the right to complain about its functioning.

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Question 1.
“No party system is ideal for all countries and in all situations.” Justify the statement with five arguments. (2013 0D)
Answer:
Parties are a necessary condition for a democracy. The rise of political parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies. Party system is not something any country can choose. It evolves depending on the nature of society, its social and regional divisions, its history of politics and system of elections.

Each country develops a party system that is conditioned by its special circumstances.

For example, India has evolved a multi-party system, because of its social and geographical diversity which cannot be easily absorbed by two or three parties.
Political parties make policies to promote collective good and there can be different views on what is good for all. Therefore no system is ideal for all countries and situations.

Question 2.
Describe the three components of a political party. (2014 D, 2015 OD)
Answer:
Components of a political party are:

1. The leaders,
2. active members and
3. the followers.
   • The leaders are recruited and trained by parties. They are made ministers to run the government. The big policy decisions are taken by the political executives that come from the political parties.
   • Parties have lakhs of members and activists spread over the country. Many of the pressure groups are the extensions of political parties among different sections of society. But since most of the members belong to a party, they go by the direction of the party leadership, irrespective of their personal opinion.
   • The followers are the ordinary citizens, who believe in the policies of their respective party and give popular support through elections. Often the opinion of the followers crystallise on the lines parties take.

Question 3.
What is a multi-party system? Why has India adopted a multi-party system? Explain. (2015 D)
Or
How has multi-party system strengthened democracy in India? (2012 D)
Answer:
Multi-party system. In this system, the government is formed by various parties coming together in a coalition. When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and winning power, it is called an alliance or a front.

For example, in India there were three major alliances in 2004 parliamentary elections—the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and the Left Front. This system on one hand leads to political instability but at the same time, allows for a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political representation.

Each country develops a party system that is suitable for its special circumstances. India has evolved as a multi-party system because its social and geographical diversity cannot be absorbed by two or three parties. Thus, such representation strengthens democracy. Multi-party system facilitates representation of regional and geographical diversities. In India, several regional parties are in power at the State level such as the DMK in Tamil Nadu, Akali Dal in Punjab the BSP in Uttar Pradesh.

Question 4.
“Lack of internal democracy within parties is the major challenge to political parties all over the world”. Analyse the statement. (2015 D)
Answer:

1. Most political parties do not practise open and transparent procedures for their functioning like maintaining membership registers, holding organisational meetings or conducting internal elections regularly. Thus, ordinary members of the party do not get sufficient information on the happenings in the party and have no means to influence the decisions.
2. Also, there are very few chances for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party. Since one or, at the most, a few leaders exercise paramount power in the party, those who disagree with the leadership, find it difficult to continue in the party.
3. Those who happen to be the leaders are in a position to take undue advantage and favour people close to them or even their family members. And, in many parties, the top positions are invariably controlled by members of one family which is bad for democracy.

Question 5.
“Dynastic succession is one of the most serious challenges before the political parties.” Analyse the statement. (2015 OD)
Answer:
Most political parties do not practise open and transparent procedures for their functioning. So there are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party. Those who happen to be the leaders are in a position of unfair advantage as they favour people close to them or even their family members. In many parties in India, we see a trend of dynastic succession. The top positions are always controlled by members of a particular family, which is unfair to other members of the party, and bad for democracy. This is so because people who do not have adequate experience or popular support come to occupy positions of power.

More than loyalty to party principles and policies, personal loyalty to the leader becomes more important. This tendency is seen all over the world, even in older democracies.

Question 6.
What is meant by a ‘national political party’? State the conditions required to be a national political party. (2016 D)
Answer:
National political parties have their units in various states. By and large all these units follow the same policies, programmes and strategy that is decided at the national level.
Conditions required to be a national political party:

• A party that secures at least 6% of the total votes in general elections of Lok Sabha or assembly elections in four states.
• A party that wins at least 4 seats in the Lok Sabha.

Question 7.
What is meant by regional political party? State the conditions required to be recognised as a ‘regional political party’. (2016 OD)
Answer:
A regional party is a party that is present in only some states. Regional parties or State parties need not be regional in their ideology. They have state identity as they are present only in some states. Some of these parties are all India parties that happen to have succeeded only in states. Example, Samajwadi Party, Rashtriya Janta Dal.
Conditions required for a party to be recognized as a regional political party:

• A party that secures atleast six percent of the total votes in an election to the legislative assembly of a state.
• Wins atleast two seats in the legislative assembly.

Question 8.
“Nearly every one of the state parties wants to get an opportunity to be a part of one or the other national level coalition.” Support the statement with arguments. (2016 D)
Answer:
The state parties also referred to as regional parties are not necessarily regional in ideology. Some of these parties are all India parties that happen to have succeeded only in some states. Over the last three decades, the number and strength of these parties has expanded. Before the general elections one national party was able to secure on its own a majority in the Lok Sabha.

As a result, the national parties were compelled to form alliances with state parties.

Since 1996, nearly every one of the state parties got an opportunity to be a part of one or the other national level coalition government. This contributed to the strengthening of federalism and democracy. Example of state parties having national level political organisation with units in several states are Samajwadi Party (SP), Rashtriya Janata Dal, Samata Party.

Question 9.
Analyse the three components of a political party. (2016 OD)
Answer:
The three components of a political party are as follows:

• The leaders. A political party consists of leaders, who contest elections and if they win the elections, they perform the administrative jobs.
• The active members. They are the ones who work actively for the party. They are the assistants of the leaders and implement the plans and ideologies of the political party.
• The followers. They are the ardent followers of the parties and their leaders and support them in the elections.

Question 10.
Explain any five suggestions to reform political parties in India. (2011 D)
Or
Suggest and explain any five effective measures to reform political parties. (2016 OD, 2015 OD)
Answer:
Five suggestions made to reform the political parties:

1. Law to regulate the internal affairs of political parties like maintaining a register of its members, to follow its own constitution, to have independent authority, to act as judge in case of party dispute, to hold open elections to the highest post.
2. It should be mandatory for political parties to give one-third tickets to women candidates. Also there should be quota for women on the decision-making bodies of the party.
3. There should be state funding of elections. The government should give money to parties to support their election expenses in kind (petrol, paper, telephone, etc.) or in cash on the basis of votes secured by the party in the previous election.
4. The candidate should be educated, so that he can solve and understand people’s problems. His previous record should be cleared. He should be honest and there should be no criminal case against him.
5. Citizens can reform politics if they take part directly and join political parties. People can put pressure on political parties through petitions, publicity in media, agitations etc.

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Question 1.
Explain with examples the two types of political movements. (2011)
Answer:
The movement in Nepal and movement in Bolivia are examples of two types of political movements for democracy.
The movement in Nepal was to regain popular control over the government from the King. This was a struggle to restore democracy. The movement in Bolivia was against a specific policy of the elected democratic government. The people of Bolivia agitated and protested against the government’s decision of privatization of water.

Both these movements are instances of political conflicts that led to popular struggles. Even though in both cases public demonstration of mass support clinched the dispute, their level of impact was different.

Question 2.
What inspiration do we get from Bolivia’s popular struggle? Explain any three values that we can learn from it. (2014)
Answer:
We can identify the following values in Bolivia’s struggle:

1. It was a conflict between the people and the government to fight for justice and fairness and to fight against the greed of the government.
2. The Bolivian organization FEDECOR represented the common or general interest. The members of the organization did not necessarily benefit from the cause that the organization represented. They were fighting for collective social good.
3. The political conflict that led to popular struggle in Bolivia involved mass mobilization. It showed the power of the common people.

Question 3.
Mention any three similarities between struggles of Nepal and Bolivia. (2012)
Answer:
The struggle in both these countries relates to establishing and restoring democracy. The success of peoples’ struggle is a reminder that popular struggles are integral to the working of democracy. The democratic struggle in Nepal and Bolivia share some elements:

• The popular struggle in the form of protest turned into indefinite strike.
• Struggle involved mass mobilization.
• Political conflict led to popular struggle.
• Political organization played a critical role.

Question 4.
Explain with examples, how movements are different from interest groups. (2013)
Answer:
Movements:

1. Movements have a loose organization.
2. Movements are issue specific and long-term involving more than one issue.
3. Their decision-making is more informal and flexible.
4. They depend much on spontaneous mass participation.
   Example: Narmada Bachao Andolan under Medha Patkar.

Interest groups:

1. Interest groups form organizations and undertake activities to promote their interests.
2. Interests groups are both sectional and public. Sectional interest groups promote interest of particular section of society and promotional or public interest groups aim to help groups other than their own members.
3. They promote collective good and are concerned with welfare of the society and not just their own members.
   Example: BAMCEF (Backward and Minorities Community Employee Federation).

Question 5.
Describe the movement for democracy in Nepal. (2011)
Answer:
The Nepalese for democracy arose with the specific objective of reversing the king’s order that led to suspension of democracy. The popular struggle in Nepal involved many organizations other than political parties like the SPA or the Nepalese Communist Party. All the major labour unions and their federations joined the movement. Many other organizations of the indigenous people, teachers, lawyers and human rights groups extended support to the movement.

Question 6.
Differentiate between sectional interest groups and public interest groups with examples.
Answer:

Sectional interest groups	Public interest groups
(i) They seek to promote the interest of a particular section or group of society.	(i) They seek to promote collective interest rather than selective good.
(ii) They are sectional groups because they represent a section of society.	(ii) They are public groups because they represent the general people of the society.
(iii) They promote selective good and are concerned only about the interest of their section of the society, their own members and not the society in general.	(iii) They promote collective good and are concerned with welfare of the society and not just their own members.
(iv) For example, FEDECOR (Bolivian organization).	(iv) E.g., BAMCEF (Backward and Minorities Community Employee Federation).

Question 7.
Explain how the relationship between political parties and pressure groups can take different forms? (2011)
Answer:
The relationship between political parties and pressure groups can take different forms, some direct and others very indirect.
In some instances the pressure groups are either formed or led by the leaders of political parties or act as extended arms of political parties. For example, most trade unions and students’ organizations in India are either established by or affiliated to one or the other major political party.

Sometimes political parties grow out of movements. For example, the Assam Movement led by students against the ‘foreigners’ led to the formation of the Asom Gana Parishad. The roots of parties like the DMK and the AIADMK in Tamil Nadu can be traced to social reform movement during the 1930s and 1940s. When the relationship between parties and interest groups is not so direct they often take positions opposed to each other. Yet they are in dialogue and negotiation. New issues raised by movements have been taken up by political parties.

Question 8.
“The struggle of the Nepali people is a source of inspiration to democrats all over the world.” Support the statement. (2015)
Answer:

1. The Nepalese movement for democracy arose with the specific objective of reversing the king’s order that led to suspension of democracy.
2. The movement of 2006 was aimed at regaining popular control over the government from the king.
3. The popular struggle in Nepal involved many organisations other than political parties like the SPA or the Nepalese Communist Party.
4. All major political parties in the Parliament formed a Seven Party Alliance (SPA) and called a four day strike in Kathmandu. This strike turned into an indefinite strike in which the Maoists and other insurgent groups joined hands.
5. All the major labour unions and their federations joined the movement. Many other organisations of the indigenous people, teachers, lawyers and human rights groups extended support to the movement.
6. The movement put forward three demands:
   • Restoration of Parliament
   • Power to an all-party government
   • A new Constituent Assembly.
7. The number of protesters reached between three to five lakhs. They stuck to their demands and the king was forced to concede to all three demands. On 24th April, the SPA chose Girija Prasad Koirala as the new Prime Minister of the interim government.

Question 9.
What are sectional interest groups? Describe their functioning. (2016)
Answer:
Sectional interest groups are the groups that seek to promote the interests of a particular section or a group of society. For example, FEDECOR (Bolivian organisation).
Functioning:

• They perform a meaningful role in countering the undue influence of other groups.
• They create awareness about the needs and concerns of their own society.

Question `10.
What is the difference between pressure group and a political party ?
Answer:

Pressure groups	Political parties
(i) Pressure groups are organisations that attempt to influence government policies.	(i) A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold powers in the government.
(ii) Unlike political parties, pressure groups do not aim to directly control or share political powers. The groups wield power without responsibility.	(ii) Political parties form and run governments. They play a decisive role in making laws, shaping public opinion.
(iii) Pressure groups are not accountable to the people.	(iii) Political parties have to face the people in elections. Parties have to be responsive to peoples’ need and demands. Otherwise people can reject them in next elections.

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Question 1.
Explain the status of women’s representation in India’s legislative bodies. (2014)
Answer:
The one way to ensure that women related problems get adequate attention is to have more women as elected representatives. To achieve this, it is legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies.

• Panchayati Raj in India has reserved one-third seats in Local Government bodies for women.
• In India, the proportion of women in legislature has been very low. The percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha is not even 10 per cent and in State Assemblies less than 5 per cent. India is behind several developing countries of Africa and Latin America. Women organisations have been demanding reservations of at least one-third seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for women.
• And only recently, in March 2010, the women’s reservation bill was passed in the Rajya Sabha ensuring 33% reservation to women in Parliament and State Legislative bodies.

Question 2.
How does religion influence the political set up in our country? Explain. (2015)
Answer:
Gandhiji said, “Religion can never be separated from politics”. By religion he did not mean any particular religion like Hinduism or Islam, but moral values and ethics drawn from religion to guide politics. Religion in politics is not as dangerous as it may seem to us. Ethical values of each religion can play a major role in politics. According to human rights groups, most of the victims of communal riots in our country are from religious minorities.

Government can take special steps to protect them. Family laws of all religions discriminate against women. The government can change laws to make them more equitable. These instances show a relationship between religion and politics. People should be able to express in politics their needs, interests and demands as members of a religious community. Thus, it is the responsibility of those whose political power is able to regulate the practice of religion, to prevent discrimination and oppression. These political acts are not wrong as long as they treat every religion equally.

Question 3.
“Gender division is not based on Biology but on social expectations and stereotypes’. Support the statement. (2012)
Or
Mention different aspects of life in which women are discriminated against or disadvantaged in India.
Answer:
‘Gender division is not based on Biology but on social expectations and stereotypes’:

1. Boys and girls are brought up to believe that the main responsibility of women is house work and bringing up children. There is sexual division of labour in most families where women stay at home and men work outside to play the role of breadwinners.
2. Literacy rate among women is only 54% in comparison to 76% among men. In studies, girls mostly perform better than boys, but they drop out simply because parents prefer to spend their resources on their sons’ education. A smaller proportion of girls go for higher studies.
3. On an average, a woman works more than an average man everyday. Since much of her work is not paid for, therefore often not valued. The Equal Wages Act provides for equal wages for equal work, but in almost all areas of work from sports to cinema, from factories to fields, women are comparatively paid less because of the male chauvinistic bent of mind of society.
4. Child sex-ratio (number of girl children per thousand boys) is very low. In India, the national average is 927. In some places it is even lower because parents prefer to have sons so they get girl child aborted.
5. In urban areas too, women are not respected and are unsafe even in their homes being subjected to beating, harassment and other forms of domestic violence.
6.  The role of women in politics in most societies is minimal.

Question 4.
State how caste inequalities are still continuing in India.
Answer:
Caste has not disappeared from contemporary India and caste division is special to India. Some of the older aspects of caste persist even today.

1. Even now most people marry within their own caste.
2. Untouchability has not ended completely despite constitutional prohibition.
3. Effects of centuries of advantages and disadvantages can be felt today. The caste groups that had access to education under old system have done well, whereas those groups that did not have access to education have lagged behind.
4. There is a large presence of ‘upper caste’ among the urban middle classes in our country.
5. Caste continues to be linked to economic status as is evident from National Sample Survey:
   • The average economic status of caste groups still follows the old hierarchy
   • the ‘upper’ castes are best off, the Dalits and Adivasis are worst off and the backward classes are in between.
   • Although every caste has some poor members, the proportion of those living in extreme poverty is higher for lowest castes and much lower for the upper castes.
   • Similarly, every caste has some members who are rich. The upper castes are heavily over-represented among the rich while the lower castes are under-represented.
   • The SC, ST and OBC together account for about two-thirds of India’s population.

Question 5.
What factors have brought about a change in the Indian Caste system in modern times? Explain. (2012)
Answer:
The castes and caste system in modern India have undergone great changes due to the efforts of social reformers and the socio-economic changes in India. With economic development, large scale urbanisation, growth of literacy and education, occupational mobility and weakening of the position of landlords in the villages, the old notions of caste hierarchy are breaking down. Politics too influences the caste system and caste identities by bringing them into the political arena. The Constitution of India prohibits any caste-based discrimination and has laid foundations of policies to reverse injustices of the caste system.

Question 6.
Explain the various forms that caste can take in politics.
Answer:
Various forms of caste in politics:

1. When governments are formed, political parties usually take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in it.
2. When parties choose candidates, they keep in mind the composition of the electorate and accordingly choose candidates from different castes so as to muster necessary support to win elections.
3. Political parties make appeals to caste sentiments to gain support. Some political parties are known to favour some castes.
4. Universal adult franchise and the principle of one-person-one-vote compelled political leaders to mobilise political support. It also brought new consciousness among people belonging to those castes which were treated as inferiors.

Question 7.
What was the Feminist Movement? Explain the political demands of the Feminist Movement in India. (2013)
Answer:
Feminist Movements are radical women’s movements aiming at attaining equality for women in personal and family life and public affairs. These movements have organised and agitated to raise channels for enhancing the political and legal status of women and improving their educational and career opportunities.

Political demands of the feminist movement in India:
The one way to ensure that women related problems get adequate attention in India is to have more women as elected representatives. To achieve this, it is legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies. Panchayati Raj in India has reserved one-third seats in Local Government bodies for women.

In India, the proportion of women in legislature has been very low. The percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha is not even 10 per cent and in State Assemblies less than 5 per cent. India in behind several developing countries of Africa and Latin America. Women organizations have been demanding reservations of at least one-third seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for women.

And only recently, in March 2010, the women’s reservation bill was passed in the Rajya Sabha ensuring 33 per cent reservation for women in Parliament and State Legislative bodies.

Question 8.
What have been the consequences of the political expression of gender division in free India? (2013)
Answer:
Political expression of gender division and political mobilisation has helped improve women’s role in public life all over the world including India. However, despite some improvements since Independence, ours is still a male-dominated society and women lag behind in all fields.

• Literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent as compared with 76 per cent among men.
• Proportion of women among highly paid and valuable jobs in still very small.
• Equal Wages Act provides that equal wages should be paid for equal work. However, in all areas from sports and cinema, factories to fields, women are paid less than men for the same amount of work.
• In many parts of India, parents prefer to have sons and find ways to abort the girl child before she is born.

Question 9.
Explain the factors that have led to the weakening of the caste system in India. (2014)
Answer:
Reasons which have contributed to changes in caste system:

1. Efforts of political leaders and social reformers like Gandhiji, B.R. Ambedkar who advocated and worked to establish a society in which caste inequalities are absent.
2. Socio-economic changes such as:
   • urbanisation
   • growth of literacy and education
   • occupational mobility
   • weakening of landlord’s position in the village
   • breaking down of caste hierarchy have greatly contributed.
3. The Constitution of India prohibited any caste-based discrimination and laid the foundations of policies to reverse the injustices of the caste system.
4. Provision of fundamental rights has played a major role because these rights are provided to all citizens without any discrimination.

Question 10.
How far is it correct to say that it is not politics that gets caste ridden but it is the caste that gets politicised? Explain. (2015)
Answer:
Politics too influences the caste system and caste identities by bringing them into the political arena. This takes several forms:

1. Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating within itself neighbouring castes or sub¬castes.
2. Various caste groups enter into a coalition with other castes for negotiations.
3. New caste groups like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ have come up in the political arena.
4. Expressions of caste differences in politics give many disadvantaged communities the chance to demand their share of power and thus gain access to decision-making.
5. Many political and non-political organisations have been demanding and agitating for an end to discrimination against particular castes for more dignity and more access to land, resources and opportunities.

Important Link

Quick Revision Notes : Gender, Religion and Caste

NCERT Solution : Gender, Religion and Caste

MCQs: Gender, Religion and Caste

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Question 1.
What are the three main factors that determine the outcome of social divisions in politics? Explain. (2014, 2013)
Answer:
Three factors determining the outcome of social divisions in politics are:
(i) How people perceive their identities. If people see their identities in exclusive terms, it becomes difficult to accommodate them. As long as people in Northern Ireland saw themselves as only Catholic or Protestant, their differences were difficult to reconcile. It is easier if identities are complementary with national identities. This helps to stay together. This is how most people in our country see their identity. They feel and think as Indian as well as belonging to a State or a language group or a social or religious group.

(ii) How political leaders raise demands of any community. It is easier to accommodate demands that are within the constitutional framework and are not at the cost of another community. The demand for ‘only Sinhala’ was at the cost of the interest and identity of the Tamil community in Sri Lanka.

(iii) How Government reacts to demands of different groups. If the rulers are willing to share power and accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, as in Belgium, social divisions become less threatening for the country. But if the demand is suppressed in the name of national unity, as in Sri Lanka, the end result is quite opposite. Such attempts at forced integration sow the seeds of disintegration.

Question 2.
Why do some people think that it’s not correct to politicize social divisions? Give three reasons. 2014
Answer:
Social divisions of one kind or another exist in most countries of the world and these divisions are reflected in politics and affect politics. Expression of social divisions in politics lead to disaster. If social divisions do exist in a country, they must never be expressed in politics, because the combination of politics and social divisions is very dangerous.

• Democracy involves competition among various political parties. Their competition tends to divide society.
• If they start competing in terms of some existing social division, it can make social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence or even disintegration of a country. In Yugoslavia, political competition along religious and ethnic lines led to disintegration of the country into six independent countries.
• Social divisions affect voting in most countries. People from one community tend to prefer some party more than others.

Question 3.
“In a democracy, political expression of social division is very normal and can be healthy”. Justify this statement with suitable arguments. (2015)
Answer:
In a democracy, political expression of social divisions is very normal and can be healthy. This allows various disadvantaged and marginal social groups to express their grievances and get the government to attend to these.

Taking the examples of Belgium and Sri Lanka, if the rulers are willing to share power and accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, social divisions become less threatening for the country. In fact it may prove healthy for a democracy.

Expressions of various kinds of social divisions in politics often results in their cancelling one another and thus reducing their intensity. This leads to strengthening of democracy.

As long as people in northern Ireland saw themselves as only Catholic or Protestant, their differences were difficult to reconcile.

A majority of Belgians now feel that they are as much Belgian as they are Dutch or German-speaking. This helps them to stay together.

Question 4.
Explain the two bases of Social differences with examples. 2017D
Answer: Origins of Social differences:

1. Accident of birth. We don’t choose to belong to our community. We belong to it simply because we were born into it. We experience social differences based on accident of birth in our everyday lives
2. Based on choices. Some of the differences are based on our choices. Some people are atheists. They don’t believe in God or any religion. Some people choose to follow a religion other than the one in which they were born. Most of us choose to study a subject of our interest and an occupation where we can excel. All these lead to formation of social groups that are based on our choices.

Question 5.
What penalty was imposed on ‘Carlos, Smith and Norman’ for their action at the 1967 Mexico Olympics? (2017 OD)
Answer:

1. The International Olympic Association held Carlos and Smith guilty of violating the Olympic spirit by making a political statement. Their medals were taken back.
2. In America, they were subjected to a lot of criticism.
3. Norman was excluded from the Australian team in the next Olympics.

Question 6.
What are the three main factors that determine the outcome of social divisions in politics? Explain.
Answer:
Three factors determining the outcome of social divisions in politics are:
(i) How people perceive their identities. If people see their identities in exclusive terms, it becomes difficult to accommodate them. As long as people in Northern Ireland saw themselves as only Catholic or Protestant, their differences were difficult to reconcile. It is easier if identities are complementary with national identities. This helps to stay together. This is how most people in our country see their identity. They feel and think as Indian as well as belonging to a State or a language group or a social or religious group.

(ii) How political leaders raise demands of any community. It is easier to accommodate demands that are within the constitutional framework and are not at the cost of another community. The demand for ‘only Sinhala’ was at the cost of the interest and identity of the Tamil community in Sri Lanka.

(iii) How Government reacts to demands of different groups. If the rulers are willing to share power and accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, as in Belgium, social divisions become less threatening for the country. But if the demand is suppressed in the name of national unity, as in Sri Lanka, the end result is quite opposite. Such attempts at forced integration sow the seeds of disintegration.

Question 7.
Distinguish between overlapping and cross-cutting of social differences. (2013)
Answer:
Difference between Overlapping and Cross-cutting of social

Overlapping	Cross-cutting
(i) Overlapping social differences create possi­bilities of deep social divisions and tensions.	(i) Cross-cutting social differences are easier to accommodate.
(ii) In overlapping one kind of social difference becomes more important than the other and the people start feeling that they belong to a different community. For example, in Nor­thern Ireland, class and religion overlap each other. If you are Catholic, you are likely to be poor, suffering a history of discrimination.	(ii) In cross-cutting, groups that share a common interest on one issue, are sometimes on different sides on different issues. For example, in Netherlands, class and religion tend to cut across each other. Catholics and Protestants are about equally likely to be poor or rich.
(iii) Catholics and Protestants have had conflicts in Northern Ireland.	(iii) There are no conflicts in the Netherlands.

Question 9.
Explain the origins of social differences. (2014, 2013)
Answer:
Origins of Social differences:

1. Accident of birth. We don’t choose to belong to our community. We belong to it simply because we were born into it. We experience social differences based on accident of birth in our everyday lives.
2. Based on choices. Some of the differences are based on our choices. Some people are atheists. They don’t believe in God or any religion. Some people choose to follow a religion other than the one in which they were born. Most of us choose to study a subject of our interest and an occupation where we can excel. All these lead to formation of social groups that are based on our choices.
   For example, Nagaland, Uttrakhand and Jharkhand.
3. Restricting of Centre-State relations. The constitutional arrangements for sharing power work depending on how the ruling parties and leaders follow these arrangements. For a long time, the . same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of states. Post-1990 saw the rise of regional parties. Since no single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the national parties had to enter into an alliance which led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for autonomy of State Governments

Question 10.
“Assertion of social diversities need not be seen as a source of danger”. Explain the statement with three arguments. (2013)
Answer:

• In a democracy, political expression of social divisions is very normal and can be healthy. This allows various disadvantaged and marginal social groups to express their grievances and get the government to attend to these.
• Expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics often results in their cancelling one another out and thus reducing their intensity. This leads to strengthening of a democracy.
• But a positive attitude towards diversity and a willingness to accommodate it do not come about easily. People who feel deprived have to fight against the injustices. Such a fight often takes the democratic path, voicing their demands in a peaceful and constitutional manner.

Important Link

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MCQs: Democracy and Diversity

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Question 1.
Why is decentralisation favoured in democracy? Identify any two reasons. (2014)
Answer:
Five advantages of decentralisation of power:

1. When power is taken away from Central and State Governments and given to local governments, it is called decentralisation. The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. People have better knowledge of problems in their localities.
2. They also have better ideas on where to spend money and how to manage things more efficiently.
3. Besides, at the local level, it is possible for the people to directly participate in decision making. This helps to inculcate a habit of democratic participation.
4. Local government is the best way to realise one important principle of democracy, namely local self¬government.
5. The need for decentralisation was recognised in our Constitution. A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to make the third tier of democracy more powerful and effective.

Question 2.
India comes under which type of federation and why? (2014)
Answer:
India comes under ‘a holding together’ type federation. In this type of federation, a large country divides its power between the constituent States and the National government. There is one government for the entire country and the others are governments at the State level. Both Central and State Governments enjoy their power independent of the other.

The Central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the states. Often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers. For example, special powers have been granted to Jammu & Kashmir.

Question 3.
State two agreements through which federations have been formed. Give an example of each.
Answer:
(i) ‘Coming together’ federations—This agreement induces independent states coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security.
Examples are: USA, Switzerland and Australia. All the constituent states have equal power and are strong vis-a-vis the federal government.

(ii) ‘Holding together’ federations — In this agreement, a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. The Central Governments tend to be more powerful vis-a-vis the states. Often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers, for example, India granted special powers to Jammu & Kashmir.
Other examples are Spain and Belgium.

Long Answer Questions (LA)

Question 4.
Which five provisions of the constitutional amendment of 1992 really strengthened the third tier of democracy in India? Explain. (2015, 2013, 2012)
Answer:
Major steps towards decentralisation and strengthening of third tier taken in 1992 were:

1. Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to Local Government bodies.
2. Seats are reserved in elected bodies for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes (OBCs).
3. Atleast one-third of all positions and seats are reserved for women.
4. An independent institution called the State Election Commission was created to conduct Panchayat and Municipal elections.
5. The State Governments are required to share some powers and revenue with Local Government bodies.

Question 5.
Why has federalism succeeded in India? Which are the policies adopted by India that have ensured it? Explain. (2013, 2012)
Answer:
Reasons for success of federalism in India are:

1. Clearly laid out Constitutional Provisions providing a three-fold distribution of powers in the three lists—Union List, State List and Concurrent List—between the Union Government and State Governments.
2. The nature of democratic politics in our country which ensures that the spirit of federalism, respect for diversity and desire for living together became a shared ideal.
3. The creation of linguistic states. Boundaries of several old states of India were changed in order to create new states. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same state. Later some states were created to recognise differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography.
   For example: Nagaland, Uttrakhand, Jharkhand, Telangana, etc.
4. Restricting Centre-State relations. The constitutional arrangements for sharing power work depending on how the ruling parties and leaders follow these arrangements. For a long time, the same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of states. Post-1990 saw the rise of regional parties. Since no single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the national parties had to enter into an alliance which led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for autonomy of State Governments.

Question 6.
Explain any five features of federalism. (2015)
Answer:
Features of federalism:

1. There are two or more levels of government.
2. Different levels of government govern the same citizens, where each level has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
3. Existence and authority of each level of government is constitutionally governed.
4. The fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally changed. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
5. Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution and powers of the different levels of government. The highest court acts as the umpire if any dispute arises between different levels of governments.
6. Sources of revenue for each level of government are specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
7. Federal system has dual objectives. To safeguard and promote unity of the country, and to accommodate regional diversity.

Question 7.
Describe the three forms of power sharing among different organs of government in India. (2014)
Answer:
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States based on the principles of federalism. The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union or the Central Government representing Union of India and the State Governments. Later, a third tier was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities.

As in any federation, these different tiers enjoyed separate jurisdiction. The Constitution provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers:

1. Union List includes subjects of national importance, i.e., defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency.
2. State List contains subjects of state and local importance, i.e., police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation.
3. Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as the State Governments, i.e., education, forests, trade unions, marriages, adoption and succession.
   In case of dispute, law made by the Union Government shall prevail.
4. Residuary—Subjects which do not fall in any of the three lists, i.e., computer software, etc. Union Government has the power to legislate such subjects.
   • As India is an example of ‘holding together’ federation, all states in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. Some states enjoy special status such as Jammu & Kashmir. There are some states too small to become independent like the Union Territories of Chandigarh and Lakshadweep.
   • This sharing of power between the Union Government and State Governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution. Any change to it, has to be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament with at least two-third majority.
   • The judiciary plays an important role in the implementation of constitutional procedures. In case of any dispute about division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision.

Question 8.
Describe in brief the language policy of India?
Answer:

1. Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language.
2. The formation of linguistic states united the country and made administration easier.
3. The leaders of our country adopted a very cautious attitude in spreading the use of Hindi. Hindi was identified as official language.
4. The banning of use of English for official purposes in 1965 took a violent form in Tamil Nadu. The Central Government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes.
5. Promotion of Hindi is an official policy of the Government of India but it does not impose Hindi on states where people speak a different language.
6. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as scheduled languages by the Constitution.
7. This flexibility shown by Indian leaders helped our country avoid the situation that Sri Lanka finds itself in.

Question 9.
What were the major steps taken to make decentralisation more effective?
Or
What amendments were made in the Constitution in order to make the third tier of democracy (Local Government) more powerful and effective?
Answer:
Major steps towards decentralisation taken in 1992 are:

1. Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to Local Government bodies.
2. Seats are reserved in elected bodies for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes (OBCs).
3. Atleast one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
4. The State Election Commission was created to conduct Panchayat and Municipal elections.
5. The State Governments are required to share some powers and revenue with Local Government bodies.

Question 10.
Explain the structure of the new Panchayati Raj institutions, both in rural and urban areas.
Answer:
Rural Local Government is known by the name of Panachayati Raj/ Democratic decentralization.

• Each village or group of villages has a Gram Panchayat.
• Panch, President or Sarpanch are directly elected by all the adult population of the village and is the decision-making body.
• The Panchayat works under the supervision of Gram Sabha, with all the voters as its members.
• The local structure goes up to the district level—a group of Gram Panchayats form a Panchayat Samiti or Block or Mandal.
• All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals together constitute the Zilla Parishad which consists of elected members.
• Lok Sabha members, Local MLAs and officers are also members of the Zilla Parishad.
• Its Chairperson is the political head of the Parishad.

Urban areas local bodies.

• Municipalities are set up in towns.
• Big cities are constituted into Municipal Corporations.
• Both are controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives.
• Municipal chairperson is the political head of the Municipality.
  The head of Municipal Corporation is an officer called the Mayor.

Important Link

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MCQs: Federalism

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Question 1.
How far do you agree with the statement that power sharing is keeping with the spirit of democracy? (2012)
Answer:
Power sharing is desirable in democracy because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Conflict between social groups leads to violence and political instability. Power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order.

Imposing the will of majority community over others, in the long run may undermine the unity of the nation. Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority, it often brings ruin to the majority as well.

A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise and who have to live with its effects. People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed. A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system. Prudential reasons stress that power sharing brings out better outcomes whereas moral reasons emphasize the act of power sharing as valuable.

Question 2.
Explain any three consequences of the majoritarian policies adopted by the Sri Lankan government. (2013)
Answer:
Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948. The democratically elected government adopted a series of majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala Supremacy. Consequences of these majoritarian policies:

1. The Sri Lankan Tamils felt that none of the major political parties led by the Buddhist Sinhala leaders were sensitive to their language and culture and the government policies denied them equal political rights which led to increased feeling of alienation among them.
2. The Sri Lankan Tamils felt that the constitution denied them equal rights in politics, in getting jobs and ignored their interests. The relation between the Tamil and Sinhala communities became extremely strained as a result.
3. The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in every field.
4. Therefore, the measures adopted by the government to establish Sinhala supremacy led to distrust between the two communities which turned the widespread conflict into a Civil War. As a result, thousands of people of both communities were killed and many families were forced to leave the country as refugees and lost their livelihoods.

Question 3.
Why is the ethnic composition of Belgium complex?
Answer:
Belgium is a small country in Europe, having a population of a little over one crore.

• 59 per cent of the country’s total population lives in the Flemish region and speak Dutch language.
• Another 40 per cent people live in Wallonia region and speak French. Remaining one per cent of the Belgians speak German.
• Whereas in the Belgian capital, Brussels, 80 per cent of the population is French-speaking and 20 per cent is Dutch-speaking.

Question 4.
How is Belgium’s power-sharing path different from any other country?
Or, Explain the four elements in the Belgian power-sharing model.
Or, Why do we find the Belgian model very complicated? How has it helped to prevent conflict and division of the country on linguistic lines?
Answer:
The power-sharing arrangements made by the Belgian leaders were different and more innovative than any other country. To recognise the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities, they amended their Constitution four times between 1970 and 1993.
The major elements of the Belgian Model are:

1. Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the Central Government. No single community can take decisions unilaterally.
2. The State Governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.
3. Brussels, the capital, has a separate government where both the communities have equal representation.
4. A third kind of government, ‘Community Government’, is elected by people belonging to one language community — Dutch, French and German speaking —no matter where they live. This government can decide on cultural, educational and language related issues.

Question 5.
What is majoritarianism? Is it wrong if a majority community in a country rules? Give reasons to justify your answer.
Answer:
A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority is majoritarianism.
Yes, it is wrong if a majority community in a country rules.

• The very idea of power-sharing has emerged in opposition to the notions of undivided political power.
• A positive attitude towards diversity and willingness to accommodate it, is good for democracy.
• Power in the hands of one community will make the other community feel marginalised, deprived and discriminated.
• The struggle against such inequalities sometimes takes the path of conflict and defiance of State power as in Sri Lanka.

Question 6.
Analyse how majoritarianism has increased the feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils? (2014, 2015)
Or
Mention the measures adopted by the government to establish Sinhala supremacy.
Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948. The democratically elected government adopted a series of measures to establish Sinhala supremacy:

1. In 1956, an Act was passed to make Sinhala the official language.
2. The government followed preferential policies favouring Sinhala applicants for University positions and government jobs.
3. The Constitution provided for State protection and fostering of Buddhism.

The Sri Lankan Tamils felt that none of the major political parties led by the Buddhist Sinhala leaders were sensitive to their language and culture and the government policies denied them equal political rights which led to increased feeling of alienation among them.

The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in every field.

Therefore, the measures adopted by the government to establish Sinhala supremacy led to distrust between the two communities which turned the widespread conflict into a Civil War.

Question 7.
“Power Sharing is the very spirit of democracy”. Justify the statement. (2015)
Answer:

1. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise. Power sharing ensures that people have the right to be consulted and have equal participation in the government.
2. In a democracy, each individual has a say in governance through their elected representatives. This is the essence of power sharing that grants equal rights to each citizen.
3. Sharing of power ensures that respect for diversity and desire for living together becomes a shared ideal amongst different communities in a country. It actually makes the country united and the administration easier.
4. Prudential reasons stress that power sharing would bring out better outcomes by helping to reduce the possibility of any conflict between the social groups.
5. Power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order through unity of the nation.

Question 8.
Describe the vertical and horizontal forms of power sharing exercised in India.
Answer:
Vertical distribution of power. Power can be shared among governments at different levels —a general government for the entire country and governments at provincial or regional level. This is the federal form of government.

When power is shared among governments at different levels, i.e., the Union or the Central Government, the State Government and the Municipality and Panchayat at the lower level. This division of power involving higher and lower levels of government is called the vertical division of power.

The Constitution clearly lays down the powers of different levels of government. This federal division of power involving higher and lower levels of government is also called the vertical division of power. Example: A key change in the Constitution of Belgium in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the Central Government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government.

Horizontal distribution of power. Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive and judiciary. This is horizontal distribution of power. It ensures that power is shared among different organs of government—the legislature, executive and judiciary. It allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.

In a democracy, ministers and government officials exercise power. They are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies. The judges appointed by the executive can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislature.

The horizontal distribution of power is also called a system of checks and balances.

This system ensures that none of the organs can exercise unlimited power. Each organ checks the other. This results in a balance of power among various institutions.

Example: In India the judiciary has an independent status. The Supreme Court is the apex court of justice. The Parliament is the legislative body where the laws governing the country are made and the Executive is the implementing body.

Question 9.
What is vertical division of power?
Answer:
When power is shared among governments at different levels, i.e., the Union or the Central Government, the State Government and the Municipality and Panchayat at the lower level. This division of power involving higher and lower levels of government is called the vertical division of power.

Question 10.
Compare the different ways in which the Belgians and the Sri Lankans have dealt with the problem of cultural diversity. (2012)
Answer:
Both Belgium and Sri Lanka are democracies, yet they have dealt with the problem of cultural diversity very differently.
Belgium:

1. Leaders realised that for the unity of the country it is important to respect the feelings and interests of different communities. The Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French speaking people shall be equal in the Central Government.
2. Both Dutch and French communities share power on an equal basis at the Centre. Along with the State Government, both communities have a third kind of Government called ‘Community Government’ which decides on cultural, education and language related issues.
3. Between, 1970 and 1993, the Constitution was amended four times to enable all linguistic groups to live together within the same country.

Sri Lanka:

1. In Sri Lanka, there are two major communities, the Sinhalese speaking (74%) and Tamil speaking (18%). The majority community, the Sinhalese have forced their domination over Tamils, refusing to share power.
2. Both communities have lived in tension as the Sinhalese have denied political, educational, religious, employment and economic rights to the Tamils leading to Civil War.
3. In 1956, the Government passed an Act to recognise Sinhala as the only official language, thus disregarding Tamil.

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1. A concave lens has focal length of 20 cm. At what distance from the lens a 5 cm tall object be placed so that it forms an image at 15 cm from the lens? Also calculate the size of the image formed. [Delhi]
   Answer.
   

2. An object 50 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex lens. Its 20 cm tall image is formed on the screen placed at a distance of 10 cm from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens. [All India]
Answer.

3. Draw the ray diagram in each case to show the position and nature of the image formed when the object is placed:
(i) at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror
(ii) between the pole P and focus F of a concave mirror
(iii) in front of a convex mirror
(iv) at 2F of a convex lens
(v) in front of a concave lens
Answer.

Nature of image: Real, inverted and same size image is formed at the centre of curvature.

Nature of image: Virtual, enlarged and erect image is formed behind the mirror.

Nature of image: Virtual, erect and diminished, image is formed behind the mirror.

Nature of image: Real, inverted and size to size, image is formed at 2F on the other side of lens.

Nature of image: Virtual, erect and diminished image is formed between O and F on the same side of object.

4. If a light ray IM is incident on the surface AB as shown, identify the correct emergent ray. [Delhi (C)]

Answer. Ray NQ, as it has to be parallel to ray OS.

5. The refractive indices of four media A, B, C and D are given in the following table:

If light, travels from one medium to another, in which case the change in speed will be (i) minimum, (ii) maximum? [Delhi(C)]
Answer. (i) Minimum change is seen as light moves between 1.50 and 1.52, i.e. B and C.
(ii) Maximum change when light moves between 1.33 and 2.40, i.e. A and D.

6. “The refractive index of diamond is 2.42”. What is the meaning of this statement in relation to speed of light? [Delhi]
Answer.

7. Redraw the given diagram and show the path of the refracted ray: [All India(C)]

Answer.

8. Redraw the given diagram and show the path of the refracted ray: [All India(C)]

Answer.

9. Draw ray diagrams to represent the nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex lens for the object placed:
(a) at 2F₁
(b) between F₁ and the optical centre O of lens: [All India]
Answer.

10 .An object 2 cm in size is placed 30 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image? What will be the nature and the size of the image formed? Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image in this case. [Delhi(C)]
Answer.

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Question 1. List four advantages of water stored in the ground. [Delhi]
Answer. Four advantages of storing water in the ground are:

1.  It does not evaporate.
2. It is relatively protected from contamination by human and animal wastes.
3. It does not provide breeding ground for mosquitoes.
4. It provides moisture for vegetation.

Question 2. “Burning fossil fuels is a cause of global warming.” Justify this statement. [Delhi]
Answer. Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are formed from biomass. In addition to carbon, they contain hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. When fossil fuels are burnt, the products are carbon dioxide, water vapour, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Increase in the percentage of carbon dioxide increases the temperature on earth which leads to global warming.

Question 3 List three problems which arise due to construction of big dams. Suggest a solution for these problems. [All India]
Answer. Three problems of construction of large dams are:

1. Displacement of large number of people.
2. Huge cost of construction and low benefit compared to cost.
   These problem can be sorted out by constructing smaller dams instead of a big dam.

Question 4. List the products of combustion of fossil fuels. What are their adverse effects on the environment? [All India]
Answer. When fossil fuels are burnt, carbon dioxide, water, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur are formed. If the combustion takes place in insufficient air, then carbon monoxide is formed instead of carbon dioxide. Of these products, the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and carbon monoxide are poisonous gases and carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.

Question 5. State the meaning of “sustainable management”. Reuse is better than recycling. How? [Foreign]
Answer. ‘Sustainable management’ is the management of resources in which development can be maintained for a long time without undue damage to the environment.
Recycling needs additional energy to make a usable item. Reuse does not require additional energy and hence, is better than recycle.

Question 6 Why are forests considered “biodiversity hot spots”? List two ways in which an individual can effectively contribute to the management of forests and wildlife. [Foreign; All India 2010]
Answer. Biodiversity is measured by the number of different life forms found in an area. In a forest, various species exist which include bacteria, fungi, ferns, plants, nematodes, insects, birds, reptiles and mammals. Forests are therefore considered as biodiversity hot spots.
An individual can contribute in the management of forests and wildlife by:

1. avoiding cutting down of forests and killing of wildlife.
2. educating people about the importance of forests and wildlife in our life.

Question 7. How did ‘Chipko Andolan’ ultimately benefit the local people? Describe briefly. [Foreign]
Answer. Chipko Movement:

• During 1970, in Reni village of Garhwal, a contractor was allowed to cut trees in a forest near the village.
• When the contractor’s workers went to the forest to cut trees, the women of the village hugged the tree trunks to prevent the workers from cutting trees.
• Chipko means ‘hug’ and the movement began with the villagers hugging trees. It is called the ‘Chipko Andolan’.

The movement benefited the local population as it conserved the forest products. It benefited the environment as it conserved the quality of soil and sources of water thereby, maintained balance in nature.

Question 8. Which of the two is a better option, (i) to collect rainwater in ponds or artificial lakes, or (ii) to let it recharge groundwater by water harvesting? List two advantages of the option to justify your answer. [Foreign]
Answer. To allow rainwater to recharge groundwater by water harvesting is the better option. Its advantages are:
(i) Groundwater does not evaporate.
(ii) Groundwater does not provide breeding ground for mosquitoes.

Question 9 What is a dam? Write two main advantages and two ill-effects of constructing a big dam. [Delhi(C)]
Answer. Dams are massive barriers built across rivers and streams to confine and utilise the flow of water for human purposes such as irrigation and generation of electricity.
Two main advantages of constructing a big dam are:

1. Generation of electricity.
2. Irrigation.

Two ill-effects of constructing a big dam are:

1. It displaces large number of people.
2. It causes deforestation and loss of biodiversity.

Question 10. What is meant by sustainable management? The environmentalists are insisting upon “sustainable natural resource management”. State its four advantages. [All India (C)]
Answer. Sustainable management is the management of natural resources which requires a long-term perspective so that they last for generations to come and are not to be exploited by the short-term gains.
Its four advantages are as follows:

1. Resources last for a longer duration.
2. It provides steady economic growth.
3. It helps in ecological conservation.
4. It reduces pollution.

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